Ahadzie - PHD Thesis

A MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE
PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT MANAGERS IN
MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS IN
GHANA
DIVINE KWAKU AHADZIE, BSc (Hons), MSc.
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the
University of Wolverhampton for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy
July 2007
This work or any part thereof has not previously been submitted in
any form to the University or to any other body whether for the
purpose of assessment, publication or for any other purpose. Save
for any express acknowledgements, reference and/or
bibliographies cited in the work, I confirm that the intellectual
content of the work is the result of my own efforts and no other
person.
The right of Divine Kwaku Ahadzie to be identified as the author of
this work is asserted in accordance with ss.77 and 78 of Copyright,
Designs and Patent Act 1988. At this date copyright is owned by
the author
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Signature ………………………………….
Date ………………………………………
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ABSTRACT
Presently, within the human resource management (HRM) genre and
including the construction management discipline, the identification
and development of appropriate performance measures is seen as
the only viable means for validating and engendering managerial
excellence. There is also a growing awareness that appropriate
predictive modelling practices can help engender the identification
and development of these measures. Against the background that
project-based sectors of the construction industry in developing
countries need to adopt a proactive approach towards recognising
and embedding performance measures in HRM practices, this thesis
addresses the development of a model for predicting the
performance of project managers (PMs) in mass house building
projects (MHBPs) in Ghana.
A literature review of the significance of performance measures
in the HRM genre is first presented including an evaluation of the
methodologies for measuring the performance of PMs. This is
followed by a review of research and development in the
management of human resources in the construction industry in
developing countries including Ghana.
Informed by the literature, an appropriate theoretical framework
is adopted which draws on the organisational psychology theory of
job performance, the conventional wisdom in project success criteria
and an emerging framework of project lifecycle. Subsequently, a
competency-based multidimensional conceptual model is developed.
The conceptual model reflects both the elements of performance
behaviours and outcomes in predicting the performance of PMs at
the conceptual, design, tender, procurement, construction and
operational phases of the project lifecycle.
Adopting positivism as an appropriate research paradigm,
structured questionnaire survey is used to elicit the relevant data
from property developers in Ghana for the construction phase of the
project lifecycle. Subsequently the data is analysed using one-sample
t-test, factor analysis and multiple regression analysis (stepwise).
From a broad range of competency-based measures used as
independent variables, it is found that, the best predictors of the
PMs’ performance at the “construction phase” of MHBPs are: job
knowledge in site layout techniques for repetitive construction
works; dedication in helping works contractors to achieve works
programme; job knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for
repetitive construction works; effective time management practices
on the house-units; ability to provide effective solution to conflicts
while maintaining good relationships; ease with which the PM is
approachable by works contractors; and volunteering to help works
contractors solve personal problems. These independent variables
explained 74.4% of the variance in the model (at p < 0.0005).
Validation of the model confirmed its goodness of fit and hence
predictive accuracy. The findings suggest that at the construction
phase of MHBPs, PMs who exhibit these behavioural competencies
are likely to achieve higher levels of performance. Accordingly, PMs
who aspire to achieve better managerial performance outcome on
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MHBPs should strive towards developing and improving these
competencies.
It is contended that the developed model could be used by
property developers for the selection and recruitment of potential
PMs and also for developing appropriate training requirements
towards best practice improvement in the implementation of MHBPs.
While the study focuses on Ghana, there is the potential for the
model to be adopted for use by other developing countries towards
the advancement of improved HRM activities in project management
practice.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My greatest acknowledgement goes to Professor David Proverbs,

my director of studies for the immense assistance provided in
terms of guidance, suggestions and encouragements throughout
the research process. The memory he has implanted will forever
remain. I wish to also acknowledge my second supervisor, Prof.
Paul Olomolaiye for the various ways he has also contributed
despite his busy schedule as Dean of school.
My appreciation also goes to Mr William Ahadzie and Dr. Adjei-

Kumi, both of the Department of Building Technology, Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) for their
assistance in helping to collect the relevant data in Ghana.
Subsequently, I must acknowledge two graduates of the Dept. of
Building Technology (KNUST), namely; Miss Barabara Appiah and
Miss Naa Adjeley, for the part they played in delivering and
retrieving the completed questionnaires. May I also acknowledge
Nii Okine-Tieku, an executive member of the Ghana Real Estate
Developers Association (GREDA), for assisting in providing the
registration list of the GREDA. Likewise, my appreciation goes to
all the GREDA members who participated in the survey.
It is also important to recognise my research colleagues, especially

Nii, Obuks, David, Tony, Nuhu, Elias, Raymond, Adams, Boye and
Felix for the times we have shared together. I wish everyone the
best for the future.
I sincerely thank my loving wife, Efuah and my children Senam,

Edinam and Adzo for their understanding, love and support during
this long, tedious and on many occasions strenuous journey. I wish
to also express my gratitude to my good friend, Daniel Anoff and
family for the generosity extended to my family during our stay in
the UK
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Last but not least, I wish to thank the Government of Ghana (GOG)
for providing the scholarship funding.
Dedication
This Thesis is dedicated to all my family members, especially the

memory of my late brother Kofi Ahadzie.
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Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT
MANAGERS IN MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS IN GHANA..I
ABSTRACT......................................................................................III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................V
DEDICATION..................................................................................VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................VII
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................XVI
LIST OF APPENDICES................................................................XVII
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION.......................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION....................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH.....................................1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM..........................................5
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.......................................................5
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY................................6
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED............................8
1.6 DEFINITION OF PERFORMANCE.......................................10
1.7 MAIN CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE..........................10
1.8 DISSEMINATION OF THE FINDINGS.................................11
1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS.......................................14
1.9 SUMMARY............................................................................17
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Table of contents
CHAPTER 2: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT IN THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
GENRE...........................................................................................19
2.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................19
2.1 PERFORMANCE MEASURES IN THE HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT CONTEXT.........................................................20
2.1.1 Towards Defining Performance Measures.....................20
2.1.2 The Significance of Performance Measures in HRM
Practices..................................................................................24
2.1.3 Development of Predictive Models and the Implication
for PMs Performance Measures in Developing Countries.......27
2.1.4 An Overview of Project Management Practices in
Developing Countries...............................................................29
2.1.5 Towards identifying Performance Measures for PMs in
Mass House Building Projects in Developing Countries.........31
2.2 TOWARDS DEVELOPING A DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT
MANAGER...................................................................................33
2.3 MEASURING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT
MANAGERS.................................................................................38
2.3.1 Traditional-Based Approaches.......................................38
2.3.2 Personality-Based Approaches.......................................40
2.3.3 Competency-Based Approaches.....................................42
2.3.3.1 A definition for competency.....................................42
2.3.3.2 Relevance of competency-based approaches..........44
2.4 THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COMPETENCY-BASED
APPROACHES.............................................................................46
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2.5 EMERGING STUDIES ON PMs BEHAVIOURAL
COMPETENCIES.........................................................................49
2.6 IDENTIFYING AN APPROPRIATE COMPETENCY-BASED
FRAMEWORK .............................................................................54
2.7 SUMMARY............................................................................59
CHAPTER THREE: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
RESOURCES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES................................62
3.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................62
3.1 TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES..................................63
3.1.1 A Review of Performance Measurement Literature for
Human Resource Development in Developing Countries........63
3.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MASS HOUSE BUILDING
PROJECTS TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES......................................................67
3.3 DEFINING MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS ..............70
3.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS HOUSE BUILDING
PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.................................73
3.5 INTRODUCING THE STUDY AREA: THE CONTRUCTION
INDUSTRY IN GHANA................................................................77
3.5.1 The Geographical Location and Economic Profile of
Ghana.......................................................................................78
3.5.2 The Institutional Profile and Significance of the
Construction Industry..............................................................83
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3.5.2.1 The institutional profile...........................................83
3.5.2.2 The significance of the Ghanaian construction
industry.................................................................................84
3.5.3 The Housing Sector ......................................................86
3.5.4 Evolution of Management Practices in Mass House
Building Projects in Ghana......................................................88
3.5.5 Project Management Practices in Mass House Building
Projects in Ghana.....................................................................91
3.5.6 The Contribution of Project Managers to the delivery
Mass House Building Projects.................................................92
3.5.7 Towards Assessing the Performance of Project Managers
in Mass House Building Projects in Ghana..............................97
3.6 THE WAY FORWARD FOR PMs’ PERFOMANCE MEASURES
IN GHANA AND THE RELEVANCE FOR OTHER DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES................................................................................99
3.7 SUMMARY..........................................................................100
CHAPTER FOUR: DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL MODEL .104
4.0 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................104
4.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PERFORMANCE..............104
4.2 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...................................108
4.2.1 Organisational Psychology Theory of Job Performance
...............................................................................................110
4.2.2 Conventional Wisdom in Project Success Criteria.......117
4.2.3 Developing a Project Success framework for Mass
House Building Projects.........................................................122
4.2.4 Framework for Project Lifecycle.................................126

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4.3 DEVELOPING A ROBUST COMPETENCY- BASED
CONCEPTUAL MODEL.............................................................128
4.3.1 A Competency-Based Conceptual Model for the Project
lifecycle..................................................................................129
4.3.2 An Abridged Competency-Based Conceptual Model for
the Construction Phase..........................................................134
4.4 SUMMARY..........................................................................136
CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..........................139
5.0 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................139
5.1 EPISTEMOLOGY, METHODOLOGY AND METHODS........139
5.2 CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................141
5.1.1 Methodological Paradigms..........................................142
5.1.2 The Research Paradigm Adopted.................................147
5.2 THE RESEARCH METHOD................................................149
5.2.1 Presenting the Survey Instrument...............................151
5.2.2 The Survey Instrument Design....................................156
5.2.2.1 Demographic..........................................................156
5.2.2.2 Criteria for Performance Outcome (dependent
variables)............................................................................157
5.2.2.3 Contextual performance behaviours (independent
variables)............................................................................158
5.2.2.4 Task performance behaviours (independent
variables)............................................................................163
5.2.3 Ethical Considerations.................................................166
5.3.3 Pilot study....................................................................167

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5.3 DATA COLLECTION...........................................................170
5.3.1 Introducing the Survey Participants............................170
5.3.2 The Sampling Frame ...................................................171
5.3.3 Towards Establishing an Appropriate Sample Size.....172
5.3.4 Commentary on the Fieldwork in Ghana.....................175
5.3.5 Data Entry and Editing ...............................................178
5.3.6 Questionniare for evaluating aspects of output of results
...............................................................................................179
5. 4 SUMMARY.........................................................................180
CHAPTER SIX: PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF DATA ELICITED
FROM MEMBERS OF THE GHANA REAL ESTATE DEVELOPERS
ASSOCIATION..............................................................................183
6.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................183
6.1 ANALYSIS OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC DATA.......................183
6.2 STANDARDIZED OPINION OF RESPONDENTS ON THE
PERFORMANCE LEVEL OF PMs in MHBPs in GHANA ..........187
6.3 ANALYSIS OF DEPENDENT VARIABLES..........................188
6.3.1 One Sample T-test for Ranking Dependent Variables..189
6.3.2 Factor Analysis of Dependent Variables......................198
6.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS...............................................211
6.4.1 Component 1: Environmental-safety criteria ..............211
6.4.2 Component 2, Customer satisfaction ..........................213
6.4.3 Component 3: Quality .................................................216
6.4.4 Component 4: Cost-time criteria.................................218
6.5 SUMMARY..........................................................................220
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Table of contents
CHAPTER SEVEN........................................................................222
CHAPTER SEVEN: DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPETENCY-BASED
PREDICTIVE MODEL...................................................................223
7.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................223
7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF PERFORMANCE OUTCOME INDEX 224
7.2 THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE............................................227
7.3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS................................228
.............................................................................................229
7.2. 2 Stepwise Selection......................................................230
7.2.2 Test of goodness of fit..................................................239
7.2.3 Residual Analysis.........................................................242
7.3 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS.......................................246
7.3.1 Convergence of Findings with the Theoretical
Framework Adopted..............................................................247
7.3.2 The Significance of the Competency Profiles towards
Engendering the Performance of PMs in MHBPs .................255
7.3.2.1 Task performance beahviours................................257
7.3.3.2 The Contextual performance behaviours..............260
7.4 RECOMMENDED APPLICATION OF THE COMPETENCY-
BASED PROFILES ....................................................................266
7.4.1 Team Deployment and Job-Matching...........................266
7.4.2 Recruitment and Selection..........................................267
7.4.3 Career Development and Succession ........................268
7.4.4 Curriculum Development.............................................271
7.5 SUMMARY..........................................................................271
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CHAPTER EIGHT: VALIDATION OF THE COMPETENCY- BASED
PREDICTIVE MODEL...................................................................274
8.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................274
8.1 THE CONCEPT OF VALIDATION.......................................274
8.2 EXTERNAL VALIDATION...................................................277
8.2.1 Background to the External Validation Analysis..........277
8.2.2 Test Results for External Validation.............................280
8.2.2.1 Predictive accuracy across samples......................280
8.2.2.2 Feedback from experts on the potential relevance of
the findings viz. recommended application........................283
8.3 INTERNAL VALIDATION...................................................294
8.3.1. Convergence 1: Literature search, Questionnaire
development and Analysis.....................................................295
8.3.1.1 Literature search and questionnaire development
............................................................................................295
8.3.1.2 Literature and Questionnaire analysis..................295
8.3.2 Convergence 2: Questionnaire analysis and academic
validity....................................................................................300
8.3.3 Academic validity and literature search......................301
8.4 SUMMARY .........................................................................303
CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 306
9.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................306
9.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT MANAGER......................307
9.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS...................................................308
9.3 REVIEW OF OBJECTIVES..................................................308
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9.4 CONCLUSIONS..................................................................318
9.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE...................................319
9.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE FINDINGS ...................................322
9.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.........324
9.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDUSTRY............................326
9.9 SUMMARY..........................................................................328
REFERENCES..............................................................................331
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................388
APPENDICES...............................................................................399
LIST OF FIGURES
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List of figures
LIST OF TABLES
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Tables
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: GENERAL ATTRIBUTES FOR EVALUATING THE
PMS’ PERFORMANCE.................................................................400
APPENDIX 2: POTENTIAL DIMENSIONS OF MANAGEMENT
SKILLS PROFILE-INDUSTRIAL/PSYCHO PERSPECTIVE...........403
APPENDIX 3: POTENTIAL DIMENSION OF PROJECT MANAGERS’
SKILLS PROFILE IN CONSTRUCTION.......................................404
APPENDIX 4: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION
......................................................................................................410
APPENDIX 5: PRIOR NOTIFICATION TO POTENTIAL
RESPONDENTS...........................................................................421
APPENDIX 6: HISTOGRAM FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY OF
INDIVIDUAL HOUSE-UNITS.......................................................422
APPENDIX 7: HISTOGRAM OF RISK CONTAINMENT...............422
APPENDIX 8: HISTOGRAM OF OVERALL HEALTH AND SAFETY
MEASURES..................................................................................423
APPENDIX 9: HISTOGRAM OF OVERALL CUSTOMER/CLIENT
SATISFACTION.............................................................................424
APPENDIX 10: HISTOGRAM OF OVERALL PROJECT QUALITY.424
APPENDIX 11: HISTOGRAM OF QUALITY OF INDIVIDUAL
HOUSE-UNITS.............................................................................425
APPENDIX 12: HISTOGRAM OF RATE OF DELIVERY OF
INDIVIDUAL HOUSE-UNITS.......................................................425
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Tables
APPENDIX 13: HISTOGRAM OF RISK CONTAINMENT.............426
APPENDIX 14: GUIDE TO CORRELATION MATRIX/CORRELATION
MATRIX........................................................................................427
APPENDIX 15: CORRELATION MATRIX OF REGRESSION
ANALYSIS.....................................................................................430
APPENDIX 16: QUESTIONNIARE FOR VALIDATION OF THE
POTENTIAL RECOMMENDED APPLICATION OF A MODEL FOR
PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT MANAGERS IN
MHBPS IN GHANA......................................................................431
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Appendices
CHAPTER ONE
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General introduction
Chapter 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter, which is an overview of the thesis presents the
research context in terms of the background of the study and
statement of the research problem to be addressed. The
justification and scope of the research and the main research
questions posed are also illuminated. Subsequently, the aim and
objectives are presented followed by a summary of the research
methodology adopted. Thereafter, a statement of the contribution
to knowledge and the significance of the research findings are
described. The chapter concludes with an explanation of the
organisation of the thesis including sub-themes under each
chapter.
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
Improving human resource management (HRM) through the
application of performance measures has been recognised as one
of the most critical elements for organisational competitiveness
and improvements (Austin and Vallinova, 1992; Picketts, 1998;
Roberts, 1998; Garavan et al, 2002). Presently, within the HRM
genre, the identification and development of appropriate
performance measures is widely held as the only viable option for
providing evaluative criteria, against which managerial
1
performance can be validated (see for example Conway, 2000;
Abraham et al, 2001; Scullen et al, 2003; Ford, 2004). Accordingly,
in project-based industries such as construction, performance
measures are gradually being affirmed as a viable option for
engendering superior performance levels of project managers
(PMs) (Dainty et al, 2003; 2004). To this effect, the contemporary
view is that appropriate modelling practices represent a
potentially practicable option for developing the relevant metrics
towards engendering the appropriate professional development of
PMs (Dainty et al, 2004; Cheng et al, 2005; Dainty et al, 2005).
While construction represents one of the largest industries in
developing countries, it has remained under-researched and
underdeveloped in relation to the identification and development
of performance measures for effective HRM practices (see for
instance Imbert, 1990; Wachiru, 2000: Rwelamila, 2007).
Historically, the industry has adopted a passive (or at best ad-hoc)
approach towards dealing with the benchmarking of PMs’
performance, resulting in the lack of a systematic framework
towards the development of appropriate best practices (see for
instance Rwelamila, 2007). Against the backdrop that the
development of appropriate performance measures represents a
potentially significant option for engendering managerial
excellence, there is therefore the need for project-based sectors
within the construction domain in developing countries to adopt a
proactive approach towards performance measurement of the key
2
managerial personnel engaged in the industry. To this end, the
identification and development of appropriate PMs’ performance
measures could be an important step towards the advancement of
improved HRM practices in the construction industry in many
developing countries, especially given the increasingly important
role that PMs are playing in project management practices in
recent times.
Mass house building projects (MHBPs) constitute the single
largest construction sector in terms of employment of human
resources and value-added in most economies (Wells, 1999;
Zawdie and Langford, 2000). Subsequenty, in many developing
countries these projects have, by and large, emerged as the
largest and most established project based sector in project
management practice (see ibid).
Recently in Ghana, several of these large MHBPs have been
constructed and/or are under construction (see Amoa-Mensah,
1999; 2002; President of Ghana, 2005). Furthermore, the
contribution of PMs towards achieving effective managerial
performance on these projects has also recently been underscored
(Amoa-Mensah, 1999; 2002; Ahadzie et al, 2004). However, as a
reflection of the industry in many developing countries, the dearth
of rigorous research activities towards the identification and
development of appropriate performance measures is also evident
(Ahadzie et al, 2004). Identification and development of
3
appropriate performance measures could therefore enable PMs
operating in Ghana to have a clear understanding of the significant
skills they should acquire towards improving their own
professional development. Furthermore, property developers could
be provided with the benefit of a structured framework upon
which they can select and recruit PMs who have the appropriate
performance profiles and skills. To this effect, this research could
serve as a foundation towards effective managerial practices in
MHBPs.
Thus, this research is founded on the contention that, if the
significance of performance measures is to be relevant in the
construction industry in developing countries, then the underlying
criteria that would help PMs to reflect positively on best practice
improvement in MHBPs needs to be identified. This research
therefore views the emphasis on MHBPs as a potentially
significant foundation for contributing towards the research
agenda for project-based sectors of the construction industry in
developing countries. Accordingly, while the study focuses on
MHBPs, it is hoped that the findings would be beneficial to other
emerging sectors of the Ghanaian construction industry
particularly in respect to the future development of appropriate
performance benchmarks. While the study is unique to Ghana,
there is also the potential that many project-based sectors of the
construction industry in developing countries will find the findings
useful towards the advancement of improved HRM practices.
4
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
“The fundamental concept on which project management is based
is that a single individual - the PM is accountable for the success
of the project” (Goodwin, 1993).
Against the background information presented, the main research
problem was identified thus; while performance measures are
being renewed in the HRM genre including the construction
management discipline as a viable option against which effective
managerial performance can be validated, no rigorous attempt has
been made to develop appropriate measures to assist PMs towards
effective project management practices in developing countries
such as Ghana. As such, aspiring and experienced PMs are
unaware of the performance criteria that can help engender best
practices in their managerial activities. Granted that project
management practices differ across geographical regions
(Crawford, 2005), this lack of recognising and embedding
performance measures as a core HRM activity has the potential of
threatening the development and promotion of effective project
management practices in many construction sectors such as those
relating to the implementation of MHBPs.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
5
From the foregoing, three main research questions were proposed:
• What should be the appropriate performance framework for
isolating the PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs in
developing countries such as Ghana?
• Given that the skills required by PMs are likely to develop
and change as a project progresses throughout the project
lifecycle, how should these be factored into the performance
framework in MHBPs?
• In recognition of the unique (e.g. weak economic,
technological and structural systems) and relatively difficult
project environment (e.g. lack of economic and purposive
rationality) prevailing in developing countries such as
Ghana, what performance profiles are appropriate for
engendering the professional development of PMs
throughout the whole lifecycle of MHBPs?
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The questions posed above (in section 1.3) engendered the key
research aim, which was to identify through the development of a
relevant predictive model, appropriate performance measures for
PMs in MHBPs in the Ghanaian construction industry.
6
Consequently, the research sought to undertake these specific
objectives:
• To undertake a critical review of recent developments in
HRM practices, in particular, PMs towards developing a
deeper understanding of their key performance measures.
• To undertake a critical review of literature on project
management in developing countries towards identifying the
contribution of PMs in achieving project success.
• To identify an appropriate theoretical framework for
developing a conceptual model suitable for achieving the key
research aim.
• To develop a conceptual model for predicting the
performance of PMs in MHBPs adopting the theoretical
framework identified.
• To develop a robust research design to elicit the relevant
data from experienced practitioners and professionals in the
construction of MHBPs in Ghana
• To employ appropriate statistical analysis to help develop the
substantive model for predicting the potential performance
7
of PMs in MHBPs and hence identify the appropriate
performance profiles.
• To test, refine and validate the model towards establishing
its predictive accuracy and potential relevance for practical
application.
• To disseminate broadly the research findings for the benefit
of industry and academia.
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED
In addressing the key research questions identified above, it was
important to adopt an appropriate epistemological, ontological and
axiological approach, which would enable appropriate data
collection, analysis and interpretation of the findings for the
benefit of practitioners and researchers. Subsequently, as in all
researches, the study commenced with an extensive literature
review to help provide a thorough understanding of the recent
developments in the methodologies used for measuring the
performance of PMs in the HRM research genre including the
construction management discipline. The literature review
provided profound opportunity to identify an appropriate
theoretical framework for the study.
8
Drawing on (in particular) an organisational psychology theory of
managerial job performance, a rigorous conceptual model was
developed to help determine the precise direction of the research.
Consequently, positivism as a research paradigm was adopted to
reflect the epistemological, ontological and axiological approach
involved. To this effect, a quantitative approach was used in
eliciting the relevant data from property developers in Ghana.
Subsequently, postal structured questionnaire survey was used in
eliciting the main data (including piloting) and also in validating
aspects of the findings relating to the potential relevance of the
recommended application of the model. The research paradigm
adopted also enabled statistical tools such as factor analysis and
multiple regression analysis to be used in the interpretation of the
data and discussion of the findings.
It must be noted that an underlying conception of this thesis was
to help provide PMs specializing in the management of MHBPs in
Ghana the opportunity to have a clear understanding of the
competencies that their superiors (in particular their immediate
employers) expect of them towards engendering excellent
managerial practices. Subsequently, managing directors (MDs) of
housebuilding companies in Ghana were approached in eliciting
the relevant data. A detailed discussion of the research
methodology including the rationale for eliciting the data from
MDs is presented in chapter five.
9
1.6 DEFINITION OF PERFORMANCE
While there are many variables that affect the outcome of projects,
the performance measures identified in the study reflected the
factors within the control of PMs (i.e.those relating to
improvement in their personal skills). Therefore, for the purposes
of this thesis, the term “performance” is defined as the
behavioural action (i.e. behavioural competencies) that are
relevant to achieving the goals of project-based organisations (see
for instance McCloy et al, 1994; Motowidlo et al, 1997: Brophy and
kiely, 2002). The implication of this definition is that; performance,
behaviour and results are not the same. While behaviour is the
observable things that people do while at work, performance is
seen as behaviour with an evaluative component (ibid).
Alternatively, results are viewed as conditions of things that are
changed by performance and consequently contribute to or detract
from organizational accomplishments (Motowidlo et al, 1997:
Abraham et al, 2001). Furtther details of the explanation of these
terms are provided in chapter four, section 4.3.
1.7 MAIN CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
It is well recognised that the performance domain of PMs is often
influenced by the characteristics of different project types,
industry classifications and project application areas (Ogunlana et
al, 2002; Dainty et al, 2003: Crawford, 2006). It is also recognised
that, the matching of skills to specific project based sectors is
10
important for developing the capabilities and prospects of PMs
within these sectors (see for example Egbu, 1999; Ogunlana, 2002:
Lyon, 2003). A prime contribution to knowledge of this study is
that, it has identified a set of competency profiles that can be
mapped and customised onto improving the current and projected
future roles of PMs in MHBPs, especially in the context of
developing countries
Equally, the findings provide an empirically-based evidence for
Ghanaian property developers seeking to recruit, retain and
promote PMs so that they (i.e. the property developers) can make
informed and objective decision towards engaging those with the
appropriate skills and competencies. Refer to section 9.5 for a
more detailed presentation on the contribution to knowledge.
1.8 DISSEMINATION OF THE FINDINGS
The literature review culminated in the write-up of a total of seven
papers which were presented in a number of major international
conferences. These papers have now been published in the
appropriate conference proceedings (see Table 1.1). Papers 1 to 5
represent the results of a rigorous critique of some of the recent
publications on performance measurement and how they fit into
the context of this research. Paper 6 published in the proceedings
of Building and Education Research (Bear 2006) conference
focussed on the development of the underlying conceptual model
11
for this study. Similarly, paper 7 published in the proceedings of
the Association of Construction Management reseachers (ARCOM
2006) annual conference focussed on the development of the
research instrument which formed the basis for eliciting the
relevant data for the study.
In addition, three journal papers were submitted for consideration
in construction management journals. These papers address
specific aspects of the empirical findings from the research.
Paper 8 draws on the key findings of the research including the
developed model and discusses the main contribution to
knowledge of the research. Paper 9 proposes a more robust system
for understanding the behavioural competencies of PMs in
general. Paper 10 draws on the dependent variables and uses
factor analysis to explore the potential success criteria of MHBPs.
It is worth mentioning that papers 8 and 10 have since been
accepted for publication (Appendix, 21 and 22/see also
references). Paper 11 emphasises the key findings from the
perspective of the Government of Ghana (GoG) (sponsors of the
research) towards helping to shape future policy direction in
regard to curriculum development for PM education and training
in Ghana.
Whilst it is contended that the dissemination of various aspect of
the research has made some significant contribution towards
propagating the knowledge emerging from the research, it is also
12
worth noting that the benefits have indeed been mutual. It is
therefore important to acknowledge that, the reviewers comments
to all the papers currently published and reviewed provided
opportunities for the methodologies, meanings and interpretation
of the research to be challenged which has eventually helped to
enrich the focus and content.
Table 1.1: Publications arising out of the research

Paper Title of paper Conference/Journ Place/Locati Date/Rema
No. al on rks
1 Meeting Housing Globalization and Asian Institute 11-13th
Delivery Targets Construction in of Technology, November,
in Developing Developing Bangkok, 2004
Countries: The Countries Thailand
Contribution of
Project Managers
in Ghana.
2 Construction 5th International University of 17-19th
Performance Postgraduate Salford, (UK) April, 2005
Measurement Research
Systems: Conference
Emerging
Research Needs
3 Project Association of University 7-9th
Managers’ Construction College of September,
Performance Management London, 2005
Measures: A Researchers SOAS, (UK)
Fresh Perspective (ARCOM)
4 Towards Project Built Environment University of 11-14th
Managers and complexity Liverpool (UK) September,
Performance (Becon) 2005
Measures: Some
Methodological
Challenges
5 A conceptual Building Education Polytechnic 14.-
predictive model and Research University of 17thApril,
for evaluating the Conference (BEAR) Hong Kong 2006
performance of
project managers
in Mass House
Building Projects.
6 Redefining International Universiti 13-15th June
performance Conference in Built Teknologi 2006
measurement Environment in the Mara,
systems: a 21st Century Malaysia
multidimensional (ICiBE, 2006)
concept
13
Paper Title of paper Conference/Journ Place/Locati Date/Rema

No. al on rks
7 Development of Association of University of 4-7th
Research Construction Central September
Instrument for Management England, 2006
Project Managers Researchers Birmingham
Performance (ARCOM)
Measure in Mass
House Building
Projects
8 A Model for Journal of Tentatively
Predicting the Construction accepted
Performance of Engineering and
Project Managers Management,
in Mass House American Society
Building Projects of Civil Engineers
at the
Construction
Phase
9 Towards International UK In press
Redefining Journal of Project
Performance Management
Measures for
Construction
Project
Managers:
Should
Contextual
Performance
Behaviours be
Distinguished
from Task
Performance
Behaviours?
10 Critical Success International UK In press
Criteria for Mass Journal of Project
House Building Management
Projects in
Developing
Countries
11 Towards Ghana Journal of Ghana Under
Improving the Science and review
Competency of Technology
Project Managers
in Ghana: An
Empirical Study
1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS
The thesis comprises of nine chapters and these have been

organised as follows:
14
Chapter one deals with the background to the research including
justification, the problem statement, research questions, aims and
objectives, research methodology and the associated contribution
to knowledge emanating from the research.
Chapter two addresses generic issues relating to HRM with
particular reference to PMs’ performance measures in project-
based sectors of the construction industry. Subsequently, an
appropriate definition of the term PM and performance measures
is provided. Other relevant issues discussed here are
methodologies for measuring the performance of the PM and what
constitutes a robust methodology in regard to measuring and
improving managerial competencies
In chapter three, a critical review of human resources
development (HRD) programmes in developing countries including
the development of project management knowledge in MHBPs is
presented. Thereafter a critical review of the Ghanaian
construction industry, in particular, the housing sector is also
presented. The chapter then traces how management practices
have evolved in MHBPs and the contribution that PMs have made
towards engendering effective managerial performance. Against
this background, the justification for the research in the Ghanaian
context is re-emphasised.
15
Chapter four presents the development of the underlying
conceptual model for the study. Issues discussed here include the
various theoretical frameworks, namely: the organisational
psychology theory of job performance: a project success
framework; the development of a project success framework for
MHBPs; framework for project lifecycle. Thereafter, a commentary
on how these frameworks were combined to develop an
appropriate conceptual model is provided.
Chapter five addresses the research methodology adopted. The
research paradigm is described including the design of the
research instrument and method for collecting the relevant data.
Chapter six addresses the preliminary analysis of the data
collected. This includes descriptives analysis of demographic data
and the use of appropriate statistical methods namely, one sample
t-test and factor analysis on the dependent variables. Factor
analysis was used to help reduce the dependent variables to a
manageable size for the subsequent development of the model.
Chapter seven is devoted exclusively to the development of the
substantive model including discussions of the findings and the
potential recommended application. The application of multiple
regression analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA),
multicollinearity test and residual analysis are reported here. An
16
in-depth discussion of the theoretical convergence and
significance of the findings is also presented in this chapter.
Chapter eight describes the validation process and the
methodology adopted in the validation procedure, namely external
and internal validation. The validation processes are discussed in
terms of the literary, conceptual and substantive domains of the
research. Results of both the external and internal validation
process lend reasonable support to the reliability and robustness
of the predictive fit of the model and the literature search
respectively.
Finally, in chapter nine, the fundamental objectives of the research
are reviewed and highlighted. Conclusions drawn from the work
are presented and recommendations are made.
1.9 SUMMARY
The background of the study including the problem statement, aim
and objectives, scope and research methodology have been
presented. The significance of the findings, in particular, aspects
relating to the potential contribution to knowledge have been
illuminated. The next chapter, (i.e. chapter two) introduces a
critical review of performance measurement in the HRM genre,
especially those relating to PMs’ performance measures.
17
CHAPTER TWO
18
Chapter 2 Performance measurement in the HRM genre
Chapter 2: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT IN THE HUMAN
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GENRE
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Chapter one broadly introduced the research aim and objectives
and presented an overview of the organization of the thesis. This
chapter provides a critical review of the development of
performance measures as reflected in the human resource
management (HRM) research and especially in the context of the
construction industry. A working definition of the term project
manager (PM) is then argued in the context of this research.
Thereafter, the methodologies for measuring the performance of
PMs are discussed including a thorough critique of their potential
application in construction. This is then followed by an in-depth
discussion of the emerging importance of competency-based
methodologies in focusing the attention of PMs on continuing
performance improvement. The chapter concludes with an
evaluation of contemporary-based competency frameworks
towards identifying the most appropriate option for satisfying the
objectives of this research.
19
2.1 PERFORMANCE MEASURES IN THE HUMAN
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CONTEXT
This section begins by introducing issues relating to the definitions
and significance of performance measures in HRM practices and is
divided into two sub-sections. Sub-section 2.1.1 provides a
chronology of some of the key definitions of performance measures
and then draws on these as a foundation towards establishing an
appropriate working definition for this research. Thereafter, sub-
section 2.1.2 reflects on the significance of performance measures
in the management of human resources. This is followed by a
discussion on the relevance of predictive models towards
identifying the relevant performance measures (section 2.1.3) and
then a justification towards the need for identfifying performance
measures for MHBPs in developing countries (2.1.4).
2.1.1 Towards Defining Performance Measures
Various definitions of performance measures exist in the HRM field
stemming from the different interpretations often given to the
meaning of the term “performance” (see Yassamis et al, 2002). For
instance, a long standing definition provided by Warren (1934)
posited that performance measures could be defined as a standard
for making qualitative comparisons or as the basis for making
judgement (Austin and Vallinova, 1992). English and English
(1958) also postulated four definitions thus: a basis for judgement;
20
a behavioural goal by which progress is judged; a measure of
validity; a measure of predictability. Reber (1985) also defined
performance measures as a standard against which judgement,
evaluation or classification can be made. Scott (1917), Bechtoldt
(1947), Weitz (1961) and Zammuto (1984) are among some of the
long standing researchers who have also provided alternative
definitions (see Austin and Vallinova, 1992).
Presently, contemporary researchers of HRM practices are still
saddled with trying to identify what should be a concise definition
(ibid). However, following, a comprehensive review of some of the
key definitions from 1917 to “modern” times, Austin and Vallinova
(1992) contended that performance measures can succinctly be
defined as a measure (directly or indirectly) based on the elements
of performance behaviours and outcomes. Austin and Vallinova
(1992) further contended that the elements involved in
performance measures should make it possible to make
predictions about the performance of individuals for the benefit of
organisational growth. Pierce (1994) and Liu and Walker (1998)
are in agreement with this concept and contend that performance
measures should consist of deliverable outputs supported by
behavioural abilities.
In the construction industry, an appropriate definition of
performance measures (i.e. in the HRM context) also remains
contestable (Brown and Adams, 2000; Dainty et al, 2003; Ahadzie
21
et al, 2005a). While traditionally, performance measures have been
conceptualised based on the output-based measures of time, cost
and quality (see for instance Russell et al, 1997; Brown and
Adams, 2000), recently researchers have argued that a more
appropriate conceptualisation should reflect behavioural
competencies (see for example Dullaimi and Langord, 1999; Dainty
et al, 2003; 2004). The proponents of this emerging concept (i.e.
those supporting behavioural competencies) contend that
performance measures founded on key behavioural attributes are
more rigorous in the sense that, they offer a better opportunity for
PMs to engage in continuous performance improvement.
Furthermore, they (see in particular Dainty et al, 2003) argue that
a definition based on behavioural measures is concurrent with the
contemporary ideology in the HRM field, which is to engender
employees’ professional development for best practice
improvement (see also Dainty et al, 2004).
Accordingly, the established view amongst construction
management researchers presently is that, PMs’ performance
measures can implicitly be defined in one of two ways: that is,
either to conceptualise based on output- based measures or
alternatively, to conceptualise based on behavioural measures.
Certainly, the two established concepts as identified above are
valid for defining performance measures depending on which
reference point one is arguing from (see Brown and Adams, 2000;
Dainty et al, 2003), however to define each concept independently
22
as it currently appears in construction management practice does
not reflect the mutual perspective overtly recommended by, for
instance, Austin and Vallinova (1992). Thus, PMs’ performance
measures conceptualised solely on one definition or another fails
to capture the performance domain from a broader perspective
and hence are not holistic (Liu and Walker, 1998; Cheng et al,
2003).
Again, while researchers concur that there is the need for
performance measures of PMs to engender continuous
performance improvement, no attempt has been made to explicitly
link the definition to the various distinct phases that exist within
project lifecycles (Ahadzie et al, 2005a). This is against the
background of recent evidences to the effect that, different factors
(e.g. those relating to management support and personality
factors) significantly affects project success and might therefore
be influencing the PMs skills and capabilities at the various phases
of the project lifecycle (see Lim and Mohammed, 1999; Morris et
al, 2000; Belout and Gavreau, 2004). This evidence has convinced
some construction management researchers to recently argue for
a much broader definition that reflects the performance of PMs
throughout the whole life cycle of a project (Ahadzie et al, 2006a)
Subsequently, drawing from the generic definition provided by
Austin and Vallinova (1992), it is contended that performance
measures in construction human resource management (CHRM),
23
should appropriately and explicitly be redefined as measures
based on performance behaviours and outcomes. Furthermore, the
behavioural measures should be linked to the various phases of the
project lifecycle. These would then be potentially useful for
predicting and providing continuous feedback to PMs at various
organizational levels and/or phases of the project lifecycle
(Ahadzie et al, 2006a). By introducing the concepts of
organisational levels and/or project phases and by reflecting the
key tenets of contemporary HRM research, it is contended that
this definition is useful in conceptualising the performance of PMs
from a more holistic and/or multi-dimensional perspective
(Ahadzie et al, 2005a; 2006a).
2.1.2 The Significance of Performance Measures in

HRM Practices
As shown through the chronology of the various definitions
provided above, the practical significance of performance
measures in the HRM genre has been recognised since
management research started in the early part of the 20th century.
Indeed, research and development of the relationship between
managerial work and performance measures has been the subject
of systematic HRM research since Henri Fayol published his work
on industrial and general administration in 1916 (Borman and
Brush, 1993). Since then, several published works have attempted
to address the issue of the constructs of the managerial
performance domain in various ways and it is now generally

24
acknowledged that the trend is set to continue (Conway, 2000;
Garavan et al, 2000).
Performance measures represent a key process for managers who
want to enhance or maintain organizational effectiveness as it is
their actions that, by and large, affect the use of organizational
resources (Latham et al, 1979; Abraham et al, 2001). Furthermore,
performance measures are often the only potential means for
evaluating the theories of work behaviour; the effective
administration of human resources and the provision of feedback
to management personnel (Austin and Villanova, 1992; Hayes et al,
2000: Woerkom et al, 2002; Gibb, 2003). Thus, performance
measures are essential for providing organizations the basis for
planning management succession and development at the
workplace (Tett et al, 2002: Ford, 2004). To this effect,
performance measures represent the most important human
resource scheme insofar as they represent critical decisions
integral to a variety of human resource actions and outcomes (see
Cawley et al, 1998: Gibb, 2003; Scullen et al, 2003).
In recent times, there has been renewed interest in research into
the development of performance measures as the only viable
option for validating effective managerial performance (see e.g.
Conway, 2000; Tett et al, 2000; Abraham, 2001; Scullen et al,
2003). This research agenda is being driven by the changing
structure of organizations due to increasingly sophisticated
25
technological, economic and demographic trends (Gibb, 2003;
Lepine, 2003). Advances in globalisation and communication
technologies have provided impetus for increased technological
transfer which has also made products more stakeholder/customer
focussed. Thus, organisations are being forced to innovate to
remain competitive by largely structuring work activities around
teams rather than individuals (ibid). To enhance and maintain the
competitive edge, successful organizations are therefore relying
on their managers and other key human resource personnel
acquiring a range of skills through the development of appropriate
performance measures (Brophy and Kiely, 2002).
Similarly, in most project-based industries such as construction, it
is becoming increasingly important for organizations to proactively
manage the performance of key management personnel towards
the desired growth and direction of competitive advantage (see
Dainty et al, 2004; 2005). Equally, there is an increasing
acknowledgement that performance measures can be used to
underpin the management profiles and development functions of
PMs (see Cheng et al, 2005). This acknowledgement of the
centrality of performance measures towards the professional
development of PMs reflects a concurrent focus within the HRM
field on the integration of employee improvement mechanisms into
organizational strategy (Dainty et al, 2003). In effect, it is now also
well-recognised within construction management practice that
performance measures are an established recourse to help refocus
26
PMs on what it takes to achieve managerial excellence in a
modern competitive work environment.
2.1.3 Development of Predictive Models and the
Implication for PMs Performance Measures in
Developing Countries
Performance measures are also of significance potential value in
HRM for prediction purposes (Austin and Vallinova, 1992: Gellatly
and Irving, 2001). This is because managers in particular are
constantly in search for information that can help them make
prompt decisions concerning the present and future management
of projects (ibid). Subsequently, in trying to identify the
performance profile of managers, researchers now tend to focus
attention on developing the predictive power associated with the
measures involved (Gellatly and Irving, 2001). Indeed, Dainty et al
(2005), for example, re-inforces the notion that, the development
of predictive models is of potential significant value in the
identification of robust performance measures. Mirable (1997) also
noted that performance modelling is by far the most reasonable
approach towards developing job profiles and in assessing an
employee’s level of competency. Thus, insofar as predictive models
can serve as a foundation for the selection and development of the
related measures targeted to the future development of managers,
their predictive power cannot be taken for granted (see for
instance Tett et al, 2000: Gelatly and Irving, 2001). This largely
27
explains why researchers in the HRM domain have become
increasingly committed towards identifying the relevant
performance measures by focussing on appropriate predictive
modelling across industries, sectors and various organizational
levels (Tett et al, 2000: Conway, 2000; Dainty et al, 2005).
While the foregoing suggests that performance measures
(including their associated predictive characteristics) are
beneficial in supporting organizations in their HRM activities,
their potential significance are yet to be reflected in the
construction industry of many developing countries (see for
instance Wachiru, 2000). Despite representing one of the largest
sphere of influence, the construction industry in developing
countries has historically adopted a passive approach towards
satisfying the professional needs of the key management personnel
employed in that domain (Ibid). Interestingly, this inertia is
manifested against the backdrop that the problems affecting the
managerial skills of project teams are often largely related to their
competencies (see e.g. Imbert, 1990; Teeraegtgul and
Charoenngham, 2004: Rwelamila, 2007). Granted that effective
HRM is of strategic importance to all organisations, especially in
respect to creating and sustaining competitive egde (see
Huemann, et al, 2007), there is the need for the construction
industry of developing countries to recognise the rewards to be
gained in developing an understanding of the human resource
28
(HR) dynamics in project oriented companies and sectors within
the industry.
2.1.4 An Overview of Project Management Practices in
The implementation of construction projects in developing
countries presents some of the most challenging arenas within
which to apply effective project management techniques (El-
Saaba, 2001). In reality, these projects tend to be characterised by
crisis, uncertainty and suspense which warrants a test of ability on
the performance of PMs in coordinating and controlling a diverse
selction of functional specialist (ibid). Therefore, apart from their
technical knowledge and expertise, PMs are encouraged to
demonstrate a whole range of behavioural skills that can help
engender effective multiorganizational teamwork and
communication towards achieving successful project outcome
(Faniran et al, 2000; El-Saaba, 2001). The identification,
assessment and maintenance of behavioural competencies could
therefore be fundamental towards the optimization of the
performance of contemporary PMs in developing countries (Trejo
et al, 2002).
Indeed, project management as a profession and area of research
continues to expand and develop in many developing countries
(see for instance Kartam et al, 2000). There is also a growing
29
awareness that effective project management practices provide a
potentially rigorous concept towards improving project
performance (see for example Struckenbruck and Zomorrodian,
1997; Kuruoglu and Ergen, 2000; Abassi and Al-Mharmah, 2000).
However, while project management competence (i.e. measusing
success in terms of, for example, the iron triangle) is fundamental
to effective project performance, it should also be recognised that
it is PMs who deliver projects and not processes and systems
(Cooke-Davies, 2002). Thus, the effective performance of the PM is
a critical factor towards understanding and improving the related
managerial practices required (Goodwin, 1993). However, granted
that project management practices differ across areas, industries
and sectors (Crawford, 2006), any attempt towards understanding
the PMs’ performance domain has to be undertaken in tandem
with the intricate and complex social, political and cultuaral
interactions prevailing (Abassi & Al-Mharmah, 2000; Faniran et al,
2000; Kartam et al, 2000). Thus, while project management
competence should be supported, PMs’ performance measures
would be significant to help identify, adapt and implement best
practices towards responding effectively to the unique challenges
prevailing in construction environment in developing countries.
Furthermmore, PMs’ performance measures are capable of
providing both a predictve and consultative system which has the
potential for engendering the professional development of PMs.
Thus, to this end, PMs’ performance measures in the construction
industry of developing countries could provide basis for many
30
HRM functions, such as developing management expertise,
maintaining management succession and retaining skills of key
managerial performers (see for instance Rwelamila, 2007; Plessis,
2007)
2.1.5 Towards identifying Performance Measures for
PMs in Mass House Building Projects in Developing
Countries
Mass house building projects (MHBPs) represent the largest and
most established project-based sectors in many developing
countries by virtue of the contribution they make to construction
GDP. It is therefore not surprising that the management of these
projects often attracts the largest concentration of human
resource personnel in the construction industry (see for instance
Wells, 1999; Zawdie and Langford, 2000; Wells, 2007). Indeed, the
diverse work activities involved also attract huge socio-economic
interest across all boundaries of the social divide (see Keivani and
Werna, 2001). To this end, effective project management has
become one of the most demanding roles that PMs have to face
towards achieving project success in these projects. However, the
relatively weak technological, socio-economic and organizational
set ups in many developing countries poses unique and
fundamental challenges for aspiring and experienced PMs (see
Ofori, 1989; Keivani and Werna, 2001; Abbasi et al, 2000; Faniran
et al, 2000).
31
Paradoxically, PMs engaged in the management of these projects
also lack the benefit of any systematic criteria which can help
them achieve excellence in the relatively unique and difficult
environment that they operate. Identification of appropriate
performance measures could therefore initiate an important step
in the development of improved HRM approaches in the sector
towards helping to address effective project management
practices on future housing supply. While the possibility exists for
the potential rewards to be realised, there is the need for the
conceptual and methodological taxonomies to be earnestly
developed in pursuit of appropriate evaluative criteria (Ahadzie et
al, 2005b). This research is therefore founded on the contention
that if the significance of performance measures is to be relevant
in the construction industry in developing countries, then the
underlying criteria that would help PMs reflect positively on their
personal development in MHBPs needs to be identified. Thus, this
research views the emphasis on MHBPs as a potentially significant
foundation for initiating and contributing towards HRM
performance improvement research agenda for the construction
industry in developing countries (Ahadzie et al, 2004).
Following from the foregoing, it was therefore considered
imperative to have a deeper understanding of existing
performance measurement frameworks in the HRM genre so that
an appropriate theoretical perspective can be adopted for
32
achieving the objectives of this research. A review of such
frameworks is therefore further provided. However as a priori, the
need to establish a definition of the PM in the context of this
research is first addressed in the following section.
2.2 TOWARDS DEVELOPING A DEFINITION OF THE
PROJECT MANAGER
While the centrality of the critical role of PMs is widely recognised
in the construction industry, it is interesting to note that the
interpretation of the title itself is often far from agreement (see for
instance Brinberg, 1999). In some instances the term has been
used to describe persons/entities that monitor, oversee and/or
provide broad supervision on projects (Lock, 1987). Some
researchers have also attempted to provide an alternative
understanding by distinguishing the roles of the PM from that of
say a project coordinator. However, the same researchers have
acknowledged that the distinction can be very thin depending on
the roles assigned and prevailing (see for instance Odusami et al,
2003). More recently, Jha (2006a; 2006b) also attempted to
provide some further insight and reported that generally the term
PM, project coordinator, construction manager, project
administrator and project controller are often used
interchangeably.
33
While this debate may continue for some time, one critical issue
that cannot be overlooked is the suggestion that the title should be
used for one who exercises total authority and also accepts full
responsibility for the management of projects (Lock, 1987).
Equally, Walker (2002) contends that it is important to focus on
what the PM does rather than what should be the precise
definition or title, as this holds the key to achieving project
objectives. Walker (Ibid) further argues that if there should be any
definition at all, such a definition should uphold the principles of
project management, which is to consider the interests of the
client as a priority. However, given that stakeholder interest is
gradually replacing the traditional client focus, PMs are faced with
not only the traditional single client but also “multiple clients”
whose diverse interests also have to be satisfied (see Newcombe,
2003).
The appropriate professional background of the PM also remains a
debatable subject. According to the CIOB (2002), the PM could
come from any professional background but would also need to
have the requisite skills and competence to manage all aspects of
projects from conception to completion. Ogunlana et al (2002)
have also noted that while the PM could come from any
background, generally the consensus is the need to possess some
degree of technical skills relating to the project at hand.
Alternatively, Odusami et al (2003) contends that any construction
34
related professional could be a PM provided a good overall
knowledge and experience of the industry is demonstrated.
Presently, what is apparent is that whatever their professional
background and the roles assigned, PMs could be part of an in-
house team, a consultant or contracting organization (see Figure
2.1). Furthermore, whatever the background, the PM will be
expected to work with people from varied professions. Thus, the
human factor including the associated managerial competencies is
crucial and decisive if the PM is to deal effectively with the
numerous competing interests involved (EL-Saaba, 2001; Cooke-
Davies, 2002).
Generally, MHBPs differ from many of the one-off projects often
encountered in the construction industry in many ways (see
chapter three, section 3.3 for details). For instance, unlike the
traditional one-off projects, MHBPs are ofen speculative in nature.
“Speculative” is used in the sense that the acquisition of land,
design of house-units and construction are made without reference
to any specific customer and/or client in mind (see for instance
Roy and Cochrane, 1999). Subsequently, unlike many one-off
projects, the responsibility for the management of the design and
construction of these projects often lie with a single organisation –
the property developer or homebuilder (see for instance
Masterman, 1992).
35
Indeed in Ghana, the practice in the house building industry is for
the PM to be appointed at an early stage to provide key
management decisions throughout the project lifecycle (i.e. to
provide some advice on the decision to build, help acquire the land
including associated feasibility studies, identify appropriate
procurement routes, supervise and manage physical construction
till completion and provide the necessary advice on facilities
management) (Ahadzie et al, 2004). As such, in the context of this
research, the PM is defined as the individual that has the authority
and responsibility for the management of MHBPs from inception to
completion and who works in the interest of the key stakeholder
(herein identified as the property developer). An appropriate
organisational structure reflecting the PMs’ role in MHBPs in
Ghana is presented later in chapter three (see Figure 3.7).
Client
Project manager:
Client in-house,
consultant or
Design Team: Consultants:

Architects Quantity surveyors
Engineers Planning supervisors
Technology Development surveyors
Town planning
Legal
Contractor Financial/leasing
Design Audit
Health, safety and
environmental
protection
Subcontract Subcontract Facilities management
Highways/traffic
planning
Functional liaison & interrelated Construction manager
Key: working
Project direction & supervision
Contractual relationship
36
Figure 2.1: Typical project structure involving the project

manager
Source: After CIOB (2002)
As noted by Goodwin (1993), the fundamental concept of project
management is that a single individual (in this case the PM) is
accountable for the success of a project (see also Jiang et al,
1998). That is, by being responsible for the implementation of
MHBPs from inception to completion, PMs in the Ghanaian context
are deemed to be held accountable for the success of these
projects throughout their lifecycle. This not withstanding, it is also
noted that albeit being accountable for the successful outcome of
projects, the effectiveness of the PM is only one of many factors
that impinge on the outcome of projects (see Goodwing, 1993:
Dainty et al, 2003). Yet, the effectiveness of the PM constitutes a
critical parameter among the many variables that may directly or
indirectly affect the outcome of projects (Goodwin, 1993). It is for
this reason that, it is of crucial importance that the skills required
by PMs are clearly understood by key stakeholders in construction
organisations and those aspiring to be PMs (ibid). To this end, the
objective of this study is to focus on the variables that are within
the control of PMs and which have the potential of improving their
own effectiveness in MHBPs. This demands background
knowledge and understanding of the methodologies for measuring
the performance of PMs which are addressed in the next section.
37
2.3 MEASURING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT
MANAGERS
This section considers the methodologies for measuring the
performance of PMs and is grouped into three sub-sections. The
first sub-section discusses traditional-based approaches for
assessing the performance of PMs including the associated
governing variables. This is followed by an evaluation of recent
developments in regard the application of contemporary
methodologies, namely, personality-based approaches. Thereafter,
the third sub-section discusses the emergence of competency-
based approaches and how contemporary researchers have come
to acknowledge these as the most appropriate option for
engendering managerial excellence.
2.3.1 Traditional-Based Approaches
Traditionally, the evaluation of the performance of PMs has been
conceptualised and operationalised based on the iron triangle of
cost, time and quality (Latham et al, 1979; Russell et al, 1996).
However, in recent years, criticisms have come up against these
traditional measures with regard to their suitability for
engendering effective managerial practices. The limitations have
been well documented by a number of authors (see e.g. Latham et
al, 1979; Dullaimi and Langford, 1999: Dainty et al, 2003; Bassioni
et al, 2004). The key problem lies in the fact that, these traditional-
based approaches only provide lagging information in the sense
38
that the outcomes of managerial actions/decisions only become
available at project completion (Bassioni et al, 2004). The irony is
that PMs would rather prefer prompt feedback on their
performance so that appropriate changes can be enacted on their
current and future projects. These traditional measures also
provide further limitations because they are influenced by factors
outside the control of PMs. As a result, they are unable to isolate
the contribution of PMs from extraneous influences including that
of other team members. This makes it significantly difficult for
them (PMs) to make any credible assessment towards their own
personal development (Dainty et al, 2003; Cheng et al, 2005).
Indeed, what makes these traditional measures very appealing is
that they are relatively objective and easy to determine (Latham et
al, 1979). However, the consensus points to the fact that they are
often in conflict with the larger corporate objectives and ethics
especially when it comes to achieving cost targets; they contain
elements beyond the control of the PM; they frequently make
accountability of the PM redundant; and most importantly they do
not tell the PM what it is that they are actually doing that is
effective or ineffective (Ibid). Subsequently, Latham et al (1979)
concluded that, these output related approaches are particularly
troublesome for defining, developing and/or maintaining
managerial excellence. In recent times, new and emerging criteria
such as client satisfaction, project participant satisfaction, health
and safety, environmental friendliness and risk containment have
39
been integrated into the commonly known traditional variables
(see for instance Kumarsawamy and Thorpe 1996: Ling, 2004).
However, recent findings from the from mainstream project
management literature suggests that the introduction of these new
and emerging criteria (listed above) has not helped in addressing
the key shortcomings of the traditional - based approaches,
because they are still used for assessment at project completion
(Ahadzie et al, 2006c).
2.3.2 Personality-Based Approaches
Personality is the set of traits within individuals that influences
their interactions and adaptation to the physical and social
environment (Larsson and Buss, 2005). Personality-based
approaches are therefore conceptualised and operarionalised
based on the trait descriptive taxonomies of PMs (see for instance
El-Saaba, 2002). Typical examples of such trait-like characteristics
are extroversion, impulsiveness, introversion, initiative, urgency
and leadership (Tett et al, 2000). Many personality psychologists
hypothesise that personality traits are relatively stable and
enduring over time (see Larsson and Buss, 2005) and, this is what
makes personality-based approaches potentially useful for
predictions (ibid). However, while personality-based approaches
have a long history for prediction and can also help engender
continuous performance improvement, it is only in the relatively
recent times that they have seriously been considered for
40
measuring the performance of PMs in the construction industry
(see for instance El-Saaba, 2001; Ogunlana, et al, 2002; Odusami
et al, 2003).
The problem with personality-based approaches are that, because
they are founded on a persons traits, they often cause confusion
and misunderstanding at the work place as superiors, peers and
subordinates frequently interpret them differently (Latham et al,
1979; Tett et al, 2000). For example, leadership could be
interpreted by one group to mean: motivating others, team
building and worker concern whilst for another group it may mean
motivating others, directing and strategic planning (Tett et al,
2000). Furthermore, because personality traits are often
genetically inherited, they are not readily amenable to change and
hence not suitable for developing training requirements (Croft,
1996). Thus, whilst personality traits are useful for predicting
human performance (in that they help describe how individuals
differ from each other), they are largely limited for developing
programmes for training purposes (Croft, 1996; Dullaimi et al,
1999; Tett et al, 2000). Against the background that the aim of
training and development is to change behaviours at the
workplace (Cowling and Mialer cited in Olomolaiye and Egbu,
2004) it sounds plausible to reckon that personality–based
approaches are not robustly useful as tools for engendering the
continuing professional development of PMs.
41
2.3.3 Competency-Based Approaches
Generally, there is some confusion over the use of the term
competency in construction management research. It is therefore
important to put the meaning of the term in context before
addressing the relevance of competency-based approahces.
2.3.3.1 A definition for competency
Cheng et al (2003) have identified two interpretations in the use of
the term “competency” stemming from the US and UK
explanations. The predominant US interpretation defines
competency as the underlying attributes of a person - largely an
input-based methodology. In contrast, the UK interpretation sees
competency as a set of performances and standards often linked to
output-based measures (i.e. competence). An extant review of
literature by Brophy and Kiely (2002) also revealed three main
positions taken towards the definintion of the terminology. That is,
competency relates to: observable performance; the standard or
quality of the outcome of the person’s performance; the underlying
attributes of the person. To this effect, it is common to find in the
literature that the terms competency and competence are often
used indiscrimately as a synonyms (Dainty et al, 2004). In the
opinion of Cheng et al (2003), the divergent interpretations
adopted by the US and UK has largely led to confusion in the
definition of the terminology.
42
Nevertheless, following the increasing attention that competency-
based approaches are gradually receiving in construction
management research, it is now becoming clear and accepted that
competency is best used to describe input-based measures
(underlined by behavioural metrics) rather than an externally or
output-based measure (Dainty et al, 2004). There is therefore now
a general acknowledgement by HRM researchers that, the term
competency should be defined as a person related concept that
refers to the dimensions of behavioural action (and underlying
competent performance) as against competence which is a concept
related to some output-based measures (ibid).
Therefore, in the context of this study, competency when used is
interpreted as: “an identifiable aspect of prospective work
behaviour attributable to the individual that is expected to
contribute positively and/or negatively to organisational
effectiveness.” (Tett et al, 2000)
Recently, Crawford (2005) has furthered construction management
reseachers understanding of the terminology by providing three
interesting classifications, namely; input competencies, personal
competencies and output competencies. Input competencies as
defined by Crawford refer to the knowledge and skills that a
person brings to a job. Personal competencies relate to the core
43
attributes underlying a person’s capability to execute a job.
Alternatively, output competencies are identified as the
“demonstratable” performance that a person exhibits at the job
place. In Crawford’s (2005) view the overall contributon of these
competencies is important towards achieving competence.
2.3.3.2 Relevance of competency-based approaches
Currently the consensus among HRM reseachers including those
in the construction management discipline is that competency-
based approaches are emerging as the rational basis for an
integrated human resources policy towards organisational
development (Hayes et al, 2000). To this effect, the IPMA website,
for instance, states that “competency models have become a
dramatic recourse in refocusing people on what it takes to
succeed in today’s workplace environment.”(cited in Brophy and
Kiely, 2002)
Competency-based approaches are becoming increasingly
important in HRM practices because they circumvent many of the
problems of the traditional techniques including facilitation and
identification of the appropriate measures towards achieving a
useful accurate prediction (Dainty et al, 2003; 2004). Unlike
functional competences, competency-based approaches can assist
PMs to contribute more effectively to their personal development
44
by enabling understanding of effective performance requirements
of the task required (Cheng et al, 2005).
It is therefore not surprising that the research agenda in the
construction management research genre is increasingly being
channelled towards developing appropriate competencies and
competency modelling (see for example Dullaimi and Langford,
1999; Dainty et al 2004; 2005; Skipper, 2006). That is,
identification of an appropriate competency-based predictive
model now represents an established alternative towards helping
PMs to focus on what will make them effective towards achieving
their professional goals (Cheng et al, 2003; 2005). Moreover,
competency-based models acknowledge the centrality of the
development of PMs towards the achievement of strategic
business objectives and so conform more comfortably with the
tenets of HRM orthodoxy (Dainty et al, 2003).
Thus, whilst various approaches are available for identifying and
developing performance measures of PMs, what is emerging is
that, to help enhance the PMs own professional development,
competency-based approaches offers a more potentially useful
methodology because they deal with behavioural measures that
are within the control of the PMs (Tett et al, 2000; Dainty et al,
2003; Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser, 2003). Given that the
performance measures being explored in this research context are
those within the control of PMs, it was therefore decided to further
45
explore the strategic importance of competency-based approaches
towards identifying an appropriate theoretical perspective for the
study.
2.4 THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COMPETENCY-
BASED APPROACHES
As noted above, a key premise of competency-based approaches is
that, performance is essentially the degree to which PMs through
their behavioural competencies can help organizations reach their
intended goals. Thus, in this context, the PMs’ performance is
seen essentially as behaviour with an evaluative component
(Campbell 1983: McCloy et al, 1994; Borman et al, 1997). In the
light of the apparent weaknesses of the two previous
methodologies, it appears that competency-based approaches have
strategically emerged pivotal towards improving HRM practices
largely because:
• They focus primarily on what PMs do that makes them
successful or not. Subsequently, they have significantly more
potential for helping PMs to establish what makes them
effective and/or ineffective and also accountable for their
actions (Latham et al, 1979).
46
• They provide the psychological understanding needed for
selecting and predicting human performance (Motowidlo et
al, 1997).
• They resonate with the potential expectation of PMs and
have been shown to maximise developmental efficacy
(Offermann et al, 2004)
• There is the potential for achieving genuine economic value
for firms hence the increasingly important recognition in
their use in the examination of managerial effectiveness
(Spencer, 2001; Dainty et al, 2005)
• Above all, they are amenable for developing more realistic
and practical training requirements
Thus, unlike functional competences, which measure performance
against only output based-measures, competency –based
approaches reflect a cyclical and continuous process of assessing,
planning and taking corrective action on the performance of PMs
(Dainty et al, 2004).
Thus, while personality traits can also be used to predict the
performance of PMs, the scientific usefulness of using behavioural
competencies as operational measures is that these make it
possible to understand the underlying dispositions involved
47
towards PMs’ professional development (Borman and Motowidlo,
1993; Larsson and Buss, 2005). This is because competencies
more than general traits are more likely to be expected to be
amenable to change, for example through training (Tett et al,
2000). That is, behavioural competencies can be thought and
learned rather than inherent characteristics such as traits
(Skipper et al, 2006). Put emphatically, a person’s personality
cannot be changed, but, the behavioural action resulting from the
trait can be changed by the person being made aware of them
through training (Croft, 1996).
In effect, it appears that, because of their ability to facilitate the
development of training requirements competency-based
approaches would be expected to provide a better opportunity for
initiating staff training programmes, the development of
comprehensive job descriptions; facilitate decision-making
regarding manpower planning and staffing; and can be very useful
for goal setting (Latham et al, 1979; Pickett, 1998; Dainty et al,
2003; 2004). Therefore, competency-based approaches present a
prima facie case for utilizing and developing the potential of PMs
in order to enhance their competitive capabilities. In this
perspective, it could therefore be argued that, organisations that
use competency-based systems for assessing the performance of
their managers are visionary of high performance achievers
(Abraham et al 2001).
48
Thus, for organizations who are keen to support the professional
development of their key management personnel, the implication
is that they define effective managerial performance in explicit
behavioural terms, that is, in terms of the observable episodes that
make managers successful (Latham et al, 1979; Gibb, 2003).
Subsequently, the onus for project organizations who want to
achieve best practice in their key professional staff is to create an
enabling environment for them to aspire and contribute towards
improving their personal skills (Heffenman and Flood, 2000;
Brophy and Kiely, 2002). These underlying attributes in respect to
helping PMs in their personal skills development place
competency-based approaches above the other two methodologies
as a core strategic HRM activity (Hayes et al, 2000; Garavan et al,
2000; Tett et al, 2000 Garavan et al, 2002).
2.5 EMERGING STUDIES ON PMs BEHAVIOURAL
COMPETENCIES
While competency-based approaches are gradually gaining
prominence in construction project management practice and
research, the evidences suggest that the knowledge base is still in
its infancy and would require much further studies (Fraser and
Zakrada-Fraser, 2003; Crawford, 2005). Indeed, in the
construction industry, the genesis of a concerted research agenda
towards improving PMs’ competency appears relatively young (see
.e.g. the work done by Mustapha and Naoum, 1998). Thereafter,
49
other relative studies such as those by Fraser (1999), Fraser
(2000) and Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer, (2000) have also been
acknowledged in the literature. The findings of these studies
(among others) provided useful foundation towards appreciating
the significance of personal characteristics in PMs’ effectiveness.
Notwithstanding the significance of the studies however, the
findings failed to provide an empirical understanding of the
competencies identified with respect to, for instance, the various
dimensions of competencies identified by Crwaford (2005).
Interestingly, Boyatzis (1997) has also noted that for a more in-
depth understanding of behavioural competencies, there is the
need to distinguish between any potential competency type and
levels of competencies.
Furthermore, while researchers agree that, where possible, the
use of “theories1” provide a more rigorous approach towards
understanding and advancing project management knowledge (see
Soderland, 2004; Judgev, 2004), these studies were largely based
on general guidelines from the literature (see for instance Fraser,
2000) or what Judgev (2004) describes as “practitioner-driven
normative approaches”. That is, while the findings of the studies
herein cited were indeed informed and supported by mainstream
project management literature, no evidenced-based practice
theory/model was advanced towards validating the conceptual and
empirical bases of the research design. This limitation in the lack

1
Theory as used here means an empirically proven proposition that reasonably
explains the inherent characterisitics of a phenomenon and has the potential for
ascertaining wrong predictions (See Judgev, 2004)
50
of a theory potentially limits the theoretical understanding of the
variables used, especially given the inherently complex nature of
behavioural measures (Liu and Walker, 1998; Garavan et al, 2003;
Scullen et al, 2003).
Other contemporary studies worth noting here are those
attributed to Dullaimi and Langford (1999), Dainty et al, (2003;
2004; 2005), Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser (2003), Cheng et al
(2005) and Skipper et al (2006). Perspectively, going by the
classifications of competencies provided by Crawford (2005), these
studies (cited just above) also suffer from the limitations outlined
previously. On a more positive note however, these studies made
some inroads by advancing some form of theory towards validting
the conceptual and empirial bases of their research design. For
instance, Dulaimi and Langford2, (1999) employed the contingency
model of leadership proposed by Fiedler (1967) as the basis for
developing the research instrument for their study. Dainty et al
(2003; 2004; 2005) and Cheng et al (2005) also utilised the well-
established Mcber job competency assessment process initially
developed for industrial psychology by McClelland (1973).
Alternatively, Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser (2003) relied on the
stakeholder theory, which posits that sustenable success rests, to a
great extent, with the systematic consideration of the needs and
goals of all key stakeholders. Skipper et al3 (2006) also relied on
2
In the context of this study the theory was also limited in scope as it was used
for only leadership behaviours
3
In the context of this study the theory was also limited in scope as it was used
for only leadership behaviours
51
what they termed the well-acclaimed Leadership Practices
Inventory (LPI) developed by Kouzes and Posner, (2002).
Notwithstanding, the use of evidence-based practice theories by
these researchers (just cited above) however, the way the theories
were advanced and implemented in suffice to suggest that they
might not be particularly useful for explicitly isolating and
explaining the managerial performance domain as, for instance,
evidenced by the various labels of competencies identified. To this
effect, further discussion on the limitation of these papers is
provided in section 2.6 in an effort towards identifying an
appropriate competency-based framework for addressing the
research objectives.
In the interim, it is also important to recognise the study by
Crawford (2005) part of which has already been introduced on
establishing an appropriate definition of competency. While
proposing the various classifications of competency, Crawford
(2005) treated the ideology as a concept and failed to provide an
empirical validation. It is therefore not overtly clear from the
empirical analysis undertaken by Crawford, how the various
variables might uniquely be contributing to the various
competencies. Additionally, the empirical findings (while informed
and supported by project management literature) were not
specifically and explicitly supported by any established theory (see
also Seng and Skitmore, 2004).
52
Furthermore, it is to be recognised that project management
practice differs across geographical regions and applications areas
(Crawford, 2005). Thus, while there are indeed some useful
lessons to be learnt from the literature cited, it is evident that they
are not particularly appropriate for the situation in developing
countries as they are largely based on conditions prevailing in
developed economies such the UK, the US and Australia. There is
therefore the need for project-based organisations in the
construction industry in developing countries to also strive
towards establishing the appropriate measures, which are in
tandem with their technological, socio-economic, structural and
cultural practices.
However, in demand to the inherently complex nature of
construction projects, particularly, in an increasingly difficult and
unpredictable work environment such as those pertaining in many
developing countries, the behavioural competencies of PMs are
likely to be more complex and divserse than in most other
industries. Subsequently, the view of the author was that, project-
based sectors of the construction industry in developing countries
may require a methodology (in particular supported by an
evidenced-based practice theory) that would offer a much more
detailed analysis and understanding of the complex behavioural
variables likely to be involved.
53
2.6 IDENTIFYING AN APPROPRIATE COMPETENCY-
BASED FRAMEWORK
The problem with behavioural competencies is that while they are
important, they are also dynamic and difficult to identify (Fowler,
2000). What is more, identification of an appropriate competency-
framework is ongoing and the most effective methodology is yet to
emerge (see for example Borman and Brush, 1993; Conway, 2000;
Jones and Connolly, 2001; Cheng et al, 2003). Generally, it remains
unclear whether in practice it is possible to distinguish between
the development of generic and specific competency profiles for
specific industries and/or sectors (Brophy and Kiely, 2002).
However, the fact that these measures are complex and dynamic
does not mean the key variables involved cannot be isolated (Tett
et al, 2000). To this effect, not recognising and embedding these
behavioural measures in organizational programmes can have a
detrimental impact on the potential growth and competitiveness of
PMs (Cheng et al, 2005).
The foregoing has demonstrated that, where possible, researchers
in construction management currently draw on existing
frameworks from the HRM genre to facilitate the development of
appropriate competency models. While there may be many
potential theoretical perspectives (such as economic and general
management) to addressing competency modelling, Garavan et al
(2000) have noted that these theories most often fit into at least
one theoretical perspective and that is, the psychological domain.
54
That is, behavioural competencies as evidenced in mainstream
HRM publications, is rooted in psychological constructs (Liu and
Walker, 1998). It could therefore be argued that, a positive aspect
of the frameworks adopted in the studies previously highlighted in
section 2.5 is that, as they are all psychologically driven, they fit in
well with the tenets of contemporary human resource development
(HRD) research. Subsequently, while they offer convenient
opportunity in the ability to identify and appreciate appropriate
behavioural competencies, they also provide basis for legitimizing
the relevance of existing and emerging theories in construction
HRM research.
However, from an industrial and organizational psychology
perspective, these frameworks are also limited in a number of
ways. For instance, and as argued in the preceeding section, their
implementation suggests they might not be explicitly amenable for
investigating behavioural measures from a multidimensional
perspective. This is against the backdrop that behavioural
measures are complex and numerate and grouping them together
produces a psychological intractable hodgepodge (Motowidlo et al,
1997; Conway, 1999; Gelatly and Irving, 2001; Scullen et al, 2003).
For any specific job there are also substantive behaviours that are
distinguishable in terms of their correlation and patterns of
covariation with other variables (McCloy et al, 1994). Against the
backdrop that the use of theories currently has an under-
recognised and, yet important role to play in academic discipline
55
and practice of HRM programmes (Garavan et al, 2000), there is
therefore scope for a methodology, underlined by appropriate and
tested theoretical constructs that can also enable an empirical
understanding and validity of any existing potential labels of
competencies from a multidimensional perspective.
Drawing from organisational psychology literature, an evidence-
based practice theory that has been argued for having the
potential of measuring the PMs’ performance from a
multidimensional perspective was therefore explored for potential
application in this research (see Ahadzie et al 2006b). The theory
posits that a robust way of understanding the domain of
managerial performances is to separate the competencies into
contextual and task performance behaviours (Borman and
Motowildo, 1993; Motowildo et al, 1997; Scullen et al, 2003).
While task performance behaviours are job-specific and formally
recognised and/or rewarded such as the managers job description,
contextual performance behaviours refers to those discretionary
job-related acts such as working hard and helping others, which
informally contribute to organizational effectiveness but are not
formally recognised as part of the job (Motowidlo and Borman,
1997; Organ and Paine, 1999).
The main premise of the contextual-task distinction is that within
the job environment, what makes contextual performance
behaviours desirable or undesirable may be different from what
56
makes task performance behaviours desirable or undesirable
(Motowidlo and Borman, 1997). Hence, the antecedents of
contextual performance behaviours are likely to be different from
the antecedents of task performance behaviours (ibid).
Accordingly, the knowledge, skills and habits associated with
contextual behaviours are likely to be different from those of task
behaviours (Motowidlo et al, 1997). In this respect, it is also
important to remind readers of Mintzberg (1980) and later
Burgoyne (1989) who asserted that, while managerial jobs might
be generalized at some levels in a job situation, there are
differences at a detailed level of investigation (cited in Egbu, 1999;
Hayes et al, 2000). This coupled with Boyatzis (1997) assertion
(already mentioned above, refer page 40) suggests that any theory
based methodology such as the contextual-task framework, which
has the potential for exploring a detailed level of investigation of
the PMs’ performance domain should be welcomed.
Indeed, the evidence presently suggests that the contextual-task
distinction might be more relevant for assessing and
understanding managerial performance domain and is therefore
worth pursuing (Conway, 1999). This is because as managers often
get jobs done through others they more than other professionals
need to adequately posses the relevant personal skills, which must
be thorougly unearthed (Conway, 1999; Scullen et al, 2003). It is
therefore the contention that, the contextual-task performance
57
framework may be more appropriate for isolating the PMs’
behavioural performance domain in this research context because:
• It gives opportunity to define the potential variables in both
explicit and implicit behavioural terms;
• It portrays the performance domain as multidimensional and
thus has the potential of helping to distinguish potentially
specific profiles from generic profiles;
• It has been widely validated both within industrial-
psychological and the human resources genre (see Tett et al
2000); and
• It has been reported as providing consistently reliable and
valid findings across various job performance levels (see e.g.
Borman and Brush, 1993; Gellatly and Irving, 2001; Tett et
al, 2000).
Evidently, the use of theories capable of supporting studies on
behavioural competencies in construction management research is
still emerging (Liu and Walker, 1998). The criticisms levelled
against the theories/frameworks used in the literature herein cited
do not mean these theories are not useful as they provide
convenient frameworks for investigating and advancing the
theoretical understanding of the PMs’ managerial domain.
58
However, based on the narrative presented, it is contended that
the contextual-task performance framework might potentially
allow for a more fine detailed analysis and understanding of
managerial behaviour, its effects and measurement. Subsequently,
this could help organise the performance domain into behavioural
homogenous categories, which should make it possible to
understand the performance domain better (Motowdlo et al,
1997). In view of this disposition (and with particular reference to
the definition adopted for performance measures), the contextual-
task typology is revisited in much detail in chapter four when the
development of the conceptual model is discussed.
2.7 SUMMARY
This chapter has discussed some important generic issues
regarding the significance of performance measures in HRM,
especially, within the construction industry. While performance
measures were described as an important contributor to improving
HRM practices it is observed that this is yet to reflect in
construction management practice in developing countries.
Subsequently, using MHBPs as a case study, it is intended to
address this imbalance by developing appropriate PMs’
performance measures for that sector. It is contended that MHBPs
offer an appropriate foundation for this study because of their
considerable significance and the huge socio-economic interest
they attract.
59
Consequently, a critical review of the methodologies for measuring
the performance of PMs has been undertaken with a view towards
adopting the most relevant approach for this research. The
literature suggests that competency-based approaches are
becoming increasingly accepted as the most effective for
identifying the appropriate performance measures. Furthermore,
it was argued that to make these competency-based measures
more effective, there was the need to make them multidimensional
by linking them to performance outcome and the project lifecycle.
Subsequently, an evaluation of some of the key competency
frameworks adopted recently for the construction industry in
particular were undertaken to help establish their potential
usefulness in this respect. It is contended that the contextual-task
performance framework, which considers the performance domain
of managers to be multidimensional might be a prudent basis for
this research.
In this chapter, a working definition of the PM has also been
argued in the context of the research. Given that the research
focuses on developing countries, the next chapter underpins the
justification of research by undertaking a critical review of
research and development in the management of human
resoureces in developing countries.
60
CHAPTER THREE
61
CHAPTER THREE: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In chapter two, the concepts and methodologies underlying the
measurement of the performance of PMs in the human resource
management (HRM) genre were considered. The focus of this
chapter is on the HRM literature to demonstrate the general lack
of research attention towards performance measurement of key
management personnel in developing countries. The potential
significance of PMs’ performance measures in the construction
industry of developing countries is discussed including the
importance of such measures being able to support their personal
development. Subsequently, a detailed appraisal of the
significance of MHBPs (i.e. viz. PMs’ performance measures) as a
key project-based sector is reinforced towards cementing their
strategic interest in this research context. To this end, a working
definition and characteristics of MHBPs, including their
implications towards the subsequent design of the research
methodology is provided.
In this chapter, the study area, Ghana is also introduced.
Perspectively, the significance of the construction industry is
62
presented including an in-depth account of recent developments in
HRM practices in MHBPs.
3.1 TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Here, a critique of the performance measurement literature is
presented to demonstrate the lack of research in the construction
industry and specifically in context of developing countries.
Subsequently, the implication and potential benefits to be derived
in adopting an appropriate PMs’ performance measures is argued.
3.1.1 A Review of Performance Measurement
Literature for Human Resource Development in
Some of the notable attempts towards research and development
in the management of human resources (HR) in developing
countries are attributed to reseachers such as Wahab (1980),
Olomolaiye et al (1987) and Parker et al (1987). Following these,
Kaming et al (1997), Kaming et al (1998) and Navon and Goodman
(1997) have also made inroads towards making appropriate
contributions. While these earlier attempts are indeed well
registered in the literature, their emphasis was on factors
influencing craftmen productivity and the development of
63
production rates/labour output for craftsmen. While managers of
construction projects could rely on these findings to potentially
plan and monitor the works of their subordinates, the findings had
little use for their own personal development.
During this period (1980s to 1997) the only known study which
came close to addressing HR issues at the managerial level is by
Enhassi (1997) which sought to improve the supervisor’s site
management practices in MHBPs. Nevertheless, this study fell
short of addressing performance measures and therefore cannot
be used to assess and predict the performance of PMs on future
projects.
Quite recently however, Ogunlana et al, (2002) and Ling, (2004)
have made some notable contributions by focusing specifically on
HRM practices at the project management level. For instance,
Ling (2004) attempted to model the factors influencing PMs’
performance so that they can reflect on these factors towards
improving their performance. However, the factors considered
were also outside the control of PMs and could therefore not assist
PMs towards improving their own personal skills.
Currently, the key study worth elaborating on in this research
context is the one attributed to Ogunlana et al (2002). This study is
significant here because it involved the development of a model for
matching PMs onto different project categories including
64
residential structures. Indeed, Ogunlana et al (2002) concluded
that their findings could be used in the selection of PMs for the
different project types involved suggesting (albeit arguably) some
element of predictability.
Notwithstanding the significance of this study, the conceptual and
methodological approach adopted appears limited in various ways
and thus leaves scope for a more rigorous study. For instance, in
developing the matching model, Ogunlana et al (2002) elicited
information simultaneously on different project categories namely
commercial4 (33%), industrial (30%) and heavy engineering (37%)5
projects. However, it would seem that the operational measures
used in eliciting the relevant data were generic and not
particularly operationalized to reflect the uniqueness of the
projects involved. Furthermore, there is an indication that the
same participant (s) provided the data elicited for the different
project categories. However, asking the same respondents to draw
on the three categories of projects simultaneously poses serious
psychological challenges because performance evaluation involves
recall of information from memory and there is evidence to
suggest that, the process is often associated with distortions (see
for instance, Cantor and Mischel, 1979; Tsui and Ohlott, 1988).
This is because in assessing performance, respondents tend to
observe, encode, store and recall different information depending
on their experience, and asking the same respondent(s) to draw

4
Residential and commercial projects were grouped as one category.
5
Percentage indicates the proportion that each project accounted for in the
study
65
from varied experiences simultaneously for different project types
is potentially more likely to distort the information they recall
(Borman 1978). Thus, while, Ogunlana et al (2002) did advise the
respondents to treat each project category independent of each
other, there is some doubt that the mixed representation may
make it more difficult for the respondents to recall the appropriate
performance rating for the variables employed in assessing the
PMs.
Above all, the variables used in developing the matching model
were based on the so-called traditional and personality-based
measures. However, as argued in chapter two (section 2.4.1-2.4.4),
operational measures based on these approaches do not provide
sufficient grounds for engendering higher performance levels of
PMs. In contrast, it is recognised that competency-based measures
circumvents many of the problems associated with these measures
including facilitating the matching and selection of PMs and also
providing more accurate predictions about suitability (Dainty et al,
2003). Thus, while Ogunlana et al (2002) maintained that the
matching model can be used to select the services of the right PM
for the project types involved, it is contended that the conceptual
and methodological approach adopted leaves scope to construct a
more rigorous performance model that can be used to match,
select, predict and above all engender the PMs’ continuing
professional development.
66
The foregoing suggests that while performance measures are
widely held as the only viable option for validating and
engendering managerial excellence in the HRM genre, the only
noteworthy work that has so far come close to addressing PMs
performance measures in developing countries is the literature
attributed to Ogunlana et al (2002). However, as demonstrated by
the review, while the attempt is notable, the conceptual and
methodological approach adopted limits the usefulness of the
findings for initiating a firm foundation on which the PMs’
professional development can be engendered. Thus, despite being
one of the largest industries in developing countries, the
construction industry is yet to adopt a more rigorous conceptual
and methodological approach towards identifying appropriate
PMs’ performance measures
3.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MASS HOUSE BUILDING
PROJECTS TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
The importance of the construction industry in developing
countries is relatively well documented (see for instance Turin,
1973; Moavenzadah, 1978; Lopez et al, 1998; Zawdie and
Langford, 2000). For instance, in most sub-Saharan African
countries, the industry accounts for about 5% of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) in relation to a corresponding average of
67
7% in developed countries (see Zawdie and Langford, 2000). At
the pivot of this importance is the contribution of MHBPs towards
the overall construction output. Barring civil engineering projects
(such as roads, dams, railways), MHBPs alone accounts for about
60% of the construction GDP attributed to all building projects (i.e.
including for instance schools, factories, offices and commercials)
(Wells, 1986; Zawdie and Langford, 2000: Wells, 2007). This
suggests that for most developing countries MHBPs make the
single most important contribution to the Gross Fixed Capital
Formation (GFCF). Furthermore, unlike Civil engineering works,
which are largely government controlled, MHBPs are now largely
private sector led and also register the largest employer of human
resources (see for instance Well, 1999; UK Trade and Investment,
2004; Wells, 2007). Thus, human resources management activities
in MHBPs could arguably be described as representing the
foundation for developing HRM skills for many other sectors of the
construction industry (see for instance Ganessan, 1983; Edmond
and Miles, 1984; Wells, 1999; Wells, 2007).
The significance of MHBPs could also be deduced by the constant
reference to economic indicators such as population growth rate,
mortgage credit availability/supply, house-hold income and rate of
household and economic growth in their implementation (see for
instance Hua, 1996: Windapo et al, 2004). With an estimated one
billion people or more living in inadequate housing in developing
countries currently, the association of the implementation of
68
MHBPs to these economic indicators is becoming an increasingly
debatable subject amongst housing experts, policy makers and
civil society groups (see for instance Keivani and Werna, 2001).
Given the socio-economic interest that the implementation of
MHBPs attracts, it is not surprising that the construction
processes and quality of the products have for instance been the
focus of relatively good attention in construction management
research (see for instance Wahab, 1980; Odenyika and Yusif, 1997;
Okuwogo, 1998).
However, despite being the largest and arguably most established
project-based sector, MHBPs have remained significantly under-
researched and under-developed in relation to improving HRM
practices through identification of appropriate performance
measures and this is a reflection of the general construction
climate in developing countries. The implication is that at a time
when performance measures are receiving renewed attention,
PMs’ specializing in the management of arguably the single most
significant sector in many developing countries such as Ghana are
unaware of the criteria that can be used to validate their
performance towards best practice improvement. Ironically, the
poor management of these projects has constantly and
increasingly been the subject of severe criticism from
stakeholders, policy makers and civil society groups (see for
instance Enhassi, 1997: Keivani and Werna, 2001). Identification of
the appropriate PMs’ performance measures should therefore
69
serve as an important step for developing the skills of potentially
competent PMs, who can promote the effective management of
MHBPs in a relatively dynamic but increasingly difficult business
environment (see for instance Ahadzie et al, 2004; Mutajwaa and
Rwelamila, 2007). To this end, a working definition for MHBP is
provided so that the characteristics of these projects can be
incorporated into the subsequent design of the research
methodology.
3.3 DEFINING MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS
While the use of the term MHBPs is widely entrenched in the
construction industry, extensive review of the literature revealed
no comprehensive definition. Typically, the term is used in the
construction industry to describe mass production techniques of
housing development projects (see for instance Ashley, 1980;
Dhaneskar, 2000; EL-Rayes, 2003). The tracking of this definition,
which has been used by numerous reseachers to date is derived
from the manufacturing sector. This definition however fails to
explicitly highlight such characteristics as the project
environment; site conditions including topography; the weather;
bulky materials; design consideration (see for instance Burgess
and White, 1979: Proverbs, 1998).
In the quest for a definition encapsulating the true characteristics
of the construction industry it is proposed that MHBPs should be
70
defined for the purpose of the research as “the design and
construction of speculative standardised multiple house-units
usually in the same location and at executed within the same
project scheme” (Ahadzie et al, 2006a). Such house-units could
include: terrace, multi-storey or tower blocks, maisonettes, semi-
detached, and/or detached residences or any combination of them.
This definition acknowledges the key concept of repetitive
techniques in the production methods and also recognises the
perculiar characteristics of the construction industry (Ahadzie et
al, 2006c). For the purposes of this study four main points are
worth noting in regard to the definition of MHBPs:
• They must be based on one or more standardized designs in
the sense that the architectural design of all phases must be
largely identical for the house-units. This is necessary to
ensure the concept of repetition is met;
• They should involve the construction of domestic residences
(whatever their form).
• They must be speculative in the sense that the acquisition of
land, design of house-units and construction are made
without reference to any specific customer in mind;
71
• They should as much as possible be located in the same area
and be part of the same scheme or contract conditions.
By adopting this definition, it is also possible to distinguish MHBPs
from other recently developed analogous terms such as custom-
made housing projects (CMHPs) (which are often built to the
specification of the purchaser) (see for instance Iwasshita, 2001)
and mass custom designs (MCDs), which albeit mass produced are
not strictly speculative (see for instance Noguchi et al, 2005).
Basic experience or learning curve theory suggests that each time
the number of repetition doubles the cumulative production rate
(manhour per unit) declines by a consistent fixed percentage of the
previous cumulative production rate (Scwartzkopf (1995; Couto
and Teixeria, 2005). When this theory was replicated in the
construction industry using 45 identical house-units, it was
confirmed that each time the house-units doubled the cumulative
production rate improved by 90% (United Nations, 1965). This
suggests that a minimum of two house-units is sufficient to achieve
learning curve effect arising out of the repetition involved in
MHBPs.
This not withstanding, the United Nations Economic Commission
for Africa had suggested that for developing countries (particularly
those south of the Sahara) to meet their present and future
housing needs, they should aim at an annual production rate of 10
72
house-units per 1000 population (Edmonds and Miles, 1984).
Drawing on this and also considering the realities of the economic
situation in most developing countries, the threshold for the
minimum quantity of house units is fixed at an average of 10
house-units per year in this study.
3.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS HOUSE
BUILDING PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
MHBPs differ in many ways from the traditional one-off projects
often encountered in the construction industry. For instance,
MHBPs by their nature must be based on standardised design;
there is the need to identify the stages in production at which
control is to be exerted; there is the need for production time
between stages including delivery schedule of house-units (see for
instance Burgess and White, 1979; Muhleman et al, 1992).
Generally because of their unique nature, the setting up of the
production system involves two associated problems; the
minimising of synchronizing loss and the maximizing of resource
utilization (Muhleman et al, 1992). Moreover, depending on the
quantity of house-units involved, these projects are often relatively
large-scale and can stretch over a considerable production area.
This coupled with the numerous interrelated skills involved makes
the management of these projects inherently more difficult to
manage than many one-off traditional projects (Mahdi, 2004).
73
Typically, MHBPs have become the natural choice for meeting
large housing and speculative needs because they can lead to
mass-scale delivery of house-units within the shortest possible
time when well-managed (see Youngha Cho, 2003, Roy et al,
2003). However, the key to achieving project management
success is for PMs to have the requisite knowledge and skills that
enhance management intuition in repetitive construction planning
(see Ashley, 1980; Dhaneskar, 2000; Mahdi, 2004: Yang and
Chang, 2005). Management intuition in repetitive techniques as
used here means that the PM should be able to introduce planning
and scheduling models that:
• Will maintain continuous flow of work for all idenfiable
labour involved in repetitive tasks.
• Will ensure the continuous flow of all resources including
their allocation and levelling
• Will achieve time and cost efficiencies by appropriate
balancing of labour through the opportunity of experience
and learning curve effects on production.
Acknowledging the restrictions imposed by traditional
programming methods in treating this type of project, specific
methods for repetitive construction have been suggested for the
74
last 30 years (Couto, 1998; Teixeira and Couto, 2002a Couto and
Teixeira, 2005) (see also Gates and Scarpa, 1972; Thomas and
Mathew, 1985 Tam et al, 2002; Mahdi, 2004). These management
tools were first based on the line of balance technique (LOB) with
a constant production rate, but subsequently several modifications
including computer modelling have been developed. However,
while these quantitative tools are useful additions, poor
management (including the lack of work preparation or
insufficient knowledge and skills on the part of PM) may introduce
delays leading to frustration and demotivation of workers, which in
turn is reflected in poor performance (Couto and Teixeria, 2005).
In many developing countries the project environment is unstable
and characterised by rapidly changing markets, funding sources
are regularly shifting, government policy multiply and the business
environment is frequently changing (Faniran et al, 2000; Ayirebi-
Dansoh, 2005). In the face of these challenges, PMs engaged on
MHBPs are also expected to demonstrate reasonable skills
towards effectively managing the effects of these unique
chararacteristics. Thus, as noted by Al-Mhomani, (2000) in the
implementation and management of MHBPs PMs would be
expected to put in place appropriate management practices that
would ensure:
• The most efficient and economical method of carrying out
the work consistent with the available resources;
75
• A continous productive work for all the operatives employed
and reduce unproductive time to a minimum;
• Effective site orgnization and control of all the works by
prior examination of all aspects and by early consideration of
possible difficulties, ensure smooth and continous progress
at site;
• Accurate information relating to material delivery, the build
up of labour force, daily or weekly financial expenditure on
labour, and
• A simple and rapid method of measuring the progress that
has been made and evaluation of work progress.
Note that, while in developed economies, many problems
associated with these skills can be swiftly solved because of the
efficient communication system and human resources
development base, in many developing countries this is not that
possible. Subsequently, the PM has to put in extra work so that
unecessary and inefficient practices can be avoided. Thus, in the
context of developing countries, PMs are faced with providing the
appropriate management structure consistent with available
resources to support the economies of large-volume work that help
achieve improved performance levels in the midst of these
76
difficulties (see Enhassi, 1997). Thus, identification of the
appropriate performance measures will help to focus both
potential and experienced PMs on those important management
skills that can help address some of these challenges. Using Ghana
as a case study it is intended to make a contribution towards
achieving this.
3.5 INTRODUCING THE STUDY AREA: THE
CONTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN GHANA
Having introduced a review of HRM literature including a
justification of the research in the context of developing countries,
this section further underpins the literature by introducing HRM
practices in the study area, Ghana. Specifically, the aim is to
demonstrate the convergence of the construction climate in Ghana
to the wider conditions pertaining in many other developing
countries and also to explain how recent developments in PM
practices in MHBPs makes it appropriate for Ghana to be adopted
as a case study. A synthesis of the geographical and economic
profile of Ghana is first provided followed by the socio-economic
importance of the construction industry, particularly, the housing
sector. Thereafter, a chronology of the evolution of HRM practices
in MHBPs is discussed especially the contribution of PMs. This is
then followed by a thorough critique of the criteria for assessing
the performance of PMs including a discussion of how this
converges with the weaknesses already identified in the wider
77
context. Drawing on the recent efforts in Ghana towards a better
integration and understanding of the performance of PM in
MHBPs, the way forward is therefore introduced.
3.5.1 The Geographical Location and Economic Profile

of Ghana
Ghana is located on the West coast of Africa - Gulf of Guinea- only
a few degrees north of the Equator (Figure 3.1). It has a land area
of approximately 238,537 square Km and population of over 20
million (Birmingham et al, 1966; GLSS, 1995). The borders of
Ghana are surrounded by Togo to the immediate right, Burkina
Faso to the immediate top and the Ivory Coast to the immediate
left. Furthermore, it is important to mention the strategic position
of Nigeria which is a major economic player in the region (see
figure 3.1).
Indeed, Nigeria and Ghana share much more in common than their
immediate neighbours by virtue of being members of the
commonwealth. Accordingly the construction environment in both
countries is similar to what pertains in most commonwealth
nations. While this geographical location places Ghana among
Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, the socio-economic
conditions are typical of what pertains in many other developing
countries in South- East Asia, and North and South America (see
for instance Edmond and Miles, 1984: Lopes et al, 1998). For
instance, in Ghana some of the typical challenges faced by the
78
construction industry are linked to excessive bureaucratic
conditions, a weak materials supply base, financial uncertainties,
an unregulated labour market and poor management practices
(Amoa-Mensah, 2002). Furthermore, infrastructure such as
transportation networks, telecommunication and power supply
systems are not fully developed. These challenges which stems
from the weak technological, economic and structural conditions
prevailing have also been found to also exist in many other
developing countries ((see for instance Ofori, 1994; Faniran, et al,
2000). Thus, the geographical position of Ghana notwithstanding,
the construction industry in Ghana is influenced by many problems
and challenges common in many other developing countries.
79
Ghana
Nigeria
Figure 3.1: Map of Africa showing the position of Ghana.
Source: www.Ghanaweb.com (2007)
Internally, Ghana is divided into ten regional administrative areas
with the capital, Accra, located near the south close to the sea,
(the Gulf of Guinea) (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). By World Bank
standards, Ghana is listed amongst low- income economies with
GDP growth of 4.5%, and GNP per capita of around US$ 300 (see
African Development Indicators, 2004). However, notwithstanding
the low-income status, the construction industry’s contribution to
80
the GDP relatively conforms to what is significantly typical in many
developing countries (see for instance, Lopes et al, 2000: Zawdie
and Langford, 2000).
Thus, like most economies, the industry does not only provide a
structural base to the economy but also determines the
productivity of investment and accordingly the rate of
development (see for instance Sorguc, 1994 cited in Kuruoglu and
Ergen 2000). However, typical of many developing countries, the
resultant economic growth is skewed and strongly concentrated in
the capital city, Accra and its nearest peripheries (Ghana Living
Standard survey, 1995; Adjei-Laryea, 2000).
As a result, available estimates indicate that the urban population
in the Greater Accra region region (Figure 3.2) is growing in
excess of 4.3% per annum as compared to about 3% for the
national average (Laryea-Adjei, 2000). The implication is that,
business activities including construction activities are strongly
concentrated in the Greater Accra Region.
81
Figure 3.2: Map of Ghana showing the Greater Accra region and
the second largest city, Kumasi
Source: www.Ghanaweb.com (2006)
82
3.5.2 The Institutional Profile and Significance of the

Construction Industry
This section provides an insight into the institutional profile
(section 3.5.2.1) and the significance of the Ghanaian construction
industry (3.5.2.2)
3.5.2.1 The institutional profile
The institutional profile in terms of procurement routes, tendering
procedures and contract administration in the Ghanaian
construction industry is well studied and documented (see for
instance Edmonds and Miles, 1984). The problems and challenges
facing the industry are also well known (see for instance Ofori,
1980; 1990; 1993). As in many commonwealth countries, the
Ghanaian construction industry derives its practice from the
British construction industry. Consequently, a key feature of the
Ghanaian construction environment is the separation between
design and construction. Furthermore, the professionals tend to
operate independently and often owe allegiance to their respective
professional bodies namely, Ghana Institution of Architects (GIA),
Ghana Institution of Engineers (GhIE), and Ghana Institution of
Surveyors (GIS). Thus, the seemingly adversarial tendencies
believed to be traditionally associated with the construction
industry (Masterman, 1992), is also very reminiscent in the
Ghanaian industry (Banini, 1983). The development and
introduction of alternative procurement systems and the
83
subsequent emergence of the project management concept have
also been witnessed in recent years (Ahadzie et al, 2004).
Consequently, many construction organizations now provide
project management consultancy alongside their primary
profession (see ibid). This trend is similar to practices described by
Odusami et al (2003) in Nigeria. Thus, while the traditional
system of managing projects is still popular, the emerging growth
of the project management concept has gradually led to the
expansion of project management divisions within
companies/consultancies offering the traditional professional
practices.
3.5.2.2 The significance of the Ghanaian construction

industry
The Ghanaian construction industry continues to occupy an
important position in the nation’s economy. In the early 1990s, the
contribution of the industry to GDP dropped to a long term low of
about 2.7% (UK Trade and Investment, 2004). However, recent
figures indicate that it has once again appreciated to a significant
level of 4.2% (ibid). The informal sector (i.e. involving self build
houses) has also become very buoyant in recent times as a result
of some relatively modest improvement in the economy and
especially remittances from Ghanaians living abroad (Tipple et al,
1992). However, despite the significant contribution of the
informal sector their activites are largely not documented and this
is typical of observations made by Wells (1999) in many SSA

84
countries (see also Muya et al, 2006). In effect, the actual growth
in the construction industry could be more than the official figure
presented if the informal sector is also well accounted for.
In particular, it is notable to recognise the contribution being
made by property developers in contemporary times who now
account for the largest share of the “formal” housing sector
(Amoa-Mensah, 2003; UK Trade and Investment (2004). In effect,
while there seems to be some decline in public sector and publicly
funded projects, the private sector spurred on by investment in
housing has emerged as a potential hub for growth of the
construction industry. Similarly the sector including project-based
segment appears to have emerged as the largest employer of
human resources (Ghana Living Standards Survey, 1995: Adjei-
Laryea, 2000). This trend is also typical of observations made by
Wells (1999) in many developing countries such as Tanzania and
Kenya.
The significance of the Ghanaian construction industry is also
manifested in the proliferation of building contractors in the
general business environment. Currently, the Ghanaian Ministry
of Works and Housing (MOWH) has over 20,000 “building
contractors” on their registered list, which is relatively large given
the “size” of the economy (Ayisi, 2000). This does not include other
interested groups in the supply chain such as manufacturers,
suppliers and retailers whose contributions are also immense (see
85
for instance Tuuli, 2000). Given that economic growth is largely
skewed towards the capital, more than 60% of the registered
building contractors, particularly the large organisations, tend to
operate officially in the Greater Accra region (Ayisi, 2000). The
second largest city of Ghana, Kumasi accounts for only 12% whilst
the remaining eight regional administrations put together account
for the remaining 30%. Indeed, the nature of the industry is such
that there is a strong incentive for even the firms whose main
operational duties are outside the Greater Accra region to keep
“back-up” offices in the capital so that their potential for attracting
ongoing and future projects can be enhanced (see Ayisi, 2000).
3.5.3 The Housing Sector
As in many developing countries, the provision of housing still
remains one of the most critical socio-economic challenges facing
Ghana (see Tipple et al, 1999; Konadu-Agyeman, 2001). However,
following the current global paradigm shift, the Government of
Ghana (GoG) has withdrawn from direct housing supply to the role
of a facilitator (see UK Trade and Investment, 2004; State of
Nation Address, 2005). The role of a facilitator means the GoG
concentrate on creating the enabling environment for the private
sector to thrive, including assistance with finance where
necessary. Consequently the housing sector of the Ghanaian
construction industry is now characterised by private housing
developers many of which have come together to form the Ghana
86
Real Estate Developers Association (GREDA). GREDA was
established by the Ministry of Works and Housing (MOWH) of
Ghana and the private estate developers in 1988 and is a private
company limited by guarantee (Ashley, 2003). Extrapolation of
data provided by Ashley, (2003) and Amoa-Mensah, (2003)
suggests that between 1989 to date, the GREDA members have
through their own resources successfully completed over 120,000
house-units, which is significant by all standards in Ghana (Amoa-
Mensah, 1999). Given the significant contribution that the GREDA
is making towards housing supply in Ghana, the GoG has recently
recognised their efforts by initiating a financial package to help
stimulate the development of 100,000 house-units into the
Ghanaian market over the next two years (see Budget Statement,
President of Ghana, 2005).
Currently, the membership of the GREDA stands at over 400
(Ashley, 2003). However, as a reflection of the general construction
demography, over 95% of these firms are registered and operate in
the capital city, Accra. Kumasi the second largest city accounts for
only 2.4% whilst the remaining eight regional administrations
account for a mere 2.6%. For this reason, out of over 120,000
house-units completed by the GREDA so far, more than 70% have
been constructed for the Greater Accra region where they seem
able to attract willing buyers (Anokye, 2000; Ashley, 2003).
Moreover, it is evident that most of the GREDA members based in
Greater Accra region are also strongly involved in the 30% of
87
house-units that have been implemented in the other regions of
the country (Anokye, 2000: Ashley, 2003). Thus, while the GREDA
members are mostly based in the capital city, there is an indication
that most of these members are responsible for delivering a
majority of MHBPs in all parts of Ghana.
3.5.4 Evolution of Management Practices in Mass
House Building Projects in Ghana
The earliest MHBPs built in Ghana were implemented in the late
1950s using traditional management practices (Figure 3.3). This
was at a time when the GoG was solely responsible for housing
supply and these projects were mostly implemented by the then
state owned, State Housing Corporation (SHC)6 (Ofori, 1989). The
management of the execution of these projects were undertaken
largely using direct labour as there were no registered contractors
at this time (ibid). Direct labour here suggests the craftsmen
(including labourers) were engaged as full time employees by the
SHC. Given the management approach adopted, the architect as
the team leader was responsible for supervision and management
of the physical construction (Figure 3.3).
Thereafter, the introduction of “registered contractors” in the late
1960s opened the way for multiple contractors to be engaged
6
Following the paradigm shift in housing supply, the State Housing Corporation
has been privitised and is now known as State Housing Company.
88
often on serial contracts and this limited the responsibilities of the
design team to only design and the associated specifications.
Contractors then became responsible for the management of
physical construction by engaging their own labour force (Figure
3.4 below). Unlike the direct labour engagement there was a
contractual relationship between the property developer (i.e. SHC)
and the contractors while the architect played a supervisory role
on behalf of the property developer.
Managing
Director
In-house Design
Team
Quantity Architect as Structural/Servic

Surveyor team leader es Engineer
Clerk of
Works
Direct
Labour
Figure 3.3: Typical organizational structure of MHBPs in the

1950s
Source: Ahadzie et al (2004)
Managing
Director
In-house Design
Team
Quantity Architect as Structural/Servic

Surveyor team leader es Engineer
89
Clerk of Works
Multiple
contractors on
serial contracts
Contractual relationship
Figure 3.4: Typical organizational structure of the SHC involving
the use of multiple contractors on serial contracts
In the late 1970s, the situation changed further when speculative
housing was introduced in the Ghanaian market by some private
and quasi–government organizations. Unlike the SHC, these
private and quasi-organizations did not normally have in-house
design teams, and hence normally appointed “external
consultants” to manage the design aspect of the project on their
behalf (Figure 3.5). These consultants normally comprised the
design team led by the architect and who formed a consortium.
Under the supervision of the consultants, contractors were
appointed to take contractual responsibility for the management of
the physical structure (Figure 3.5). For the next decade this
management approach emerged predominant and has become the
conventional system for housing delivery in Ghana
Client
90
Architect as Quantity Structural Multiple

Team Leader Surveyor Engineer Contractors
Figure 3.5: Typical organizational structure involving external

consultants and multiple contractors
Generally, the literature suggests that the MHBPs that were
executed under the traditional systems described were fraught
with management problems and this might have contributed to
their rampant failures in meeting performance targets (see Ofori,
1989; Amoa-Mensah, 1999). In many instances, contractors were
blamed for the recorded poor performances and were criticised for
having limited knowledge in the application of requisite
management techniques.
3.5.5 Project Management Practices in Mass House
Building Projects in Ghana
Project management as used in this context refers to the scenario
where an individual is appointed besides the design team to take
responsibility for the management of design and contruction of
project from conception to operation. While this practice is still
evolving in developing countries, researchers and practitioners are
convinced that it has the potential to improve the management of
91
construction projects (Abbasi ans Al-Mhamara, 2000; Odusami et
al, 2003).
In Ghana, project management practice in MHBPs was first
introduced by the Social Security and National Insurance Trust
(SSNIT)7 in 1989 (Ahadzie et al, 2004). Hitherto, the SSNIT, a
quasi–governmental organization relied largely on traditional
management practices using external consultants in the
implementation of MHBPs. However, as noted by Ofori (1989) it
was common for most of these projects to often experience time
and cost over-runs of more than 100%. The GoG, the major
stakeholders, and the general public whose contributions were
being used for such investments became alarmed and lost all
confidence in the SSNIT as a housing provider (see ibid). It was
during this trying period that the SSNIT appointed their first PM
on a MHBP in Ghana (Ahadzie et al, 2004)
3.5.6 The Contribution of Project Managers to the
delivery Mass House Building Projects
7
The SSNIT is responsible for managing the social security deductions on
behalf Ghanaian workers. Part of the money deducted were used for these
housing projects as investment on behalf of the contributors
92
The project on which the SSNIT appointed its first PM involved the
construction of 300 single storey-housing units, each of 82m2
internal floor area in the Sakumono area of the Greater Accra
region. The project initiated in 1989 was executed by 12 small-
scale contractors8 who were managed by the PM. Figure 3.6
represents the organizational structure. Following management
interventions provided by the PM, the 12 small-scale contractors
were able to deliver approximately 160 house-units within four
months working to about 40 house-units per contractor for the
year. This rate of delivery was remarkable given that it was the
first in the annals of housebuilding in Ghana to be achieved by
small-scale contractors (Amoa-Mensah, 2002).
Client
Project manager
Designers Services/str
uctural
engineer
Multiple
Contractors
Functional relationships
Key:
Contractual relationships
• Project manager was a professional Q/S with postgraduate
training in construction management
Figure 3.6: Typical organizational structure involving modern day

PM
8
Small-scale contractors are under sole ownership, headed by entrepreuneurs
with limited experience in construction and having other business interest. In
most instance they have been blamed for poor performance on MHBPs built in
the past.
93
As a result of the perceived successful performance of the PM the
client (i.e. the SSNIT) became sufficiently confident to invest in
more houses under the same management. Subsequently 1637
house units were built in Sakumono phases 1 and 2, using a total
of 37 small- scale contractors during the three years the project
was implemented. The average cost per completed house-unit was
3.39 million cedis9 as against an initial contract sum of 3.44 million
cedis. This represented an average cost saving per house- unit of
1% at a period when the average annual construction cost
increase in Ghana was estimated at 16% (Amoa-Mensah, 1999:
Osei-Tutu and Adjei-Kumi, 2000). During the first year of
implementation in 1989, each of the small –scale contractors
achieved an average annual performance output of about 78
million cedis on the projects as compared with the 25 million cedis
upper operational limit for their class. This represented a
financial turnover of 3.12 times their upper limit suggesting that
with an appropriate management system, small- scale contractors
can expand their operational capacity to achieve increased
delivery within the available resource base (ibid).
As a result of the successful completion of Sakumono phases 1 and
2, the client demonstrated their satisfaction by commissioning
similar projects under the PM. In Ashongman, also a suburb of the
Greater Accra region, 500 house-units of internal floor area 142m2
9
Cedi is the currency used in Ghana. 1 US$ = about 300 cedis in 1989. At the
time of writing 1 US$ = about 9,000 cedis
94
were executed between 1994 and 1995. The 500 house–units were
delivered within a year with a total of 12 small –scale contractors
at a near zero time and cost over-runs (Amoa- Mensah, 2002).
In the opinion of Amoa-Mensah (1999; 2002; 2003) the PM was
largely responsible for the significant improvement in meeting
performance targets on these MHBPs, which for far too long had
been elusive in the Ghanaian housing industry (see also Ofori,
1989). This led Amoa-Mensah (1996; 2002), to summarise the
achievement as follows:
“This laudable output performance has not only led to higher
efficiency but also proved a case that with meaningful resources
management, the small scale contractor can expand its
performance capacity to achieve increased delivery within the
available resource base.”
Thus, one of the key contribution’s of the PM was the ability to
manage a team of small-scale contractors to successfully deliver
on these MHBPs. These small-scale contractors by Ghanaian
standards are the least organized and often have limited
knowledge in the requisite management principles (Ayisi, 2000).
Subsequently, the PM had to introduce a number of innovative
management principles in tandem with the challenges posed by
the Ghanaian project environment and the specific needs and
95
weaknesses of the contractors (see for instance Ahadzie et al,
2004).
Indeed, the recognition of the perceived positive role of PMs in the
Ghanaian situation has culminated in their successful integration
into the operations of most emerging property developers
including members of the GREDA (Ashley, 2003). Figure 3.7 is a
typical organisational chart of a typical property developer
showing the relation of the PM to other key management
personnel. The functional relationship indicates that while all the
key management personnel report to the managing director, the
PM has the authority to coordinate the activities of the functional
managers including the management of direct labour and/or works
contractors.
Managing
Director
Project
manager
Quantity Services Facilities
Architect
Surveyor Engineer manager
Works
contractor
s
Functional relationship
Figure 3.7: Typical organizational structure for GREDA members
Source: Modified after Ashley (2003)
96
On a typical MHBP, the PM will be fully involved in the decision to
build, help acquire the land including associated feasibilities
studies, identify appropriate procurement routes, supervise and
manage physical construction and provide the necessary advice on
facilities management. Depending on the organizational structure
in place, the architect and quantity surveyor may be in-house or
out-house. The facilities manager (Figure 3.7) may be appointed
earlier or later depending on the size of the company. However,
notwithstanding the form of organizational structure, the role of
the “modern day” PM has become embedded and is now
acknowledged as the most critical factor towards achieving
effective performance in the management of MHBPs (see Amoa-
Mensah, 2002; Ahadzie et al, 2004; 2005a). Presently, most
property developers engage the services of “labour-only-
subcontractors”. These “labour-only-subcontractors”work as team
of “gangs” and offer only labour services on casual basis under the
management of the PM (Figure 3.7). For the purposes of simplicity
these labour-only –subcontractors and/or artisans are referred to
as works contractors in the ensuing discussions throughout the
thesis.
3.5.7 Towards Assessing the Performance of Project
Managers in Mass House Building Projects in Ghana
Typical of the construction industry in many developing countries,
performance measurement of PMs is not an issue that has been
97
given serious consideration in Ghana (see Ahadzie et al, 2004;
2005a; 2005b). Indeed, in Ghana it was also only recently that
Amoa-Mensah, (1999; 2002) provided some evidence of
performance measures in the context of HRM by focussing on the
assessment of the performance of PMs. However the assessment
criteria were limited to the so-called traditional measures of time,
cost and quality. Furthermore, based on the evidence presented in
chapter two (section 2.4.1-2.4.4) of this thesis, it is clear that,
while assessment of the performance of PMs on traditional
measures is potentially useful, it does not provide opportunity for
their continuous professional development as these factors lie
outside their control.
Thus, while the positive contribution of PMs towards the
management of MHBPs in Ghana is acknowledged, the lack of
appropriate criteria amenable to their continuous performance
improvement does not provide sufficient incentives for best
practice improvements in the management of future projects. The
development of relevant performance measures that fits the tenets
of HRM orthodoxy should therefore be explored towards enabling
an understanding of the appropriate skills required. This will help
PMs in Ghana to develop a clear understanding of the key
performance variables that can help them improve their
managerial skills in the implementation of future MHBPs.
98
3.6 THE WAY FORWARD FOR PMs’ PERFOMANCE
MEASURES IN GHANA AND THE RELEVANCE FOR
OTHER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
The foregoing has to a large extent demonstrated that while PMs
are making reasonably positive contribution towards the
management of MHBPs in Ghana, very little has been done
towards sustaining their career development towards best practice
improvement in the management of future projects. Furthermore,
the literature has demonstrated that this weakness is reflected
across the construction industry in many developing countries. It
is argued that given the severe housing situation faced by many
developing countries, PMs operating in developing countries such
as Ghana require potentially robust performance criteria towards
meeting the future challenges ahead.
As shown in chapter two, a competency- based model can be used
to appropriately underpin the performance management and
development functions required in this circumstance. That is, with
the identification and development of the appropriate competency
profiles, PMs who lack the necessary skills may be inspired to
acquire the relevant training for their professional development
while for those who already possess such relevant skills, would be
provided with the impetus for achieving higher performance
levels. Additionaly, identification of these relevant measures will
provide a structured approach for property developers towards
99
making informed and objective judgements in the selection and/or
appointment of appropriately skilled and qualified PMs. In effect,
the development of an effective competency profile and
complimentary management programmes may provide an
opportunity for both corporate and individual growth. Thus, this
research has the potential of encouraging both property
developers and PMs engaged in MHBPs in Ghana and for that
matter many developing countries to appreciate a range of core
competencies that could be useful for their future career
development and/or professional and business competitiveness.
Subsequently, and informed by the research questions set in
introduction to this thesis (chapter, one section, 1.3) this research
intended to construct a predictive performance model through
identification of the behavioural measures that would lead to the
effective performance of PMs in MHBPs. The methodology utilized
in addressing the above questions draws significantly from the
well-acclaimed contextual-task performance framework already
identified in chapter two. The detailed theoretical background of
this framework is described in the next chapter.
3.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter, a review of research and development in the
management of human resources in developing countries,
100
especially in the context of PMs’ performance measures has been
described. The literature revealed that while earlier attempts
suffice to improve HR issues, the focus, (which are largely on
craftsmen productivity) did not sufficiently engender improving
the personal skills of PMs.
It was established that while some limited attempts have been
made towards modelling the PMs potential performance, the
conceptual, methodological and substantive approaches adopted
leave scope not only to construct a more rigorous predictive
performance model but also a model that satisfies the tenets of
contemporary HRMs practices. Consequently it was contended
that given the significance of MHBPs, the development of
appropriate PMs’ performance measures can serve as an
important step for contributing to the research agenda in project
management in developing countries. Subsequently, a working
definition for MHBPs was provided in the context of the study.
Also in this chapter the background of the study area, Ghana was
introduced. The construction industry, in particular, the housing
sector and its associated HRM practices in MHBPs were therefore
illuminated including the methodology for assessing the PMs’
performance. It was noted that the construction environment in
Ghana, in particular the practice of project management in MHBPs
made it potentially relevant to adopt Ghana as a case study for
achieving the research objectives.
101
Subsequently, the chapter concluded by re-emphasising that
competency-based measures might be appropriate for addressing
the key research questions. The next chapter would therefore
detail the developement of an appropriate conceptual model for
this study.
102
Chapter 3 R & D in HRM in developing countries
CHAPTER FOUR
103
CHAPTER FOUR: DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTUAL
MODEL
4.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter now discusses the development of an appropriate
conceptual model for the study. Firstly, the discussion starts with
some basic assumptions about the term “performance” as used in
the research context. This is necessary to help provide a
complete understanding of how the terminology has been applied
in the ensuing theoretical framework, particularly, an aspect that
draws significantly from organisational psychology theory.
Thereafter, the various components of the theoretical framework
are elucidated followed immediately by the development of the
conceptual model.
4.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PERFORMANCE
In chapter two (section 2.1), it was asserted that one of the critical
issues underlying the concept of performance measures is
identifying an appropriate definition for the term “performance”.
Accoridng to Yasamis et al (2002) the term “performance” may be
interpreted to mean different concepts depending on the context
in which it is used. At the “Global” level, the terminology could be
used to represent the results of activities. However, traditionally it
also means an individual and/or system being effective and/or

104
efficient (ibid). What is more, the terminology is now associated
with numerous attributes (such as productivity, quality,
profitability, growth) making it more difficult to relate any better
to its meaning (see McCloy et al, 1994; Yasamis et al, 2002).
Within this research context, because the emphasis is to
investigate the attributes within the control of PMs (i.e. those
dealing with their competencies), here, the key assumption about
the term performance is that, it is appropriate behavioural action
relevant to contributing towards the achievement of the goals of
an organization (Campbell, 1983: McCloy et al, 1994).
Subsequently, it is envisaged that performance should be;
multidimensional; episodic (i.e. spontaneous but enduring)); and
evaluative (Motowidlo et al, 1997). Being multidimensional
suggests that for any specific job, there are a number of
substantive performance variables that are distinguishable in the
way they correlate and co-vary with other variables (McCloy et al,
1994). Alternatively (and as already noted in chapter two), being
multidimensional means that the variables involved are complex
and grouping them together (for the purpose of evaluations)
makes it difficult to isolate their potential effects (Motowidlo et al,
1997).
In being episodic, this suggests that it is possible to identify the
extent to which behavioural competencies are organisationally
desirable or undesirable. Moreover, by considering the
105
contribution of an individual’s behavioural action over a period of
time, it should be possible to scale the degree to which they are
desirable with enough precision to distinguish between them
(ibid). Equally important is the assumption that performance
should be evaluative, and this is critical towards assessing
performance outcomes (Motowidlo and Borman, 1997; Motowidlo
et al, 1997: Liu and Walker, 1998).
Thus, here, the underlying assumptions are that; performance,
behaviour and results are not the same. While behaviour is the
observable things that people do while at work, performance is
behaviour with an evaluative component (ibid). Alternatively,
results are conditions of things that are changed by performance
and subsequently may contribute to or detract from organizational
accomplishments (Motowidlo et al, 1997; Tett et al, 2000).
Figure 4.1 presents a framework that has been designed to
simplify how these assumptions influence each other. This
framework concurs with the contemporary ideology (see chapter
two) that performance measurement of key management
personnel should be conceptualised based on both performance
behaviours and outcomes.
Behavioural Results
PERFORMANCE
Behavioural actions or
episodes
106
Evaluation
(iterative process)
Figure 4.1: Framework capturing key assumptions of job

performance
Source: Adapted from Ahadzie et al (2006b)
That is, the framework acknowledges that performance is not only
a function of the attributes of an individual (PMs in this case) but
also a function of the attributes of the anticipated result. In
addition, performance is depicted as an iterative process in the
sense that, it becomes a learning process for continuous
improvement. These guiding assumptions and the key research
questions (restated below for ease of reference) influenced the
underlying theoretical framework adopted for this study. The key
research questions of the study being:
107
• What should be the appropriate performance framework for
addressing the PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs in
developing countries such as Ghana?
and change as MHBPs progresses throughout the project
lifecycle, how can these be factored into the performance
framework?
• In recognition of the inimitable and relatively difficult
project environment prevailing in developing countries such
as Ghana, what performance profiles are appropriate for
engendering the professional development of PMs at the
various phases of the project lifecycle?
In view of the arguments made in favour of adopting a
methodology that allows a more in-depth investigation of the PMs
performance domain (chapter two, section 2.4), the theoretical
framework underlying the contextual-task typology was used in
developing an appropriate conceptual model.
4.2 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This section discusses the underlying theoretical framework for
the study. The philosophy behind the framework is explained
including the specific details. Apart from drawing on the
108
“organisational theory of job performance”, the theoretical
framework also draws from the “conventional wisdom of success
criteria” (in particular Pinto and Sleven (1988) project success
model) and a “framework for project lifecycle” proposed by Lim
and Mohammed (1999). While the former was derived from
applied psychology literature, the latter two were derived from
project management practice including construction. The
significance of the psychological domain in this framework (see
also chapter two) is reflected in the premise that behavioural
competencies are psychologically motivated (Buss and Larson,
2005; Jha, 2006). Then again, it was also important to incorporate
existing project management practices so that the framework will
address issues that are unique to performance measurement in
mainstream project-based organizations in particular. This
multidisciplinary approach was adopted to help develop a robust
conceptual model, towards addressing the key research questions
including satisfying the basic assumptions of performance.
Thus, while the organizational theory of job performance
addressed the main objective of the research (i.e. in helping to
address the research questions), the conventional wisdom of
project success helped addressed the evaluative aspect of the
basic assumptions underlying performance (i.e. the results or
performance outcome) (see Figure 4.1). On the other hand, the
project lifeycle framework addressed the question of linking the
109
potential performance criteria to the various phases of the project
lifecycle.
4.2.1 Organisational Psychology Theory of Job

Performance
Borman and Motowidlo (1993) posited that in trying to understand
the organisational job performance domain, the elements of the
behavioural competencies involved should be grouped into two
main distinctions: contextual performance behaviours and task
performance behaviours. Borman and Motowidlo (1993) contended
that contextual performance behaviours differ from task
performance behaviours in four major ways (see also Miller and
Werner, 2005):
• Task behaviours contribute either directly or indirectly to the
technical function, alternatively contextual behaviours
support the organizational, social and psychological
environment in which the technical function must operate;
• Task behaviours usually vary between different jobs in the
same organization; alternatively, contextual behaviours are
common to many jobs or all jobs;
• The major source of variation in task behaviours are human
characteristics such as knowledge, skills and abilities that
vary with task proficiency, alternatively, the major source of
110
variation in contextual behaviours is not proficiency but
volition and predisposition; and
• Task behaviours are role-prescribed which incumbents must
execute normally for a reward, alternatively contextual
behaviours are not role-prescribed and thus are normally not
(explicitly) part of incumbents formal responsibilities and
obligations to an organization.
Thus, a prime premise of the contextual–task typology is that
whilst task performance behaviours are job-specific, prescribed
and rewarded, contextual performance behaviours relate to those
discretionary job-related acts which are not formally recognised as
part of the job and therefore not rewarded (Organ and Paine,
1999).
In practical terms, task performance behaviours among others
identifies the demonstratable behaviours associated with
individuals undertaking technical functions such as the
transformation of raw materials into goods and services, operating
a production machine and providing management and
administrative functions. Alternatively, contextual performance
behaviours are personality oriented and are associated with
attributes such as altruism, conscientiousness, initiative,
commitment, dedication, discipline and volunteering to help
others. Thus, in the construction industry for example, task
111
performance behaviours could refer to behaviours and/or habits
exhibited by craftsmen while operating for instance a production
machine, laying of bricks, supply of raw materials and/or
distributing a finished product (Ahadzie et al, 2006a).
Furthermore, at the managerial level, task performance
behaviours could be associated with the demonstratable
behaviours and/or habits exhibited while the PM is performaning
functions such as organising, planning, programming,
coordinating, delegating and controlling (Motowidlo et al, 1997:
Ahadzie et al, 2006).
Conversely, contextual performance behaviours would be the
behavioural competencies exhibited by, for instance, the PM to
ensure that the social and psychological environment within which
the construction projects are being executed is supportive enough
to make the functional activities a success. Thus, incorporating
contextual performance behaviours acknowledges that working in
an organisational setting is different from working alone (Van
Scotter and Motowidlo, 1996).
Further justifications for distinguishing contextual performance
behaviours from task performance behaviours stems from the
earlier assumption that the performance domain is
multidimensional and complex (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993).
That is, there are many kinds of behaviours that can hinder or
advance organisational effectiveness and grouping them together
112
for investigation makes it difficult to effectively isolate and
understand their impact on the managerial performance domain
(Motowidlo and Borman, 1997).
Thus, utimately, the underlying premise for distinguishing task
performance behaviours from contextual performance behaviours
is that, the reason why contextual performance behaviours are
desirable or undesirable in an organization is different from that of
task performance behaviours (Motowidlo et al, 1997). The
presumption then is that, the antecedents of contextual
performance behaviours are likely to be different from the
antecedents of task performance behaviours towards achieving
organisational objectives (ibid). Then again, it is also likely that the
knowledge, skills and habits associated with contextual
performance behaviours would be different from those associated
with task performance behaviours (Motowidlo and Borman, 1997).
To this effect, the contextual-task typology is of potentially
significant value because it is geared towards a fine grained
analysis of managerial behaviour, its effect and measurement
which should be useful for developing a more detailed, specific
and rigorous understanding of training requirements (Tett et al,
2000).
Since Borman and Motowidlo (1993) first hypothesised the
contextual-task distinction, other organizational psychology
researchers such as Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1994), Van
113
Scotter and Motowidlo (1996), Conway (1999) and Scullen et al
(2003) have replicated the concept in various dimensions and
found it to be valid and robust. In particular, Conway (1999) and
Scullen et al (2003) successfully replicated the theory using top
level managers such as PMs and concluded that the contextual-
task typology is particularly relevant to the managerial
performance domain. The reason being that as managers often get
jobs done through subordinates and peers, and it would seem
particularly important that, they (managers) should understand
how uniquely both performance dimensions contribute towards
their performance. Presently, the evidence suggests that
approximately 30% of the managerial performance domain can be
explained by contextual performance behaviours indicating that it
cannot be ignored in performance evaluations (Borman and
Motowidlo, 1993). Conway (1996) also reported thus:
“When a panel of industrial/organizational psychologists were
asked to sort performance dimensions from 14 multitrait
multimethod matrices in applied psychological literature into
contextual and task performance domain, 55% were identified as
task dimension and 30% contextual dimension while there was
disagreement in regard to the remaining 15%.”
Thus, HRM researchers are convinced that the contextual-task
performance distinction is useful for uniquely isolating complex
and multivaried managerial performance dimensions involved in
114
behavioural competencies (Conway, 1999). Indeed, the contention
is that the contextual-task typology is reasonably rigorous as it has
proven to be consistent, reliable and valid across various job
performance levels in the HRM genre (Denison and Mersoon,
2000; Tett et al, 2000; Gellatly and Irving, 2001).
However, while there is reasonable evidence that both contextual
and task performance behaviours make a significantly unique
contribution to the performance outcome, construction
management researchers are yet to give serious consideration to
understanding the PMs performance dimensions from this
perspective. Indeed, in most project-based sectors of the
construction industry, PMs have to deal with a constantly changing
and multi-disciplinary team oriented environment (Loosemore et
al, 2003). This coupled with the the complexity of “modern day”
projects means that the behavioural characteristics of PMs are
likely to be more complex and diverse than in most other
industries (Dainty et al, 2005). Thus, the challenges faced by PMs
in modern day project management might require a well-proven
methodology such as contextual-task typology, which allows an in-
depth investigation of the performance domain. Hopefully, this
should help isolate the relevant core behavioural competencies by
providing a detailed and somewhat specific analysis of the
performance domain under investigation
115
This brings to the fore the need to identify the appropriate
constructs relating to each performance dimension in the
framework. Empirically, there are reasonable evidences to suggest
that task performance behaviours are best predicted by individual
differences in cognitive ability (Campbell, 1993), job-specific
knowledge and skills, task proficiency and experience (Hunter,
1983; Schimts et al 1986; Van scotter and Motowildlo, 1996:
Pickett, 1998; Gelattly and Irving, 2001). Cognitive ability as used
in this sense refers to an individual’s level of intelligence including
the ability to memorise and remember things whislt job knowledge
is a measure of ones knowledge of what is required of a particular
job. McCloy et al (1994) identifies two main types of measures of
job knowledge, namely; declarative knowledge and procedural
knowledge. Declarative knowledge is knowledge of facts and
principles which could be demonstrated by way of cognitive “test”.
Alternatively procedural knowledge is the skill in actually doing
what should be done. Thus, procedural knowledge is a
combination of knowing what to do and being able to do it.
Subsequently, it includes skills such as cognitive, psychomotor,
physical, self-management and interpersonal which are all
behavioural manifest. Whereas task proficiency deals with how
well a task is executed, experience is what individuals learn over a
period of time through, (in particular), informal training or
practice- based work (McCloy et al, 1994; Fraser, 1999; Dullaimi et
al, 1999).
116
In contrast, the evidence also suggests that contextual
performance behaviours could be best predicted by individual
differences in determination, teamwork and allegiance (Borman
and Motowidlo, 1993). However, for managerial jobs, Conway
(1999) suggests that individual differences in job dedication and
interpersonal facilitation are more appropriate constructs for
establishing prediction levels (see also Gellatly and Irving, 2001).
Job dedication is defined as the motivational foundation for job
performance that drives people to act with deliberate intention of
promoting an organisations best interest and includes self-
disciplined behaviours such as following rules, working hard and
taking initiative to solve problems at work (Van Scotter and
Motowidlo, 1996). Alternatively, interpersonal facilitation (as noted
earlier) are those attributes that help maintain the interpersonal
and social context needed to support job effectiveness. These
attributes could be demonstrated as spontenuoeus behaviours
(such as altruism) and also encompasses deliberate acts that
include cooperative, considerate and helpful acts that assist co-
workers’ performance.
4.2.2 Conventional Wisdom in Project Success Criteria
It has already been alluded to in general introduction to the thesis
that, the fundamental premise on which project management is
based is that, the PM is accountable for the success of the project
(Godwin, 1993). Success as defined by Rosenau (1984) is when the
117
project satisfies some externally perceived and/or agreed criteria
(citied in Godwin, 1993). The implication is that any behavioural
competencies identified should be linked to the expected
performance outcome. This is because, ultimately, job performance
consists of deliverable outputs underpinned by appropriate
behaviours (Pierce, 1994). Furthermore, mapping behavioural
measures to the expected results should provide a useful
framework through which behavioural competencies can be
illustrated in a practical way (Brophy and Kiely, 2000). However,
identification of the expected results and for that matter the
performance outcomes is subject to debate in mainstream project
management practice. In particular, there exists confusion
whether the outcome of projects or performance outcome should
be defined in terms of project success or project management
success or both (Lim and Mohammed, 1999; Cooke-Davies 2002).
Equally confusing is the question of who determines the criteria.
In this regard, some researchers have suggested that the four
most important stakeholders to decide the criteria are PMs, top
management, customer-client and team members (Struckenbach,
1997).
These notwisthstanding, what is clear is that, whichever
perspectives one adopts, the output-based measures constituting
performance outcome can only be assessed at the end of project
completion. Furthermore, it has become conventional for the
criteria involved to be almost always linked to the traditional
118
measures of time, cost and quality. The reason why these
measures based on the iron trianlge are so popular is that they are
simple to apply and also largely objective. However, in recent
times, there has been an acknowledgement that limiting the
criteria to these traditional measures excludes the long term
interests of many other project stakeholders (Atkinson, 1999) (see
also chapter two). Subsequently, the perceived wisdom now is to
view success criteria as both measures of the success of the
production system in terms of time, cost and quality and the
benefit to the stakeholders.
In view of this, numerous project management researchers
including Morris and Hough (1987), deWit (1988), Pinto and Slevin
(1988), Wateridge (1998), Turner (1993) and Atkinson (1999) have
developed alternative proposals. While these alternatives
conceptualise the project success criteria against the traditional
measures, there is consensus on the need to include criteria that
satisfy the interests of other stakeholders. Subsequently, new and
emerging criteria such as health and safety, technology transfer,
environmental friendliness, risk containment, client satisfaction,
stakeholder’s satisfaction have become accepted for assessing the
performance outcome.
The framework by Pinto and Slevin’s (1988) has been the driver
behind a number of studies aimed at identifying project success
factors especially because of its detailed background (Atkinson,
119
1999: Lim and Mohammed, 1999; Odusami et al, 2003) (see also
Baccarini, 1999). The framework (i.e. Pinto and Slevin) is based on
the premise that the key factors in the implementation of
successful projects incorporate three criteria: technical validity,
organisational validity and organisational effectiveness. Technical
validity is the first hurdle in the success criteria and this is
assessed in the context of whether the project after completion
performs as it was intended to work (i.e. an issue of functionality
crops in here). Alternatively, organisational validity is based on the
premise that a project must be “right” or acceptable for the clients
for whom it is intended. An important condition about
organisational effectiveness is that the PM must be involved in
making sure that the “right” project is delivered to the client
and/or user (Pinto and Slevin, 1988). Thus organisational
effectiveness is how well the acceptance of the project impacts
positively on the user.
A key implication of the three measures of implementation of
success (identified above) is that success criteria are equally
important both inside and outside the project organisation (Pinto
and Slevin, 1988). Subsequently, Pinto and Slevin (1988) used
these three measures of implementation of success to develop a 6-
factor model reflecting the constructs time, cost, performance (i.e.
in respect of quality), satisfaction, usage, and effectiveness (Figure
4.2). Notice that in proposing these constructs, success was
centred around two main themes; the project and the client. The
120
argument here is that in a typical project, the project must be
technically correct and functional. Alternatively, the assessment of
success relates to the impact of the project upon its intended user,
the clients.
Time Use
Project Succ Client Satisfactio

Cost
ess n
Performan
ce Effectiven
Figure 4.2: Model for Project Success
Source: Adapted from Pinto and Slevin (1988)
Givent the recognition earlier that MHBPs are unique from the
many one-off projects often encountered in the construction
industry (see chapter three), it was necessary to develop
appropriate success criteria towards determining the appropriate
performance outcome in these projects. Subsequently, using the
conventional success criteria (including the new and emerging

121
ones) as a foundation and, in also drawing on Pinto and Slevin’s
(1988) 6-factor model, a project success framework for MHBPs
was developed as described below.
4.2.3 Developing a Project Success framework for Mass

House Building Projects
Figure 4.5, presents a proposed success framework for MHBPs.
Note that the underlying themes have been identified as: projects
and customers [i.e. drawing from Pinto and Slevin (1988)].
Levels of Key Potential Success

Validity themes Criteria
Overall project cost
Cost of individual house-units
Technical Overall project quality
Quality of individual house-units
Project
Overall project duration
Rate of delivery of individual
house-units
Technology transfer
Overall risk containment
Organisational
Risk containment on individual
house-units
Overall health and safety
measures
Overall environmental impact
Customer
Effectiveness Environmental impact of
individual house-units
Overall
Health and safety on individual
house-units
Figure 4.3: Project Success Framework for MHBPs
Source: Ahadzie et al (2007a)
In MHBPs, the critical issue is for the PM to take advantage of the
repetitive task involved so as to ensure cost and time effectiveness
122
through learning and experience (Mahdi, 2004). Alternatively,
customers (as the potential users) will expect high quality work
that will make a positive impact on their well-being. Thus, whereas
issues relating to technical and organisational validity are critical
in terms of the project and/or product, it is expected that
organizational effectiveness will be influenced largely by customer
satisfaction, quality and other subjective measures. Indeed, Pinto
and Slevin (1988) concur that organisational effectiveness is
assessed subjectively based on a sense of smoother operations and
employee and customer satisfaction.
To this end, 15 potential success criteria were identified for
MHBPs. Table 4.1 presents a definition of the various variables
identified.
Table 4.1: Definition of potential success criteria in MHBPs

Variable Variable Name Definition
CSF 1 Overall project cost Final out-turn cost for overall
project including infrastructure
such as road networks and
streetlighting
CSF 2 Cost of individual house- Final out-turn cost for
individual house-units.
units
CSF 3 Overall project duration Time taken to complete entire
project including provision of
infrastructure such as road
works and streetlighthing
CSF 4 Rate of delivery of Time taken to deliver
individual house-units individual house-units.
CSF 5 Overall project quality Quality of entire project
including associated
infrastructure as seen by
customers and the public
CSF 6 Quality of individual house- Quality of individual house-
units units as seen by the customer
or user
CSF 7 Overall customer Satisfaction of customers with
satisfaction overall project outcomes
including infrastructure
provision
CSF 8 Customer satisfaction on Satisfaction of customers with
individual house-units individual house –units
123
Variable Variable Name Definition

CSF 9 Overall risk containment The extent to which all kinds of
risk were contained or
mimimised
CSF 10 Risk containment on Ditto in relation to individual
individual house-units house-units
CSF 11 Overall environmental Impact of construction waste,
impact environmental degradation and
pollution on the general public
CSF 12 Environmental impact of Impact of living environment
individual house-units waste such rubbish, sewage,
drainage
CSF 13 Overall health and safety Number of accidents and the
measures extent to which employees use
appropriate safety gear and
equipment
CSF 14 Health safety measures Health and safety in terms of
with individual house-units health hazard posed by the
living environment, poor
materials poor construction
practices
CSF 15 Technology transfer The extent to which new
technology significanctly
improves the design and
construction of a living space
by decreasing installed cost,
increasing installed
performance and improving
the construction process is
applied on the project.
Source Ahadzie et al (2007a)
Granted that virtually no systematic studies have been undertaken
on success criteria in MHBPs in developing countries in particular,
the definition of the 15 success criteria was largely influenced by
drawing on mainstream project management literature (e.g.
Morris et al, 2000), and also informed by the notion that in
MHBPs, PMs have to use their knowledge of repetitive techniques
to achieve, for instance, cost and time effectiveness in the
individual house-units (see for instance Ashley, 1980; Dhanekesar,
2000). For instance, in MHBPs the notion exist that, as a result of
the potential effect of the learning curve experience there should
124
normally be, for instance, cost and time savings on house-units
being delivered. This management perspective was interpreted to
mean that on MHBPs there were potentially likely targets to be
met on the specific house-units as well as in the overall project
context. This intuition thus led to the viewpoint of discriminating
between meeting “overall success criteria” (i.e. success in the
larger project context) and “success criteria on individual house-
units.”
Subsequently, it was contended that if property developers
discriminate between the two sets of success criteria or otherwise,
it should provide PMs with the information that will enable them
to channel the appropriate behaviours in respect of for instance,
the degree of detailing and effort required in implementing
relevant management tools such as, for instance, master, detailed
and short term programmes. Interestingly, this discourse is
psychologically supported in the literature. For instance, Tett et al
(2000) contended that the behavioural actions of managers
towards achieving project success, is influenced by the degree and
expected level of results. Subsequently, they argue that behaviours
that might be associated with short term planning where
“detailing” is very important may be different from undertaking
strategic planning where “creativity” is rather more important.
Thus, the behaviours and skills underlying effective short term
planning (attention to detail) are likely to be different from those
contributing to long term planning (creativity). It is therefore
125
anticipated that if PMs were aware of which success dimensions
are deemed more critical in MHBPs, appropriate resources would
be challenged towards acquiring the relevant competencies.
4.2.4 Framework for Project Lifecycle
The project lifecycle framework (Figure 4.4) is a pictorial concept
put forward by Lim and Mohammed (1999). The premise of the
framework is that as a project progresses, there may be a set of
different factors influencing each phase (of the project lifecycle)
towards achieving the overall success criteria. Such factors may
be inherent in proxies such as feasibility studies, marketing
research, data of various kinds, site conditions, weather, and
logistics. In arguing their case, Lim and Mohammed (1999)
identified the following project phases: conceptual, planning,
design, tender, construction and operational as potential divisions
for understanding the concept underlying the framework.
Recently, Pillai et al (2002) have also used similar pictorial
ideology in the context of engineering manufacturing projects.
Subsequently, they developed a mathematical model intending to
link performance measurement across three phases namely,
inception, procurement and execution. While Pillai et al (2002)
used the framework in a significantly different environment, there
is no doubt that their interpretation reinforced the validity of the
ideology in performance measurement.
126
Project phases
Conceptu Planning Design Tender Constructio Operati

al n on
Factors Factors Factors Factors Factors Factors
Figure 4.4: Project lifecycle framework showing how different

factors may influence various phases
Source: After Lim and Mohammed (1999)
More recently Belout and Gavreau (2004) have re-affirmed the
potential validity of this concept in the HRM research genre using
empirical data. Adopting four project phases namely;
conceptualization, planning, execution and completion, they
employed pearsons’ correlation and regression analysis to confirm
that management support and personality related measures
respectively are significantly related to project success at various
phases of the project lifecycle. The relevance of this evidence in
particular is, there is the likelihood that the skills and abilities
required by PMs may differ depending on the project phase of the
127
project lifecycle (see also Ogunlana et al, 2002). Subsequently, it
could be contended that the competency profiles of PMs at the
various phases of a project lifecycle are likely to differ significantly
from one another.
A further implication of the findings of Belout and Gavreaus (2004)
is that, it should be possible to isolate the different behavioural
measures that are significantly related to project success at the
various phases of a project lifecycle. Without doubt, this is very
relevant in the management of MHBPs given that in these
projects, the PM is often engaged from the conception stage
through to the operational phase (Ahadzie et al 2006a). To help
incorporate the PMs’ performance domain in the project lifecycle
here, the six -phase framework suggested by Lim and Mohammed
(1999) is adopted as it gives the opportunity to address the PMs’
performance in a more detailed perspective.
4.3 DEVELOPING A ROBUST COMPETENCY- BASED
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
This section introduces the development of the conceptual model
that underpins the research focus. First to be described is the
conceptual model that reflects the various phases of the project
lifecycle. Thereafter, an abridged conceptual model for the
“construction phase” is presented. The explanation for this
distinction is provided in the course of the discussion.
128
4.3.1 A Competency-Based Conceptual Model for the

Project lifecycle
The strategic position of competency-based measures in
contemporary HRM cannot be overemphasised. The theoretical
framework adopted, in particular, the organizational psychology
theory of job performance provides the basis for developing a
robust competency-based model which can be used to predict the
performance of PMs (Figure 4.5). In conjunction with the
conventional wisdom in the use of project success criteria, the
behavioural measures could be mapped to the performance
outcome. As noted earlier, adopting this perspective emphasises
that behavioural competencies are not only a function of the PM
but also a function of the expected project outcome (Brophy and
Kiely, 2002).
With the contention that behavioural competencies are likely to
develop and change as a project progresses, the model draws on
the project lifecycle framework so that the potential behavioural
performance of PMs can be predicted at the conception, planning,
design, tender, construction and operational phases of the project
lifecycle (see Figure 4.5).
Based on the evidence that individual differences in cognitive
ability, experience, job knowledge and task proficiency best
129
predict task performance behaviours they have been incorporated
as the constructs for each of the project phases identified. Since
task performance behaviours usually vary between different job
descriptions in the same organization, it pre-supposes that it
should be possible to identify the specific competency profiles for
each project phase and thus establish how significantly they are
related. Thus, these constructs when operationalised were to be
used for developing the appropriate independent variables for
each of the project phases already identified.
130
Chapter 4 Development of Conceptual model
Performance behaviours Performanc

.
e outcome
Conception Planning Design Tender Operational
phase Construction phase Overall project
cost, Cost of
Phase Phase Phase individual house-
Phase units, Overall
project quality,
Quality of
individual house-
units, Overall
project duration,
Task Task Task Rate of delivery
Performance of individual
Performance Task Task Performance
Task Behaviours: house-units,
Behaviours: Performance Performance Behaviours: Technology
Performance
Behaviours: Behaviours: transfer, Overall
Behaviours:
risk
Cognitive
containment,
ability Cognitive
Cognitive Risk
Job knowledge ability
ability Cognitive Cognitive Cognitive containment on
Task proficiency, Job knowledge
Job knowledge ability ability ability individual house-
Experience Task proficiency,
Task Job knowledge Job knowledge Job knowledge units, Overall
proficiency Task Experience health and
Task Task
Experience proficiency proficiency, proficiency, Safety measures,
Experience Experience Experience Overall
environmental
Performance of project manager impact,
Environmental
impact of
individual house-
units, Health
and Safety of
Contextual Performance Behaviours: individual house-
Job dedication units, Overall
Interpersonal facilitation customer
satisfaction,
Customer of
individual house-
units
Figure 4.5: Competency-based Conceptual model for the project lifecycle of MHBPs
131
Source: Ahadzie et al (2006a)
132
Since contextual performance behaviours are not job specific but
usually common to many jobs, it follows that, irrespective of the
project phase, the PM will be expected to exhibit the same or
similar types of behavioural competencies across all the phases
(Figure. 4.5).
Thus, contextual performance behaviours might be more amenable
for developing generic competency profiles of PMs. As individual
differences in interpersonal facilitation and job dedication best
predict contextual performance behaviours in managerial
performance, these were adopted as the appropriate constructs.
In effect, the adopted constructs of contextual performance
behaviours represented another set of independent variables.
In respect of the performance outcome, which represents a further
dimension of the overall model, the 15 potential success criteria
developed for MHBPs were used and these represented the
dependent variables (Figure 4.5).
This conceptual model gives opportunity for the variables to be
defined in explicit behavioural terms, portrays the performance
domain as multidimensional and gives the opportunity to
distinguish between potentially generic and specific competency
profiles. Contending that the conceptual model draws significantly
on the well-grounded organisational psychology theory of job
performance, it is potentially robust for identifying appropriate
133
management behaviours that will help encourage more superior
performance throughout the whole lifecycle of MHBPs (Ahadzie,
2006c and 2006d).
4.3.2 An Abridged Competency-Based Conceptual
Model for the Construction Phase
The developed project lifecycle model has the potential for
developing an holistic understanding of the PMs’ performance
domain. However, for the purpose of this study, a decision was
taken for the development of the substantive model to centre on
the “construction phase” (Figure 4.6). This decision was primarily
motivated by resource constraints.
Performance
Outcome
Performance
Construction
Behaviours
Phase
Overall project cost,
Cost of individual house-
units, Overall project
quality, Quality of
Task Performance individual house-units,
Behaviours: Overall project duration,
Rate of delivery of
individual house-units,
Cognitive ability Technology transfer,
Job knowledge Overall risk
Task proficiency containment, Risk
containment on
Project managers’ individual house-units,
performance Overall health and
Safety measures,
Contextual Overall environmental
performance impact, Environmental
impact of individual
behaviours: house-units, Health and
Job dedication Safety of individual
Interpersonal house-units, Overall
customer satisfaction,
Figure 4.6: Abridged version of conceptual model at the

construction phase
134
Source: Ahadzie et al (2006c)
The reasoning for settling on the construction phase is primarily
driven by the fact that, given level of development in the
management of MHBPs in Ghana presently, it is the management
practices going on the construction phase which appears to be of
particular interest to professionals and practitioners. Interestingly
this decision to focus on the construction phase is also supported
using the “person-process-product” concept in project
management practice. According to Dullaimi and Langford (1999),
this three- stage concept is necessary to fully understand in a
wider perspective effective managerial performance in project
management practice. However, in chapter three, it was revealed
that while most researches in MHBPs have in the recent past
focussed on the construction phase, the emphasis has also been on
the “process-product” stages (Okuwogo, 1997: Odenyika and Yusif,
1998; Formoso et al, 2000). Thus, focussing on the construction
phase would help provide the opportunity to address the
convergence as regards the “person-process-product”
relationships, so that a more holistic understanding of effective
project management practice can be developed.
Nevertheless, this model at the construction phase when
developed will be used to assess the potential of developing the
fully completed model in the future for use by practitioners. Hence
in the interim, an abridged competency –based conceptual model
for the construction phase is presented to help clarify the data

135
collection stages of the study (see Figure 4.5). Just like the model
reflecting the various phases of the project lifecycle, the abridged
version purports to measure the PMs’ performance by establishing
the behavioural attributes that best predict performance outcomes
in MHBPs. The constructs of task performance behaviours are
identified as cognitive ability, job knowledge, task proficiency and
experience whilst contextual performance behaviours are
represented by job dedication and interpersonal facilitation. This
conceptual model was used as the basis for selecting the relevant
research methods and instruments as desribed in the subsequent
chapter.
4.4 SUMMARY
Following the literature review, this chapter has treated the
development of an appropriate conceptual model for reinforcing
the future direction of the research. Firstly, some basic
assumptions about the term “performance” were outlined. This
was important to help provide a complete understanding of the
terminology as used in this context. Thereafter the underlying
theoretical frameworks underlying the development of the
conceptual model were discussed. Three main frameworks were
highlighted as critical to addressing the key research questions,
136
namely the organisational psychology theory of job performance,
the convetional wisdom in project success criteria, in particular
Pinto and Sleven’s (1988) framework, and the project lifecycle
framework proposed by Lim and Mohammed (1999).
Given the realisation that MHBPs differ in many ways from the
one-off project often encountered in construction, it was important
to explain further the dependent variables involved, which was
done by developing a project success framework for MHBPs.
Drawing on these framworks a robust competency framework was
then presented. It is argued that the rigour in the conceptual
model lies in its explicit focus in both performance behaviours and
outcomes and also being linked to the project lifecycle.
Subsequently and as a result of resource constraints placed by on
the research, the development of the substantive model will focus
on the construction phase.
Hence an abriged version of the conceptual model for the
construction phase was also presented. The next section now
describes the research methodology adopted for the study.
137
CHAPTER FIVE
CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter now discusses the research methodology adopted for
the study. The research methodology involves the systemic rules
and procedures upon which this research agenda is based and
against which the data collected is interpreted and the findings
evaluated. In the ensuing discussion, the terms epistemology,
methodology and methods as applied in research are first defined.
Thereafter, (and also informed by the conceptual model in chapter
four) the paradigm adopted is described. This is then followed by a
commentary on the choice of the method including the research
instrument design.
The data collection procedure is also described in this chapter.
Subsequently, the relevant information on the potential
respondents, the sampling frame, the sample size and the field
work are presented. The chapter concludes with a commentary on
how the data collected was edited and analysed.
5.1 EPISTEMOLOGY, METHODOLOGY AND METHODS

The lack of an integrated theory of project management is
reflected in its multifaceted and multi-disciplinary nature, and for
this reason, research in project management practice often draws
on a range of theoretical bases from the social and natural
sciences (Soderland, 2004; Smyth and Morris, 2007) This diversity
of theoretical bases makes it quite problematic for reseachers in
project management practice to articulate explicitly the choice of
an appropriate research methodology (ibid). To avoid
“controversial” criticism and doubts about a research, there is
therefore the need for a thorough understanding of the application
of the concepts underlying the epistemological, methodological
and methods reflected in the research (Pollack, 2007; Smyth and
Morris, 2007).
Epistemology is used to define the knowledge through which the
research process is investigated and developed (see Smyth and
Morris, 2007). Alternatively, methodology is enshrined in the
philosophy of the research process (Bailey, 1987; Smyth and
Morris, 2007). Thus, methodology includes the assumptions and
values that becomes the rationale for the research including the
standards or criteria for interpretating data and reaching
conclusions (Bailey, 1987). In contrast, methods refer to the tools
or techniques for undertaking the specific research (Bailey, 1987;
Smyth and Morris, 2007). Figure 5.1 presents a conceptual
interpretation of the application of epistemology, methodology and
methods in a typical research agenda

Philosophical issues of research Paradigms
Epistemological issues of research Research

object
Research methodology Research
Figure 5.1: Applying epistemological, methodology and methods
Source: After Smyth and Morris (2007)
Figure 5.1 demonstrates that the research methodology is
embedded in the epistemological issues, which as shown is also
embedded in the wider philosophical issues of the research.
Together these can be “manipulated” based on the research
context to establish the appropriate paradigms and reseach
methods suitable for the research. In particular, the paradigm
adopted will help in the choice of an appropriate research
methodology (Bailey, 1987).
5.2 CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
The methodological paradigms are first elucidated (5.1.1). The
paradigm adopted for this research is then described (5.1.2).
Subsequently the research methodology adopted is explained.

5.1.1 Methodological Paradigms
According to Pollack (2007), the term paradigm generally refers to
“a commonly shared set of assumptions, values and concepts
within a community, which constitutes a way of viewing reality.” In
particular, paradigms shape the way reseachers perceive the
research methodology adopted and the techniques to be used
(Pollack, 2007; Smyth and Morris, 2007). Subsequently for this
purpose paradigm is defined as:
“a research perspetive or view (a school of thought) that holds
views about what research goals and methods are appropriate
(how research should be conducted) and has its own values and
assumptions.” (Bailey, 1987)
Two main research paradigms are in popular use especially in
social science related research such as this type (Bailey, 1987).
These are: positivism which assumes that social phenomenon
obeys natural laws and can be subjected to quantitative logic and
interpretivism which argues that social phenomenon does not obey
natural laws but is interpreted based on peoples’ conviction and/or
understanding of the realism surrounding the phenomenon (Bailey,
1987; Walliman, 2003). In practice the difference between the two
traditions is inflenced by the ontological, epistemological and
axiological assumptions underlying the research (Keraminiyage et
al, 2005) (Figure 5.2 below).

Realism Ontology Idealism
Positivism
OBJECTIVE
Epistemolog
Axiology
y
Interpretivi
sm
Figure 5.2: Dimensions of Research Philosophy
Source: Adopted from Pathirage (2005)
As noted earlier the epistemological question drives the
relationship between the researcher and the subject under
invesgiation. In addition, it provides the knowledge base that the
researcher can use to investigate the relationship under
consideration (Liyarange et al, 2005). Thus, depending on the
epistemological positioning adopted by the researcher, positivism
or interpretivism would prevail as more suitable (Figure 5.2). The
ontological assumption deals with the nature of reality (Johnson
and Duberly, 2000) or idealism (Gummesson, 1991) influencing the
phenomenon. Whereas realists view the research reality with a
pre-determined structure, idealists adopt the view that different

observers may have different perceptions (Pathirage et al, 2005).
Alternatively, axiology deals with whether the research philosophy
surrounding the reality is “value free” or “value driven”. In value
free research, the choice of what to study or how the study can be
examined by objective criteria whilst value laden is driven by
subjective criteria (see for instance Easterby-Smith et al (2003)
cited in Pathirage et al, (2005).
Table 5.1 provides further constrasting implications of the choice
between positivism and interpretivism. Whereas in positivism, the
observer or unit of analysis is often not part of what is being
investiged, in interpretivism, the observer has to be part of the
research process. Similarly whereas in positivism, human interest
is largely irrelevant because it is not the main subject under
investigation, in interpretivism human interest is the main driver
of the science. Furthermore with regard to positivism, the
concepts need to be operationalised so that they can be measured,
however with regard to interpretivism, the stakeholder interest
has to be incorporated. Above all, while positivism may require
relatively large sample size to draw statistical conclusions, with
regard to interpretivism the concentration is normally on small
samples to help develop theoretical abstraction.
Table 5.1: Contrasting implicatons of positivism and

interpretivism
Positivism Interpretivism
The observer Must be independent Is part of of what is
being observed
Human interests Should be irrelevant Are the main drivers of
the science
Explanations Must demonstrate Aim to increase general
causality understanding of the
situation
Research progress Hypothesis Gathering rich data from
which ideas are induced
through
Concepts Need to be Should incorporate
operationalised so that stakeholder perspectives
they can be measured
Unit of analysis Should be reduced to May include the
simplest terms complexity of whole
situations
Generalisation through Statistical probability Theoretical abstraction
Samples required Large number selected Small numbers of cases
randomly chosen for specific
reasons
Source: After Keraminiyage (2005)
In project management practice, the terms “soft” and “hard”
paradigms are often associated with these two entrenched
traditions (see Pollack, 2007; Smyth and Morris (2007). The hard
paradigm is associated with positivist epistemology, deductive
reasoning, quantitative or reduction techniques and attributes
which are often associated with rigour and objectivity.
Alternativly, the soft paradigm is commonly qualitative and
emphasises subjective relevance rather than objectivity (ibid).
Subsequently, project management research practice based on the
hard paradigm tends to emphasise efficient, expert-led delivery,
control against predetermined goals and interest underlying
problem solving while the soft paradigm emphasises learning,
participation, the facilitated exploration of projects, and typically
demonstrates an interest in underlying social process or structure
(Pollack, 2007). Figure 5.3 is used to explain the theoretical and

practical differences between the two paradigms as perceived in
project management practice.
Hard Soft
Postivist/re Intrepretivi
Theory alist sm
Problem Problem
solving structuring
Practice
Figure 5.3: The hard and soft paradigm in theory and practice
Souce: Pollack (2007)
The main criticism against the use of the hard paradigm in project
management research is that it is based on the “Humean Law of
causality” (i.e. linear thinking) when the discipline is in fact open-
ended and requires lateral thinking (Smyth and Morris, 2007).
Equally, a major criticism against the soft paradigm (which leans
towards lateral thinking) is that because the reseacher is often an
integral part of the research instrument, the question of
“reliability” especially, should someone else decide to replicate the
study becomes difficult (see for instance Openhiem 1992).

Presently, the evidence suggests that the hard paradigm has
become entrenched in many aspects of project management
research, albeit it must be said that, in practice these paradigms
are not mutually exclusive. As a matter of fact, many reseachers
nowadays use parts of both approaches (i.e. by taking advantage
of the strength of each), and the difference lies in the degree of
emphasis. In this research, time and financial constraints would
not allow both paradigms to be explored and so the paradigm,
which was considered most reasonable in satisfying the tenets of
the research agenda was chosen.
5.1.2 The Research Paradigm Adopted
The research phenomenon under consideration and the key
research questions influence the type of paradigm that has to be
adopted (Remenyi et al, 1998: Pollack, 2007). The conceptual
model is also strategic in deciding which paradigm to follow (Miles
and Huberman, 1994). Moreover, the conceptual model also
forces the researcher to be rational and systematic about the
constructs and variables to be included in the research instrument.
In chapter two (section 2.4), it was noted that human behaviour
albeit complex is relatively enduring and stable over time.
Subsequently, although researchers recognise the complexity
involved in measuring behavioural competencies, there is still a
general consensus that by considering the contribution of an
individual’s behavioural action over a period of time, it should be

possible to scale the degree to which they are desirable with
enough precision to distinguish between them (see e.g. Motowidlo
et al, 1997; Gellatly and Irving, 20001, Larson, and Buss, 2005).
Indeed McCloy (1994) buttresses this view by arguing that despite
many criticisms that quantitative logic or modelling might
sometimes be unreliable and also vulnerable to numerous sources
of distortion in measuring human behaviour, they remain
reasonably valid and reliable for predicting human peformance
(see also Borman, 1978; Murphy et al, 1982; McCloy et al, 1994;
Borman et al, 1995). That is, while the method of collecting data
might differ depending on research focus and resources available,
virtually all studies the researcher has come across in mainstream
HRM puplications including project management practice have
been largely subjected to quantitative analysis.
Thus, notwithstanding any potential limitations of quantitative
logic in estimating behavioural measures, there is reasonable
evidence to suggest that it has over the years stood the test of
time and might therefore be appropriate for this research agenda
as well. Therefore and also for the purposes of establishing
methodological validity for the type of research being undertaken,
the hard paradigm was adopted. The usefulness in adopting the
hard paradigm in this study is that it should make it possible to
establish the convergent and discriminant validity of the study in
relation to the relevant literature. As a result, by adopting the hard

paradigm, it should reasonably be possible for the study to be
replicated with relative ease if necessary.
5.2 THE RESEARCH METHOD
In principle, there are many research methods (instruments) for
satisfying various research needs (Wilkinson and Birmingham,
2003). The irony is that while there are indeed many research
methods, there is no option per excellence (ibid). Nevertheless,
some instruments are better suited for tackling specific issues
than others. In good research, the contention is that the choice
should be appropriate, reasonable and explicit (Denscombe, 2003).
Ignoring these fundamentals can lead to very poor research. Above
all, this may open the research findings to criticisms and doubt
(Denscombe, 2003).
By adopting positivism as the paradigm underpinning this study,
the epistemological, ontological and axiological assumptions
dictated that either; case studies, surveys and experiments would
be most ideal as the research method (Figure 5.4). However,
experiments would not be an appropriate choice because they are
carried out usually in a laboratory setting where the investiagator
can manipulate behaviour directly, precisely and systematically
(Yin, 2003). Thus, in view of the nature of investigation associated
with this research, experiment was discounted as an appropriate
option. In surveys, samples are examined through questionnaires

while case studies involve an empirical enquiry that investagates a
contemporary occurrence within a real life context (Yin, 2003).
Realism Ontology Idealism
Positivism
OBJECTIVE
Axiology
Experiment
Survey
Epistemolo
Case study
Action research
gy
Ethnogra
phy
Interpretivi
sm
Figure 5.4: Influence of Research Philosophy on the choice of
research instruments
Source: After Pathirage (2005)
In order to choose between these two research methods, (i.e. case
studies and surveys), the research questions were also drawn upon
by referring to the framework in Table 5.2. This framework
provides the potential of matching research questions to the
choice of potential research instruments. The key research
questions involved in the sudy suggested that either surveys or
case studies could have been suitable as the research method.

However, the theoretical basis of this study involved collecting
data to draw deductive conlcusions and this would have been
practically unjustifiable given that the case study approach is more
amenable for establishing inductive reasoning or theory building.
In view of this a survey technique was chosen as the most
appropriate research method. The survey instrument comprises
the postal questionnaire survey used in evaluating aspects of the
output of the results or the validation exercises and this is
described in section 5.3.6.
Table 5.2: Cross-categorisation and matching of research

question type and research strategy.
Strategy Type of Research Is control of Is there focus on
Question behaviour contemporary
required? events?
Experiment How? , why? Yes Yes
Survey Who? , What? , No Yes
Where? , How
Many? , How
much?
Archival Analysis Who? , What? , No Yes/No
Where? , How
Many? , How
much?
History How? , Why? No No
Case study How?, Why? No Yes
What?
Source: After, Bailey, 2005 and Chinyio, (1999)
5.2.1 Presenting the Survey Instrument
This introductory section presents an overview of the survey
instrument. Full details are given in section 5.2.2 (see also
Appendix 4). Drawing on the constructs identified in the
conceptual model (i.e. Figure 4.4), the appropriate dependent and

independent variables for the survey instrument were
operationalised. Table 5.3 presents the details of the operational
measures involved including the rationale and how they were to be
analysed once the data had been collected. Before
operationalising the key constructs, an extensive review of the
taxonomy of generic managerial skills in the HRM genre including
construction was undertaken (see Appendices 1, 2 and 3). The aim
was to help identify, in particular, the key human skills that are
useful for operationalising the performance of PMs in a study like
this. This was to make sure that all the necessary behavioural
skills had been captured towards making the operational measures
rigorous. Appendices 1, 2 and 3 provide details of the common
human skills.
The principal concept that influenced the design of the operational
measures was that they should either directly or indirectly be
associated with behaviours that largely reflect management
intuition in repetitive planning and construction techniques.
Management intuition in repetitive construction planning as used
in this sense means that in MHBPs the PM is expected to introduce
planning and scheduling model that will:
• Maintain continuous flow of work for all identifiable crew
involved in the repetitive task involved in MHBPs

• Ensure continuous flow of all resources including their
allocation and levelling, and
• Allow time and cost efficiencies by appropriate balancing of
crew through the opportunity of experience and learning
curves effects on production
Thus, in MHBPs the onus is on the PM to evaluate all these
feasible trade-offs in order to select a management plan that
strikes an optimal balance between minimising the project cost
and time and maximizing crew work continuity (Hyari and El-
Rayes. 2005). As much as possible the operational measures were
designed to capture this intention, by where necessary, drawing
the respondents’ attention to the significance of repetitive
planning techniques in the wording of the questions.
Robbins (1998) has noted that one of the key issues in addressing
the performance measurement is to establish the person who is to
determine the criteria for evaluation. In this vain, Strunkenbach
(1987) who is in agreement with Robbins (1989) suggests that in
project management practice, the important stakeholders who
could be considered for determining the criteria are the PM,
project-team members, “top management” and the customer.
Conversely, some reseachers argue that customers are often likely
to focus on outturn performance rather input based measures and
can therefore not be relied upon very much for developing

competencies measures. (cf. Dainty et al, 2003). Indeed, given that
a key objective of this study was towards improving the
competencies of PMs, one could argue that the unit of analysis
should have been the PMs who could provide reasonable
information on what is best suited for their own professional
development (cf. Robbins, 1989). Alternatively, a potentially
plausible approach might have been to use the 360 degrees or
interrater assessment of managerial performance, as this would
have helped in developing the competencies from a broader
perspective (Harris and Schaubroek 1988; Robbins, 1989).
However, (and as already mentioned in the general introduction),
the main motivation here was to help provide potential and
aspiring PMs a clear understanding of what their superiors herein
referred to as managing directors (MDs) expect of them in terms
of the appropriate competencies. Indeed Brown and Adams (2000)
have implied that the whole essence of project management
practice is for the PM to deliver the project to meet the objective
of the primary stakeholder whose financial investment is at risk in
the business venture. Pickett (1998) has also noted that; “the
current and future success of an enterprise is a reflection of the
effectiveness of the senior team, their vision and leadership, and
combined knowledge and skills of the organisations workforce.”
This suggests that the identification of the management and
specialist competencies that will enable construction organisations
such those involved in MHBPs to meet the demands of the future

might be assumed to be the key responsibilities of “top managers”
such as senior business executives or MDs whose investments are
often at stake in these economic ventures. Furthermore, by
providing PMs a clearer understanding of what the MDs expect of
them, this would potentially pave the way both parties PMs to
come to an agreement and avoid differences in respect of what
constitutes the determinants of superior managerial practices in
the implementation and management of MHBPs. To this effect,
aspiring PMs who lack the requisite skills expected of them by the
MDs (who are also their potential employers) would hopefully
strive to acquire the relevant skills towards generating an healthy
working environment while for those who possess the necessary
skills, it might give give them the impetus to aim higher towards
satisfying the expectations of property devlopers.
In Ghana, the MDs of housebuilding companies who constitute
members of the Ghana Real Estate Developers Association
(GREDA) are responsible for taking the corporate and projects
decisions affecting their organisation and also employing the
services of PMs (see also section 5.3.1). It was therefore decided
to target these MDs to help elicit the relevant measures that would
help identify and develop the core competencies that align with
their corporate and project objectives. Subsequently, the survey
instrument was designed having in mind what the MDs would
consider important for evaluating the performance of PMs based

on their retrospective judgment of regularly observing the PMs
perform on MHBPs.
5.2.2 The Survey Instrument Design
There are three main parts to the survey instrument plus a
preamble that explains the purpose of the research, the expected
outcome and how the findings are to be disseminated including
feedback to the participants (see Appendix 4) (See also Table 5.3
for details of the various sections involved). For convenience and
simplicity, the preamble is not treated as part of Table 5.3.
However details can be found in Appendix 4. The substantive parts
of the instrument are as follows:
5.2.2.1 Demographic
Aside the preamble, the first part of the survey instrument
contained demographic information related to the classification of
the participants; how long they have been in business; the type of
MHBPs they have implemented over the years; the overall value of
MHBPs executed in the last five years. This background
information was needed in order to establish the potential
credibility of the data.

Given the descriptive nature of the data that was being sought in
this section of the survey instrument, descriptive statistics, (mainly
percentages) were to be used to make meaning out of the data.
Apart from the demographic data, information was also gathered
from the property developers on their perception of the
performance of PMs that they have “recently” engaged on MHBPs
(Appendix 4). This exploratotory information was required to help
give some insight into how the property developers (constituting
the sample) perceive the performance of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana.
Because it was not intended to generalise this information, this
standardised opinion was also analysed using descriptive analysis.
5.2.2.2 Criteria for Performance Outcome (dependent

variables)
The second part of the survey instrument sought to elicit
information on the criteria (i.e. the dependent variables) the
participants considered important for assessing the success of
MHBPs. The 15 potential success criteria identified in the success
framework for MHBPs in chapter four (section 4.2.2) were used for
this purpose (Table 4.1 and Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6).
Having decided on the dependent variables, Likert rating scales
was adopted to help elicit the appropriate ratings. Likert rating
scales are one of the most useful psychometric scaling for
establishing behavioural or attitudinal measures (Carmine and

Irvine, 1988). The conventional five-point rating scale was used as
the evidence suggests that more complex scoring systems possess
no significant advantage (Oppenhiem, 1992) Subsequently, the
dependent variables were to be ranked per their level of
importance by the potential respondents (i.e. managing directors
of property developers who belong to the GREDA) on a five-point
Likert rating scale of 1-5, where 1= not very important, 2= not
important, 3= average, 4= important and 5= very important.
While Likert rating scales are often described as ordinal measures,
they can be assumed as interval measures if the spacing between
them is uniform (Blaikie, 2003). In this sense, statistical tools such
as the t- test and factor analysis could then be used to analyse the
dependent variables so that they could be incorporated into the
development of the substantive model.
5.2.2.3 Contextual performance behaviours (independent

variables)
The third part of the survey instrument sought to elicit information
on the contextual performance behaviours representing the first
dimension of independent variables (Table 5.3). These independent
variables were operationalised from the constructs job dedication
and interpersonal facilitation. A total of 14 independent variables
were operationalised. Six operational measures were identified
under job dedication and eight operational measures were
identified under interpersonal facilitation (Table 5.3). These
contextual performance behaviours were to help elicit the

appropriate behavioural measures that might be important
towards enhancing the necessary social/psychological environment
in which the technical functions relating to MHBPs are
implemented. It is common that in MHBPs, a lot of inter-related
activities might be on-going on simultaneously involving a number
of different gangs or works contractors. The wording of the
questions were designed to mainly address behaviours that PMs
are expected to display out of volition and disposition towards
engendering harmony at the various “multiple” sites.
Subsequently, some of the questions included the PMs’ time
management practices on multiple projects; the PMs’ persistence
in seeing to works being completed according to schedule; ease
with which the the PMs is approachable by works contractors with
their personal problems, the PMs ability to provide effective
solutions to conflict while maintaining good relations.

Chapter 5 Research methodology
Table 5.3: Abridged Version of Operational measures for Research Instrument
Demographic Dependent variables Independent variables
• How long have you been a • Overall project cost Contextual performance behaviours:
member of the Ghana • Cost of individual house-units Job Dedication
Real Estate Developers • Overall project duration • Perseverance in pushing works contractors and/or artisans to achieve overall
Associaton? • Rate of delivery of individual project objectives.
• Please indicate how long house-units • Persistence in pushing works contractors and/or artisans to overcome obstacles.
you have been involved in • Project quality • Dedication to helping works contractors and/or artisans to achieve all programmes
the construction of • Ability to adapt/make the best out of difficulties faced by works contractors and/or
• Quality of individual house-
MHBPs artisans at project sites
units
• Please indicate the overall • Developing a sense of conscientiousness towards works contractors and/or
• Overall Customer satisfaction
value of MHBPs you have artisans.
• Customer satisfaction on
executed in the last 5 • Commitment towards meeting overall project objectives
years individual house-units
• Overall Risk containment Interpersonal Facilitation
• Would you please indicate • Effective time management practices on all project sites.
which of the following • Risk containment on individual
house-units • Providing timely information for works contractors and/or artisans.
types of MHBPs you often
• Overall Environmental impact • Volunteering to help works contractors and/or artisans solve personal problems
undertake?
• Would you please indicate • Environmental impact of • Showing compassion and sensitivity towards problems faced by works contractors
the average number of individual house-units and/or artisans.
(quantity) of house-units • Overall health and safety • Ease with which works contractors and/or artisans are able to approach project
you often undertake in measures manager with their problems.
MHBPs? • Health and safety measures on • Ability to arrive at effective solutions to conflict while maintaining good
individual house-units relationships.
Performanne level: • Technology transfer • Being aggressive on works contractors and/or artisans towards achieving project
objectives.
What is the pereception of the • Being honest with works contractors and/or artisans on their performances.
performance outcome of PMs Task performance behaviours:
you have engaged in MHBPs Cognitive ability
in recent times • Ability to envisage problems on all house-units under construction.
• Ability to provide alternative solution to problems encountered on all house-units
under construction.
• Ability to maintain emotional stability when dealing with problems on all house-
units under construction.
• Ability to recall progress of works on all house-units
Job Knowledge
• Knowledge of appropriate construction technology for repetitive works.
• Knowledge of appropriate cost saving techniques for repetitive construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate labour management techniques for repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate programme for delivering repetitive construction works
• Knowledge of appropriate quality management techniques for repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate progressing techniques for monitoring repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate materials management system for repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate health and safety issues for repetitive construction
works.
• Knowledge of appropriate risk management measures for repetitive construction
works.
• Knowledge of appropriate environmental impact assessment for repetitive
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction
Task proficiency
• Technical quality of scheduling programme for delivering overall house-units.
• Functional quality of scheduling programme for delivering overall house-units.
• Technical quality of scheduling programme for delivering individual house-unit.
• Functional quality of programme for delivering individual house –unit.
• Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual house-
units.
• Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual
house-units.
• Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Functional quality of specifications provided for the construction of overall house-
units.
• Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction of individual
house-units.
• Functional quality of specifications provided for individual house-units.
• Technical quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfaction.
• Functional quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfaction.
• Technical quality of programme for achieving customer satisfaction on individual
house-units.
• Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of individual
house-units.
• Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of
individual house-unit
• Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
overall house-units.
• Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction of
• Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction of
• Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction of
• Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units.
• Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of individual
house-units.
• Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of individual
house-units.
Experience
• Experiences in managing MHBPs.
• No. of years of practice in construction.
• Experiences in achieving success in the management of MHBPs.
• Experiences in managing MHBPs of similar nature.
• Experience in any type of construction project.
• Membership of appropriate professional body.
Just like the dependent variables, these independent variables
were also to be ranked on the five-point Likert rating scale on their
level of importance for predicting the performance of PMs in
MHBPs. However (unlike the dependent variables), these
independent variables were to be analysed directly by
incorporating them into an appropriate regression model.
5.2.2.4 Task performance behaviours (independent

variables)
Task performance behaviours represented another dimension of
the independent variables. Here, theses operational measures
were operationalised from the consructs, cognitive ability, job
knowledge, task proficiency and experience identified. Four
operational measures were identified under cognitive ability, 12
under job knowledge, 28 under task proficiency and six under the
construct, experience (Table 5.3). In effect, a total of 50 variables
were identified to represent this dimension of the independent
variables. Cognitive ability as mentioned already is a measure of
the PMs’ intelligence and how easily they are able to recall and
solve problems. It was anticipated that identification of this
(cognitive) measures may help focus the PMs’ attention on
developing the appropriate mental capacity expected of them by
property developers in MHBPs.

Just like the dependent variables the operational measures in this
section were as much as possible designed to capture the intention
of management intuition in the application of the repetitive
management techniques. Subsequently, in considering the
operational measures for the construct job knowledge for instance,
the key wording repetitive techniques was used as much as
possible hoping that it helped the respondents to reflect on the
concept while responding. Some of the questions thus read “the
PMs job knowledge in appropriate construction technology for
repetitive construction works”, “the PMs knowledge of appropriate
cost saving techniques for repetitive construction works”,
“knowledge of appropriate programme for delivering repetitive
construction works”(see Table 5.3 for further details).
The same argument above applies to the construct task
proficiency which was designed to capture the technical and
functional quality of work programmes for the implementation of
appropriate knowledge and skills. The premise here is that
technical and functional quality associated with a task can be used
to establish the sort of behaviour that goes into executing the task
(see Tett et al, 2000; Ling, 2002). Technical quality is defined as a
measure of the effort that goes into the preparation of the work
programmes whilst functional quality is a measure of how effective
or workable the programme is (see for instance Ling, 2002).

With respect to the construct experience, the idea was that, the
kind of experience a person holds can be used to indirectly predict
what kind of behaviour he/she is likely to exhibit in future. For
instance, Dullaimi and Langford (1999) argued that, the job
environment does influence the type of behavioural skills PMs
acquire for their future development. Subsequently, PMs
associated with particular project experience, are likely to
conceptualise certain kinds of behaviours they have acquired and
are more likely to repeat such behaviours on similar projects.
Thus in this instance, the variables were operationalised to help
establish whether the property developers consider experience
gained working specifically on MHBPs to be more important than
say experience gained on say general construction works.
Similarly, it was important to establish whether experience gained
specifically on MHBPs was considered more important than others
and if that experience influenced the property developers’
judgment of the PMs behavioural performance.
However, it should pointed out here that while there is compelling
evidence to suggest that experience is an important construct for
assessing the the job potential of individuals (see for instance
Ogunlana et al, (2002) particularly in a recruitment and selection
process, here the construct is viewed in terms of its potential
effect on the judgment of property developers in respect to the
PMs performance on the ongoing (i.e. present) job or task and not
as seen on the “labour market” for the purposes of recruitment

exercises. This is explanation is important for the purpose of the
interpretation of the findings in pages 201-204
Given, the potentially complex nature of behavioural measures, a
large number of independent variables were identified for
ensuring that all the possible variables had been accounted for.
This is important for the potential reliability of the measures (see
for instance Hinkle, 1979; Ones and Viswesvaren, 1996).
Reasonable care was taken to ensure that the content of the
operational measures reflected what is typical in HRM practices.
In particular, the theoretical constructs adopted informed the
design of the measures to ensure that they reflected sound
theoretical basis.
5.2.3 Ethical Considerations
According to a dictionary definition, to be ethical is to conform to
accepted professional practices (Webster, 1968 cited in Bailey,
1987). Despite the recognition to adhere to reasonable ethical
practices in research, it is believed that it is only within the last 20
years that a systematic attempt has been made to codify and
clarify these standards in print (Bailey, 1987; Micthell and Jolley,
1988). In conforming to the established trend, the University of
Wolverhampton (UoW) has put in place a rigorous ethical
validation procedure to assist researchers conform to a reasonably

accepted standard. Among others the code designed by the UoW is
to ensure that:
• There is no interference with particpants’ physical and
psychological well-being.
• The research procedure is not likely to be stressful or
distressing
• The research materials are not sensisitive, discriminatory or
inappropriate
• The research design is sufficiently well-grounded so that the
potential participants’ time is not wasted during the data
collection.
The research intruments used for this study were subjected to
UoW ethical research committee. In so doing, the following
parameters in respect of the instrument had to be explained and
justfied where necessary: the rationale for and the expected
outcome of the study; details of methods, materials, designs and
procedures; details of how information would be held and disposed
and details of how the results will be fed back to the participants.
Having addressed and satisfied these criteria in a formal
application, the UoW ethics committee granted permission for the
field work to commence.
5.3.3 Pilot study

Prior to the major survey, a pilot survey was undertaken in Ghana.
The pilot study is a trial run that can help the researcher to
smoothen out the survey instrument to ensure that the
participants in the main survey experienced no diffilcuties in
completing it (Bell, 1996 cited in Moore and Abadi, 2005). The aim
of the pilot study was to test the wording of the questionniare,
identify ambiguous questions, test the intended technique for data
collection and measure the effectiveness of the potential response.
Using purposive sampling techniques, 10 property developers who
are managing directors of their respective companies were
identified from the registered list of the Ghana Real Estate
Developers Association (GREDA) for the pilot study. All 10
property developers who were first contacted by phone on their
willingness to participate in the pilot survey were selected based
on their track record in successfully implementing MHBPs in
Ghana in recent times. This included one property developer
credited to be a pioneer in project management practices in
MHBPs in Ghana (see Ahadzie et al, 2004). It is worth noting that
the 10 participants identified for the pilot study were thereafter
not included in the main survey.
The pilot questionnaires (fully addressed) were sent by e-mail to a
reliable contact person at the Dept of Building Technology, Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), who
made arrangements for delivery and retrieval in person. The

questionnaires were accompanied by a covering letter explaining
the purpose of the pilot study. Subsequently, the respondents were
asked to critically appraise the questions and provide feedback as
to the relevance and sensitivity of the questions, length and time
for completing and suggestions for improvement. Within a period
of three weeks, all 10 completed questionnaires were retrieved by
the contact person and then posted back (by registered mail) to
the UK (taking two weeks for delivery).
The pilot study was a useful excerise, particularly with regard to
gathering information on issues such as average time required to
complete the questionnaire, clarity of ideas and questions asked
and their relevance to the construction industry in Ghana. A
careful scrutiny of the completed questionniare indicated that, the
substantive questions were all answered by the respondents,
suggesting that, the response categories were clearly signposted
to facilitate ease of completion; relevant to the central theme and
potentially interesting. It is interesting to note that when
respondents were asked to make general comments for
improvement, three made suggestions relating the role of the PM
in auditing design and putting in place effective payment systems
for works contractors. These are issues relating to the design and
procurement stage and thus outside the scope of this thesis.
However, it does emphasise the contention of the author that PMs’
performance measures should ultimately be linked to the various
project phases of the project lifecycle. Generally the feedback

was very helpful and suggested that the survey instrument was
likely to work in the manner intended. A preliminary analysis of
the data also gave the opportunity to test the intended technique
for analysing the data and this was quite a useful exercise.
5.3 DATA COLLECTION
This section introduces issues relating to the collection of data and
is grouped into five sub-sections. Section 5.3.1 addresses how the
potential respondents for the main survey were identified. This is
followed by a description of the sampling frame in section 5.3.2.
The method for choosing the appropriate sample size is then
discussed in section 5.3.3. The penultimate section (5.3.4)
comments on the fieldwork whilst the final section (5.3.5) deals
with how the collected data received were edited to prepare them
ready for analysis.
5.3.1 Introducing the Survey Participants
As hinted earleir in section 5.2.1, the potential respondents for the
study were drawn from members of the Ghana Real Estate
Developers Association (GREDA). The primary business of the
GREDA members (as previously indicated) is the construction of
MHBPs for which they are recognised by the Government of
Ghana (GoG). The fact that the GREDA members specialise in the
construction of MHBPs is important viz. the critical incident

concept (CIC) associated with performance evaluations. The CIC is
based on the premise that people who are aware of the aims and
objectives of a job and who observe such jobs frequently enough,
should be able to describe the content and behaviours associated
with the job (Borman, 1978; Latham et al, 1979). Thus, as the
primary property developers in Ghana, the GREDA members
should have a detailed knowledge and understanding of the
sectors domain and procedures and should (based on their
experience) be able to provide realistic evaluations of the jobs and
behaviours relevant to PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs. This
converges with the contention of Borman (1978) who argued that
when people who are suitably experienced in what they do, when
asked to undertake performance evaluations should be in a better
position to provide relatively accurate responses.
5.3.2 The Sampling Frame
The sampling frame was extracted from the registered list of
members kept by the secretariat of the GREDA. The list
categorises the membership into the 10 administrative regions in
Ghana and sums up to a total of 402 members across the country
(see also chapter three). The full address and in a majority of cases
telephone and mobile numbers of members were provided.
In chapter three (sub-section 3.5.2), it was noted that the structure
of the Ghanaian construction industry is significantly skewed

towards the capital city as a result of the concentration of business
activities there. The composition of the GREDA members reflects
this trend with over 95% of them officially registered and based in
the Greater Accra-region) (see for instance Figure 3.2). Kumasi,
the second largest city accounts for only 2.4% of the membership.
The remaining eight regions account for 2.6%. Given the relatively
insignificant size of the membership in the other regions, the
survey was limited to the Greater Accra region. It was intended to
contact the participants by phone where necessary in the course of
the survey. Consequently in establishing the sampling frame, a
decision was also taken to exclude a few members whose
telephone details were not available on the registered list. To this
effect the sampling frame was eventually fixed at 372.
5.3.3 Towards Establishing an Appropriate Sample Size
The random seed number in SPSS was used to draw a random
sample out of the sampling frame established. However before this
was undertaken, it was important to establish the appropriate
sample size needed to be drawn. According to Maisel and Perssel (1996) the
appropriate sample size (n) can be established using the equation:
n = (Z x Standard deviation/confidence interval) 2 …….. (5.1)
Where Z is a constant, which relates to the confidence level
Thus, using the above formula, the appropriate sample size could be determined by
setting the confidence level and interval, obtaining the Z value and estimating the
population standard deviation. The difficulty here is how to establish the standard
deviation especially when the data has yet to be collected. According to Maisel and
Persell (1996), this can normally be estimated from experience based on the proportion
(PROP) currently employed in the population. The PROP is defined as the number of
cases in any given category divided by the total number of cases (Maisel and Persell,
1996). Where there is no experience to draw on, one can consider a worse case
scenario of a PROP of 0.5 (or estimate half way between). Setting the PROP at 0.5 will
give the largest standard error, which in turn will force the researcher to select the
largest possible sample size (see Maisel and Persell, 1996). Furthermore, this will
ensure sufficient precision albeit it may also generate a sample size larger than is
necessary (ibid). Subsequently, the population standard deviation was established thus:
ST. DEV. = square root (PROP x NONPROP) …………………….. (5.2)
Where NONPROP = 1PROP
Thus, ST. DEV. = square root (0.5 x 0.5) = .50
Hence, using the worse case scenario of 0.5 for the PROP, a confidence limit of 95%
and a confidence interval10 of plus or minus 0.1, the appropriate sample size was
obtained from equation (i) thus:
n = (1.96 x 0.50/0.1)2
i.e. n = 96. …………………………………………….. (5.3)
This means that, if a sample size of approximately 96 is obtained
constituting the completed questionnaires, the data would be large
enough for the sampling distribution of the proportion to have a
normal distribution. However, given that it is highly uncommon to
achieve a survey response of 100%, an appropriate sample size
would have to be adopted that would help achieve the target of 96
as far as possible.
Subsequently, drawing on typical response rates to surveys
undertaken in Ghana (see for instance Antwi; 2000; Ayirebi-
Dansoh, 2005; Hammond, 2006), a 50% response rate was
assumed. It was therefore decided to target up to 200 participants
for the survey. Consequently, the random seed number in SPSS
was used to select the 200 participants out of the sampling frame
identified.
10
10% was chosen based on what the researcher thinks is realistically
achievable practically and also with the resources available
5.3.4 Commentary on the Fieldwork in Ghana
The fieldwork commenced in Ghana in the earlier part of June
2006. Bailey (1987) advises that in a study of this nature, the
method used for the main survey should not be significantly
different from the method used in the pilot survey otherwise the
logic of the research method might be defeated. Given that the
method used for the pilot survey proved reliable and successful,
the same method was employed for the main survey. Subsequently,
the survey instruments were (as in the pilot survey) sent by email
to a representative at KNUST for distribution to the intended
recipients. However, prior notification was sent to all participants
regarding the intended purpose of the research and how the
survey instruments were to be delivered and retrieved in Ghana
(Appendix 5). This information was sent by post in the latter part
of April 2006. The main objective was to pre-empt the potential
respondents so that they would mentally and psychologically be
prepared to participate in the survey. Indications are that such
methods can help improve response rates in surveys (Bailey,
1987).
Four weeks after sending the prior notification, the survey
instruments were despatched by email as attachments. A total of
200 fully addressed instruments each with a covering letter were
despatched (see Appendix 4). As in the pilot survey, the instruction
to the representative at the KNUST was that the survey

instruments were to be delivered and retrieved in person. This
decision to distribute and retrieve the questionniares in person
was taken for two reasons; first, to make sure that the survey
instruments got to the intended recipients; secondly, to help
improve the response rate. Indeed, Ayirebi-Dansoh, (2005)
recently used the same method in Ghana and it proved relatively
successful yielding a response rate of approximately 60%.
Accordingly, (and with consultation with the representative) two
graduates from KNUST were contracted to undertake delivery and
retrieval of the research instruments.
Out of the 200 research instruments intended for the survey, only
153 were successfully distributed as a result of poor signposting
(poor directions to some of addresses provided). Above all, it
turned out that some of the potential respondents albeit on the
GREDA list used in drawing the sampling frame had ceased
operations and/or could therefore not be traced. While the
fieldwork was ongoing, a random phone call was made (from the
UK) to some of the respondents to establish progress. Indications
were that the fieldwork was being undertaken per the instructions.
A period of up to four weeks was allowed for the fieldwork and all
completed survey instruments were to be retrieved latest by early
July 2006. After several efforts to help improve the response rate,
especially, especially when the four week period projected had
expired, survey instruments not retrieved by mid July 2006 were
declared non-responsive. Thus, within a six-week period, all survey

instruments retrieved were put together by the representative and
subsequently despatched back (by registered mail) to the UK
(taking three weeks for delivery).
Out of the 153 instruments successfully delivered, 69 completed
questionnaires were successfully retrieved representing a 45%
response rate. Of the 69 completed research instruments, 12 were
retained for validation purposes. Hence, out of the 69 completed
survey instruments retrieved, 57 were actually used in developing
the substantive model, described in chapter six.
While it was initially established that the appropriate sample size
would have to be 96 at 10% confidence interval it is noted that a
smple size of 69 was actually achieived in practice. This is usual in
surveys and is therefore understandable. Nevertheless the 69
responses received represented 45% response rate which compare
reasonably well with that achieved by, for instance, Ayirebi-Dansoh
(2005) in the same condition in recent times. Furthermore, the
response rate achieved was good enough for one to draw
reasonably firm conclusions which are statistically valid. Besides,
the sample size realised did not significantly affect the margin of
error and this is reported in chapter nine (section 9.7) under
limitations of the findings.

5.3.5 Data Entry and Editing
Having taken delivery of the data, a quick visual scan was
undertaken to determine the extent to which the respondents had
followed the instructions. The first impression was that the
respondents had responded reasonably well to the questionnaire.
Thereafter, data entry began by inputting into SPSS for
subsequent analysis. While inputting the data it was observed that
a few sections of the survey instruments were not fully completed.
Chatfield (1995) explains that such minor omissions are normal in
data collection and that this can safely be sorted out by
undertaking data editing. Indeed SPSS can be programmed to
automatically deal with all missing observations or alternatively a
histogram of the variables involved can be plotted and the mean
values used as a replacement (ibid). Thus, data editing is useful for
checking for the existence of errors, missing observations and
anything that is not consistent with the rest of the data (Chatfield,
1995).
Because of the relatively manageable size of data involved, a
manual approach was adopted here by plotting histograms. Thus a
print out of the raw data was carefully scrutinised visually to
establish whether there has been any errors whilst doing the
entries. This visual inspection revealed no inconsistences. Hence
the main problem that had to be dealt with was the missing data.
Consequently, SPSS was used to prepare a histogram of the
variables involved and the average values of the scores calculated.
Examples of these histograms are shown in Appendices 6 - 12.
Taking Appendix 6 for instance, there was one missing data with
regard to the variable “overall risk containment” since the
respondent failed to provide a rating. As shown in appendix 6, the
histogram produced an average score of 4.00, which was used as a
replacement value. Other missing values were treated in the same
way allowing tha data to be made ready for detailed analysis
5.3.6 Questionniare for evaluating aspects of output of

results
To help validate the potential relevance of the recommended
application of the model, which is fully described in chapter eight,
page 225/226, a “one- page” questionnaire was sent to the
representative identified at the KNUST to be targeted at five
property developers and five PMs on life MHBPs project currently
ongoing in Kumasi, Ghana. Full details of the project in question
are described in chapter eight. The questionnniare (Appendix 16)
was made simple (into a one page document) to help encourage
the potential respondents to show keen interest and also act
promptly in the midst of the workload they were dealing then
dealing with. While targeting the property developers and their
PMs, five construction management academicians of the KNUST,

(especially those with relevant consulting experience on the
implementation of MHBPs) were also contacted to comment.
The “one-page” questionnaires were sent by email on the 31st May
2007 and distributed by the contact person on 1 st June 2007. Given
the simplicity of the questionnaire (and also the fact the all the
respondents particularly the property developers and the PMs
were operating on the same project site), the contact person was
able to retrieve all completed questionnaires within four days of
distributing them. Subsequently, these were faxed back to the UK
on 6thJune 2007. Unlike, the pilot and main surveys where the
researcher identified the respondents (from a registered list) while
the representative was instructed to deliver them at the various
addresses, in this case, the representative was given the option to
identify the respondents since they were working on a “life”
project ((i.e using convenience sampling techniques). However, in
order to confirm the validity of the process adopted, the
representative was asked to document the names and telephone
numbers of the persons contacted. Personal calls made by the
researcher to thank those contacted provided reasonable
indication that the relevant persons were approached.
5. 4 SUMMARY
This chapter has introduced some important issues relating to the
research methodology adopted for the study in particular the

epistemological and philosolophical applications. A clear
distintction has been made between research methodology and
research methods. Drawing on the epistemological, ontological
and axiological assumptions, positivism was chosen as the
appropriate paradigm. A review of the research methods revealed
that survey was the most appropriate approach for eliciting the
relevant data. Subsequently the design of the survey instrument
was described following which a commentary was also provided on
piloting of the questionniares.
The survey characteristics including the sampling frame, the
sample size and techniques for eliciting the relevant data have also
been explained. The data was elicited from managing directors of
the Ghana Real Estate Developers Association (GREDA) herein
called property developers. Editing of the data and inputting into
SPSS has also been described. The next chapter now addresses
the preliminary analysis of the data which involves descriptive
analysis, one-sample t-test and factor analysis.

CHAPTER SIX
Chapter 6 preliminary data analysis
CHAPTER SIX: PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF DATA
ELICITED FROM MEMBERS OF THE GHANA REAL
ESTATE DEVELOPERS ASSOCIATION
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Having concluded the introductory, reviewed the relevant
literature and described the research methodology, this chapter
now introduces the first part of the data analysis. A preliminary
analysis is undertaken as a prelude to the substantive analysis
which led to the development of the predictive model. This
distinction was considered important so as to develop a better
understanding of the data and also to reduce it to a manageble
size. In this respect, the analyses presented here are based on
data from the demographic including the respondents’ perception
of PMs’ performance levels in Ghana and dependent variables.
The demographic data is analysed using descriptive statistics
(specifically percentages) while the dependent variables is
analysed using one-sample t-test and subsequently factor analysis.
Factor analysis is implemented to reduce the dependent variables
to a manageable size towards the subsequent development of the
model.
6.1 ANALYSIS OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Tables 6.1 to 6.5 present the results of the descriptive analyses.
The aim (as noted previously) was to help provide an
understanding of the profile of the respondents. Knowing the
background of the respondents should help generate confidence in
the credibility of data collected. Table 6.1 summrises how long the
respondents had been members of the GREDA. Whereas 12%
indicated that they have been members for up to a maximum of
five years, the majority constituting 88% (i.e. 35+32+21) indicated
they had been members for over five years. Further examination of
the Table indicated that, of these 88%, more than half have been
members of the GREDA for over 10 years (see Table 6.1). The
indication is that a majority of the respondents are relatively
experienced as GREDA members. A plausible conclusion therefore
is that the respondents are well vested in the activities of GREDA
including the implementation of MHBPs. Indeed, Table 6.2, which
sought to establish the experience of the respondents in the
implementation of MHBPs lends support to this interpretation.
That is, over 90% of the respondents indicated that they have
more than five years experience in the implementation of MHBPs,
with about 56% (i.e. 32+12+12) having over 10 years experience
(Table 6.2).
Table 6.1: Experience of Respondents as Greda members

No. of Up to 5 6-10 11-15 16-20 Over 20 Total
years years years years years years
% 12 35 32 21 0 100
Response
Number 7 20 18 12 Nil 57
Table 6.2: Experience of Respondents in the Implementation of

MHBPs
No. of Up to 5 6-10years 11-15 16-20 Over 20 Total
years years years years years
% 7 37 32 12 12 100
response
Number 4 21 18 7 7 57
Respondents were asked to indicate the annual turnover of their
organisation in the last five years (refer Table 6.3). Whereas 37%
indicated an annual turnover of £600,000, 21% indicated an
annual turnover of around £700,000 - 1.2million, and 42%
indicated an annual turnover of over £1.2 million. By Ghanaian
standards an annual turnover of £ 600,000 suggests a conservative
delivery rate of approximately 10 modern11 three-bedroom house-
units per year. The indication is that most of the respondents are
indeed active in the business of implementing MHBPs.
Respondents were asked to indicate the average quantity of house-
units built per year (refer to Table 6.4). 85% indicated that they
build an average of up to 20- 40 house-units per year, 10%
indicated that they build between 40 and 60 house-units per year
and the remaining 5% stated that they deliver over 100 house-
units. These results reflected the findings on annual turnover
presented in Table 6.3 which suggests that a majority of the firms
averagely undertake 40 house-units per year.
11
Modern means house-units containing all facilities deemed adequate for
decent housing
Table 6.3: Overall turnover of the respondents in the last 5 years

Amount Up to £600 £700-1.2M Over £1.2 M Total
% response 37 21 42 100
Number 21 12 24 57
Table 6.4: Average quantity of house-units built by respondents

Quantity Up to 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 Over Total
20 house- house- house- house- 100
house- units units units units house-
units units
% 46 39 10 - - 5 100
response
Number 26 21 6 - - 3 57
Respondents were asked to provide details of the type of MHBPs
on which they are mostly commonly engaged. The results indicate
that while 8% have dealt with multi-storey blocks, none of the
respondents had been engaged on terraces and maisonettes.
Alternatively, 92% (i.e. representing 22+70) indiciated that they
have experience of building semi-detached and detached house-
units with the proportion leaning towards the latter. This is
consistent with the type of housing works most property
developers are engaged in which are predominantly targeted at
the upper end of the market (refer Anokye, 2003).
Table 6.5: Typical MHBPs built by respondents

Type Multi- Terrace Semi- Detached Maisone
storey detached tte
% 8 0 22 70 0
response
Number 5 0 12 40 0
Generally the results indicate that the respondents have
reasonable experience in the implementation of MHBPs.
Furthermore, the findings suggest that most respondents are
regularly active and have executed MHBPs in the last five years.
It seems therefore plausible to conclude that those who responded
to the survey are sufficiently experienced in the construction of
MHBPs to provide data which is credible.
6.2 STANDARDIZED OPINION OF RESPONDENTS ON
THE PERFORMANCE LEVEL OF PMs in MHBPs in
GHANA
As part of the data collection it was deemed necessary to establish
from the property developers what their perception of PMs’
performance in MHBPs in Ghana was. It was considered that
knowledge of this kind would provide some basis to have an
insight into how the respondents view the performance of PMs in
the current construction climate in Ghana. Subsequently the
respondents were asked to rate the level of performance of PMs
from very low to very high, where very low represents a
percentage of 10-29%, low = 30-49%, average = 50-59%, High =
70-79% and very high over 90%. Table 6.6 presents a summary of
the results. The perception of the respondents suggests that over
70% consider the levels of performance achieved by PMs to be
satifactory. This could be interpreted to mean that the respondents
are not particularly satisfied with the performance of PMs and

probably feel that it could be better. That is, given the perception
of the respondents, there is some recognition of the potential for
improvement.
Table 6.6:Perception of respondents on the performance level of

PMs in MHBPs
Performance Percentage Response of Percentage
level performance property response
level developers
Very high Over 90 0 0
High 70-90 13 22
Average 50-69 41 71
Low 30-49 3 5
Very low 10-29 0 0
Total 57 100
While it was not the intention to generalise the results presented,
this standardized opinion provides a fair idea of what could be the
perceived levels of performance level of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana.
In order to to undertake the modelling exercise, there was the
need to have an adequate understanding of what the property
developers generally perceive as success on MHBPs. This was
established by analysing the 15 potential criteria that constituted
the dependent variables.
6.3 ANALYSIS OF DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Two statistical analyses were undertaken, namely one sample t-
test and factor analysis. The one-sample t-test was used to
establish the relative importance of the variables whilst factor
analysis was used in establishing which of the variables could be

measuring the same underlying effect and also reduce the
dependent variables to a manageable size. The procedure, findings
and relevant discussion follows.
6.3.1 One Sample T-test for Ranking Dependent

Variables
The one sample t-test is used to establish whether a sample mean
is significantly deviant from a hypothesised mean. The hypothesis
for a single sample –test is typically set thus:
Ho: U=Uo
Ha: U<, >Uo
Where, Ho denotes the null hypothesis, Ha denotes the alternative
hypothesis and Uo denotes the hypothesized or population mean.
In a typical one-sample-test, the mean of the test group, degree of
freedom for the test (which approximates the sample size), the t-
value (which is an indication of the strength of the test) and the p-
value (which is the probability value that the test is significant) are
commonly reported (see for instance, Reymont and Joreskog,
1993; Hair et al, 1998; Field, 2005). According to Hair et al (1998)
when the sample size is more than 30, the central limit theorem
shows that a normal distribution can be assumed. Field (2005) also
argues that with a sample size of more than 50, the sampling
distribution will almost always approach normal distribution albeit

considering the size of the sampling frame or population.
Subsequently, with a sample size of 57 (out of a population of 372)
the assumptions of the central limit theorem were invoked to
support the view that the sample size is relatively adequate to
draw statistical infrerences. Furthermore, while the Likert scaling
adopted is ordinal, here it is assumed to be interval scaling given
the equal spacing of the scale (see for instance Blaikie, 2003).
Subsequently, a statistical t-test of the mean was carried out to
determine whether the population considered a specific attribute
to be important or otherwise. The mean ranking of each attribute
was also tabulated to help provide a clearer picture of the
consensus reached by the respondents. A summary of the test
results are shown in Tables 6.7 to 6.9.
The mean for each attribute including the associated standard
deviation and standard error are presented in Table 6.7. For each
attribute, the null hypothesis was that the attribute was
unimportant (Ho: U= Uo) and the alternative hypothesis was that
the attribute was important (Ha: U>Uo), where Uo as already
explained is the population mean. Thus Uo represent the critical
rating above which the attribute is considered important. Given
that the rating scale adopted ascribed higher ratings of 4 and 5 to
important and very important attributes, Uo was fixed at an
appropriate level of 3.5 (see for instance Ling, 2002). The
significance level was also set at 95% in accordance with

conventional risk levels (see for instance Colen, 1992 cited in Ling,
2002). That is, based on the five-point Likert rating scale, a
success criterion was deemed critical or important if it had a mean
of 3.5 or more. Where two or more criteria have the same mean,
the one with the lowest standard deviation was assigned the
highest importance ranking (see for instance Shen and Liu, 2003;
Field, 2005).
The standard error is the standard deviation of sample means and
is a measure of how representative a sample is likely to be to the
population. A large standard error (relative to the sample mean)
suggests that there is a lot of variability between means of
different samples. A small standard error suggests that most
sample means are similar to the population mean and so the
sample is likely to be an accurate reflection of the population
(Field, 2000; 2005). The standard error associated with all the
means is relatively close to zero suggesting that the sample chosen
is an accurate reflection of the population (Table 6.7).
Table 6.7: Results of t-test showing one-sample statistics

Std.
Std. Error
N Mean Deviation Mean
Technology transfer 57 3.5719 1.015 .134
Health and safety on
individual house- 57 4.035 .981 .130
units
Overall health and
safety measures 57 4.035 .925 .123
Environmental
impact of individual 57 3.849 .953 .126
house-units
Overall
environmental 57 4.011 .956 .127
impact
Std.
Std. Error
N Mean Deviation Mean
Risk containment on
individual house- 57 3.639 .894 .118
units
Overall risk
57 3.767 .886 .117
containment
Customer
satisfaction on
57 4.393 .793 .105
individual house-
units
Overall customer
satisfaction 57 4.393 .772 .102
Quality of individual
house-units 57 4.500 .681 .090
Overall project
57 4.607 .557 .074
quality
Rate of delivery of
individual house 57 4.072 .821 .108
units
Overall project
57 4.179 .804 .106
duration
Cost of individual
house units 57 4.572 .623 .082
Overall project costs 57 4.754 .689 .091
Note: these variables are already defined in chapter four, Table 4.1
The fact that the standard deviations are all less than 1.0 indicates
that there is little variability in the data. Alternatively, standard
deviation values of less than 1.0 indicated consistency in
agreement among the respondents of the reported level of results
(see for instance, Steven, 1996; Field, 2005).
However it is important to draw attention to the variable
technology transfer, which had a standard deviation slightly more
than one (1.02) suggesting that there might be differences to how
this variable was interpreted by the respondents. Further
discussion on the t-test below provides plausible explanation for
this.
The significance (i.e. p-value) of each attribute is displayed in
Table 6.8. The p-value is for a two-tailed test, however as shown
per the test hypothesis, what is of interest here is one-tailed test
(i.e. U > Uo). Subsequently, the “sig.” value in Table 6.8 has been
divided by two and the summary listed in Table 6.9.
Table 6.8: Results of One-Sample Test showing test signifance

Test Value = 3.5
95% Confidence
Sig. (2- Mean Interval of the
T df tailed) Difference Difference
Lower Upper
Technology transfer .535 56 .595 .072 -.197 .341
individual house- 4.117 56 .000 .535 .275 .796
units
Overall health and
safety measures 4.367 56 .000 .535 .289 .781
Environmental
impact of individual 2.765 56 .008 .349 .096 .602
house-units
Overall
environmental 4.033 56 .000 .511 .257 .764
impact
Risk containment
on individual 1.171 56 .247 .139 -.099 .376
house-units
Overall risk
2.273 56 .027 .267 .032 .502
containment
Customer
satisfaction on
8.485 56 .000 .893 .682 1.103
individual house-
units
Overall customer
8.735 56 .000 .893 .688 1.097
satisfaction
Quality of
individual house- 11.080 56 .000 1.000 .819 1.181
units
Overall project
15.012 56 .000 1.107 .959 1.255
quality
Rate of delivery of
individual house 5.262 56 .000 .572 .354 .789
units
Overall project
6.374 56 .000 .679 .466 .892
duration
Cost of individual
12.996 56 .000 1.071 .907 1.237
house units
Overall project
13.751 56 .000 1.254 1.072 1.437
costs
Table 6.9: Summary of t-test showing rankings and results of 1-

tailed test.
Mean Standard Ranking Sig. (1-
deviation tailed )
Overall project 4.754 .689 1 .00025
costs (CSF1)
quality (CSF2)
Cost of 4.572 .623 3 .00025
individual
house units
(CSF 3)
Quality of 4.500 .681 4 .00025
individual
house-units
(CSF 4)
Overall 4.393 .772 5 .00025
customer
satisfaction
(CSF 5)
Customer 4.393 .795 6 .00025
satisfaction on
individual
house-units
( CSF 6)
duration ( CSF
7)
Rate of 4.072 .821 8 .00025
delivery of
individual
house units
(CSF 8)
Overall health 4.035 .925 9 .00025
and safety
measures
( CSF 9)
Health and 4.035 .981 10 .00025
safety on
individual
house-units
(CSF 10)
Overall 4.011 .956 11 .00025
environmental
impact (CSF
11)
Environmental 3.849 .953 12 .004
impact of
individual
house-units
(CSF 12)
Overall risk 3.767 .886 13 .014
containment
(13)
Risk 3.639 .894 14 .124
containment
on individual
house-units
(CSF 14)
Technology 3.572 1.015 15 .298
Mean Standard Ranking Sig. (1-

deviation tailed )
transfer (CSF
15)
The summary shown in Table 6.9 indicates that overall project cost
emerged as the highest ranked critical criteria whilst technology
transfer emerged as the lowest. Generally the findings largely
concur with the conventional wisdom of perceiving project success
in terms of cost, time and quality.
However, it is interesting to note that, whilst overall project
quality was ranked 2nd behind overall project cost, the criterion,
overall project duration was ranked 7th. A plausible explanation for
this somewhat surprising result is that, in Ghana and for that
matter many other developing countries, whilst the demand for
increased housing supply exists, completed house-units take some
time to be sold due to the relatively low income of most new
homebuyers. Subsequently, property developers are not
particularly keen on delivering projects on time unless there are
willing buyers (i.e. if prospective buyers can readily be identified).
Otherwise, it appears the practice is for the property developers to
build at their own pace hoping that a willing buyer would show
interest sooner than later. However, as soon as a buyer shows keen
interest, then the necessary steps would be taken to speed up
delivery to meet the buyers’ specific circumstances. Indeed, rate
of delivery of individual house-units was also ranked 8th behind
overall project duration suggesting that though time is an
important criteria, it is not an issue that property developers in
many developing countries such as Ghana are particularly
concerned about.
Table 6.9 reveals that, apart from the so-called traditional criteria,
some of the recently acknowledged new and emerging criteria are
now also perceived by property developers in defining critical
success criteria for MHBPs in the Ghanaian environment. That is,
success criteria can also be defined in terms of elements such as
health and safety (p = 0.00025), overall environmental impact (p =
0.00025), overall risk containment (p = 0.014) and overall client
satisfaction (Table 4, p= 0.00025 in all cases). Note however that
while technology transfer is generally believed to have the
potential for improving overall performance outcome (Mehta and
Bridelll, 2005; Yang et al, 2006), in the Ghanaian context property
developers do not consider it as a critical success criteria (p =
.278). This provides informative evidence that property developers
in the Ghanaian house building indsutry might need to reconsider
their current pereception about technology transfer as not a
critical success criteria.

Another point worth noting is that whilst overall risk containment
emerged significant with a ranking of 14th, risk containment on
individual house-units emerged non-significant (p=.124). In many
developing countries such as Ghana, one of the major risk factors
associated with MHBPs relates to access to credit. Furthermore
where credit is available it is at a huge interest rate of sometimes
up to 32% per annum (see Bank of Ghana, 2004). Moreover, the
business cycle in the country including inflation is constantly
changing (see Ayirebi-Dansoh, 2005). Thus property developers
might therefore be concerned about “creative” ways to contain the
associated risk that comes with gaining credit rather that
spending too much time on risk associated with specific issues
relating to individual house-units. Thus, the PMs’ knowledge in
appropriate risk management (especially with respect to cash-flow
forecasting) and in particular how they can be creative in
assessing, transferring and containing the associated risk
embedded can help in appropriate allocation of resources in this
respect.
It is understandable that the criteria cost, time and quality are
perceived as very critical by property developers as these
traditional measures constitute the foundation of project success
criteria in project management practice. However, in many
developing countries the concept of viewing customer satisfaction,
environmental friendliness, health and safety and risk containment
as potential success criteria has for a considerable length of time

been taken for granted (see for instance Smallwood, 2000). This is
because of the relatively weak technological, socio-economic and
structural conditions prevailing, which do not readily provide the
enabling environment for these criteria (particularly, those related
to environmental and health and safety) to be well appreciated. It
is therefore encouraging to note that despite the lack of adequate
structures (such as logistics) to enforce and/or facilitate the
appreciation of some of these criteria (e.g. environmental and
health and safety) the climate appears to be changing with respect
to the perception of property developers.
Traditionally, the housing industry in many developing countries
was Government controlled in the sense that, Government was
responsible for the direct supply of houses. However, in line the
with current paradigm shift, private property developers have now
emerged as partners and their input is increasingly being
recognised (see for instance Keivani and Werna, 2001). This has
created the needed competitive environment and for the property
developers to source for the appropriate market for their products.
There is therefore the need for property developers to plan
appropriately towards meeting the potential challenges ahead and
it is therefore also not surprising that customer satisfaction is now
receiving prominence.
6.3.2 Factor Analysis of Dependent Variables

Due to the relatively large number of the dependent variables (i.e.
success criteria) involved in the study, it was deemed necessary to
use factor analysis to establish which of the variables could be
measuring aspects of the same underlying dimensions. Factor
analysis is useful for finding clusters of related variables and thus
ideal for reducing a large number of variables into a more easily
understood framework (see also, Hair et al, 1998; Norussis, 2000).
Tables 6.11 to 6.16 and Figure 6.1 provides the details of the
results. However, before addressing these, it is important to
discuss some pertinent issues relating to the appropriate sample
size for undertaking and establishing the reliability of factors
analysis.
The question of whether the reliability of factor analysis is
dependent on sample size has been debated in the literature
resulting in many rules of thumb (see for instance Field, 2000;
2005). Indeed, there have been times when it was thought that the
appropriate sample size was the most important factor in
determining the reliability of factor analysis (Field, 2005).
However, with the introduction of simulation and Monte Carlo test
(see for instance Guadagnoli and Velicer (1988) cited in Field,
2005; Hair et al,1998), empirical results have shown that the most
important factor in determining the reliable factor solution was
not only the absolute sample size but instead the absolute
magnitude of the factor loadings. In effect, Guadagnoli and Velicer
(1988) asserted that in undertaking factor analysis, if a factor has

four or more loadings greater than 0.6, then it is reliable
regardless of the sample size. While the sample size of 57 used
here could be argued by some researchers as barely acceptable for
factor analysis, the factor loadings and other subsequent texts
(described later) confirmed the reliability of the analysis (Tables
6.12 and 6.13). Furthermore, the factors abtained seems
reasonably realistic and supported by the mainstream literature in
project success criteria, especially in the context of the study (see
for instance Odusami, 2003; Mbachu and Nkado, 2007).
While undertaking the factor analysis, it was important to validate
the reliability of the research instrument (Field, 2000; 2005).
Reliability of the research instrument means that a scale should
consistently reflect the construct it is measuring. Thus, the
reliability test can be used to measure the consistency of the five-
point scale and hence help establish the consistency of the
research instrument for factor analysis. Subsequently, the 15
dependent variables (Table 6.10) were subjected to the Cronbach’s
reliability test, which is mostly used in this circumstance (see for
instance Field, 2005).
The test results as shown in Table 6.11 indicate that Cronbach’s
alpha achieved an overall high of 0.8966 suggesting overall
reliability of the research instrument for factor analysis.
Thereafter, the data was subjected to factor analysis but in
particular, principal component analysis, with varimax rotation.

Principal component analysis was chosen because unlike “factor
analysis” this lends itself to psychometrically sound procedures in
terms of linearity and simplicity. Further it has the potential for
establishing discriminate function variates (see for instance Brace
et al, 2003; Field, 2000; Field, 2005).
Table 6.10: Nominated Success criteria for mass house building

projects
Dependent variables
Overall project cost (OVPROJCS) (CSF1)
Cost of individual house-units (COSTINHS) (CSF2)
Overall project duration (OVPRODTN) (CSF 3)
Rate of delivery of individual house-units (RDELINHS) (CSF 4)
Overall project quality (OVPROJQU) (CSF 5)
Quality of individual house-units. (QUAINHSE) (CSF 6)
Overall Customer satisfaction (OVCUSASA) (CSF 7)
Customer satisfaction on individual house-units (CUSTAIN) (CSF 8)
Overall Risk containment (OVRISCON) (CSF 9)
Risk containment on individual house-units. (RICONIND) (CSF 10)
Overall Environmental impact (OVENVIMP) (CSF 11)
Environmental impact of individual house-units. (ENIMPIND) (CSF 12)
Overall health and safety measures. (OVHTSFY) (CSF 13)
Health and safety measures on individual house-units (HELSIAN) (CSF 14)

Technology transfer (TECTRANS) (CSF 15)
Table 6.11: Cronbach’s Reliability Analysis - S C A L E (A L P

H A)
Item-total Statistics
Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item- Alpha
if Item if Item Total if Item
Deleted Deleted Correlation Deleted
TECTRANS 58.8053 56.3205 .4338 .8970

HELSAIN 58.3421 51.7114 .7997 .8796
OVHTSFY 58.3421 52.4543 .7948 .8802
ENIMPIND 58.5281 53.3253 .6985 .8845
OVENVIMP 58.3667 54.1687 .6311 .8875
RICONIND 58.7386 53.9888 .6984 .8846
OVRISCON 58.6105 53.6356 .7353 .8831
CUSTAIN 57.9842 57.3610 .4959 .8928
OVCUSHSA 57.9842 55.8610 .6504 .8872
QUAINHSE 57.8772 58.4929 .4801 .8933
OVPROJQU 57.7702 59.1768 .5223 .8926
RDELINHS 58.3053 56.2969 .5676 .8901
OVPRODTN 58.1982 57.2634 . 4971 .8928
COSTINHS 57.8053 60.5648 .3104 .8982
OVPROJCS 57.6228 61.3071 .2021 .9019
Reliability Coefficients
N of Cases = 57.0 N of Items = 15
Alpha = .8966
Prior to principal component analysis, the communalities involved
were first established (see Table 6.12). Communality explains the
total amount an original variable shares with all other variables
included in the analysis and is very useful in deciding which
variables to finally extract in the varimax rotation and in
determining the adequacy of the sample size (Field, 2000;2005).
In this case, after extraction of all variables, average communality
value was above 0.6 suggesting also that the sample size is
adequate. Furthermore, the data was subjected to the Kaiser-

Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy including the
production of a correlation matrix (Tables 6.13 and 6.14).
Table 6.12 Communalities

Extractio
Initial n
Technology transfer 1.000 .578
individual house- 1.000 .774
units
Overall health and
safety measures 1.000 .812
Environmental
impact of individual 1.000 .876
house-units
Overall
environmental 1.000 .872
impact
Risk containment on
individual house- 1.000 .643
units
Overall risk
1.000 .726
containment
Customer
satisfaction on
1.000 .773
individual house-
units
Overall customer
satisfaction 1.000 .662
house-units 1.000 .785
Overall project
1.000 .632
quality
Rate of delivery of
individual house 1.000 .578
units
Overall project
1.000 .742
duration
Cost of individual
house units 1.000 .692
Overall project costs 1.000 .777
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Table 6. 13: KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser- .758
Meyer-
Olkin
Measure
of
Sampling
Adequacy
.
Bartlett's Approx. 531.149
Test of Chi-
Sphericit Square
y
Df 105
Sig. .000
The KMO also achieved a sufficiently high value of 0.75 suggesting
that the sample size is indeed adequate for factor analysis (see for
instance, Field, 2000). Given the high KMO achieved in this case,
there was no need to produce anti-image matrices to further check
the adequacy of the sample size. However, the Bartlett test of
spericity was undertaken. This is used to establish the potential
correlations suggesting that clusters do exist in the factors. In this
case, a spericity value of 531.149 was realised and the associated
significance was 0.000 (Table 6.14 overleaf). This indicates that
the population matrix is not an identity matrix. An identity matrix
is one which all the elements of the diagonals are one and all off-
diagonals are zero (Field, 2000). Thus, the correlation matrix
shows that the success criteria identified share some common
underlying relationships and that clusters do exist.

Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analyses
Table 6. 14: Correlation matrix of factor analysis

.Facto C C C C C C C C C CSF1 CSF1 CSF1 CSF1 CSF1 CSF1
r SF1 SF2 SF3 SF4 SF5 SF6 SF7 SF8 SF9 0 1 2 3 4 5
CSF1 1.00
0
CSF2 .321 1.00
0
CSF3 .292 .082 1.00
0
CSF4 .095 .565. .518 1.00
0
CSF5 .071 ..401 .289 .475 1.00
0
CSF6 -.029 .147 .137 .363 .651 1.00
0
CSF7 .435 .375 .082 .117 .282 .162 1.00
0
CSF8 .190 .235 .095 .209 .397 .304 .549 1.00
0
CSF9 .126 .409 .200 .312 ..481 .394 .320 .493 1.00
0
CSF1 .119 .451 .335 .374 .500 .371 .517 .420 .766 1.000
0
CSF1 -.039 .450 .188 .343 .475 .179 .313 .375 .706 .706 1.000
1
CSF1 .100 .542 .184 .407 .434 .257 .320 .304 .755 .755 .858 1.000
2
CSF1 .174 .216 .198 .315 .422 .511 .396 .522 .686 .624 .424 .495 1.000
3
CSF1 .184 .189 .198 .299 .436 .448 .355 .412 .599 .685 .407 .536 .841 1.000
4
CSF1 .010 .214 -.001 .129 .443 .474 .214 .453 .435 .356 .155 .173 .446 .381 1.000
5
Note: Kaiser Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy= .758; Bartlett test of spericity= 531.149;
Significance=0.000
Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analyses
Note: Acronyms as explained in Table 6.9

Chapter 6 Preliminary Data analysis
Having concluded all the necessary preliminary tests, the rotated
component matrix of the principal component matrix was
produced (see Table 6.15). The eigenvalue and factor loading were
set at conventional high values of 1.0 and 0.5 respectively (see for
instance Dainty et al, 2003: Chan et al, 2002). As shown in table
6.15, four components with an eigenvalue greater than 1.0 were
extracted using the factor loading of 0.50 as the cut-off point. The
scree plot (Figure 6.1) also confirmed the four components. The
components can be thought of representing measuresing scales for
PMs’ performance outcome in MHBPs.
Table 6.15: Rotated Component Matrix

Component
1 2 3 4
Overall
environmental .909
impact
Environmental
impact of individual .904
house-units
Overall health and
safety measures .760
individual house- .710
units
Customer
satisfaction on
.815
individual house-
units
Technology transfer .767
Overall risk
.679
containment
Overall customer
satisfaction .619
Risk containment on
individual house- .613
units
Rate of delivery of
individual house .528
units
house-units .813
Cost of individual
house units .772
Overall project
.595
quality
Overall project costs .827
Overall project
.765
duration
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation
Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a Rotation converged in 7 iteration
Scree Plot
7
2
Eigenvalue
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Component Number
Figure 6.1: Scree plot for factor analysis
The total variance is presented in Table 6.16. The table indicates
that the total variance explained by each component extracted is
as follows; component 1 (42.401%), component 2 (11.233%),
component 3 (9.530%), component 4 (9.115%). Thus, the final
statistics of the principal component analysis and the components
extracted accounted for 72.279% of the total cumulative variance
of PMs’ performance outcome in MHBPs. Based on an
examination of the inherent relationships among the variables
under each component, the following interpretation has been
provided; component 1 is termed environmental-safety criteria;

component 2, customer satisfaction; component 3, quality;
component 4, overall cost-time criteria.

Table 6.16: Component Transformation Matrix
Extraction Sums of Squared

Compon Initial Eigenvalues Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
ent % of Cumulative % of Cumulative % of Cumulative
Total Variance % Total Variance % Total Variance %
1 6.558 43.721 43.721 6.558 43.721 43.721 3.737 24.910 24.910
2 1.680 11.197 54.918 1.680 11.197 54.918 3.149 20.990 45.900
3 1.438 9.586 64.505 1.438 9.586 64.505 2.166 14.438 60.338
4 1.246 8.308 72.813 1.246 8.308 72.813 1.871 12.474 72.813
5 .921 6.138 78.951
6 .624 4.157 83.108
7 .581 3.872 86.980
8 .458 3.056 90.036
9 .447 2.981 93.017
10 .308 2.051 95.067
11 .221 1.477 96.544
12 .190 1.267 97.811
13 .174 1.159 98.971
14 .086 .576 99.546
15 .068 .454 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
6.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.4.1 Component 1: Environmental-safety criteria
The four extracted success criteria for component 1 were overall
environmental impact (90.9%), environmental impact of individual
house-units (90.4%), overall health and safety measures (76.0%)
and health and safety on individual house-units (71.0%). The
number in parenthesis indicates the respective factor loadings.
From Table 6.16, this cluster accounted for 43.7% of the variance.
These criteria share a common link to environmental issues. As
argued by Ukoma and Bemish (1997), the suitability of the living
environment to the needs of the residents is now very important. A
good environmental image is also important for improving the
competitive edge of organizations in an increasingly complex and
environmentally conscious industry (Ngowi, 2001). In Ghana for
instance, environmental issues have in the recent past also
received significant attention in the construction industry
especially since the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was
established in 1994. Subsequently the EPA is now empowered to
regulate and enforce building regulation and planning laws (EPA,
1994) relating to MHBPs.
However, the reality is that, property developers tend to allow
considerable amounts of wastage on site rather than engaging
human resources to manage it (Poon et al, 2004). Thus waste

management is a major environmental issue including construction
and demolition waste being deposited at landfill sites (ibid).
Morrel et al (2001) also admits that as the demand for housing
continues, widespread use of high energy materials such as
aluminium, cement, concrete and steel must comply with
directives on protection of the environment including the emission
of carbon dioxide, obligation to rehabilitate quarries and
protection of materials extracted from river beds. Thus the
implication is for property developers and interested stakeholders
to appropriately allocate resources to assist the PMs to handle
these increasingly important issues. The irony is that, while the
need to preserve the environment is increasingly becoming
important, developing countries in particular are not well
positioned to face these challenges (Ofori, 2000). Furthermore,
project management education and training on environmental
issues, which is still evolving leaves much to be desired
(Smallwood, 2000). Thus developing countries in particular have a
lot more to do in developing the capacity and expertise of the key
managerial staff towards addressing environmental issues in
MHBPs.
It is not strange that health and safety relating to individual house-
units has been shown to be related to the environmental criteria.
This is because ultimately safety standards have environmental
implications and vice versa (see for instance Kibert and Coble,
1995 cited in Xiao, 2003). The crux of the matter is that

environmental-safety protection is no longer a concept but has
now become a worldwide challenge facing the construction
industry (Pasquires cited in Xiao, 2003). It is therefore
recommended that property developers and all stakeholders
should join forces towards developing appropriate structures that
would enable PMs’ to be adequately prepared to face the
challenges ahead in the future management of the environment in
MHBPs.
6.4.2 Component 2, Customer satisfaction
Component 2 accounted for 11.2% of the variance. The respective
loading factors are customer satisfaction with individual house-
units (81.5%), technology transfer (76.7%), overall risk
containment (67.9%), overall customer satisfaction (61.9%), risk
containment on individual house-units (61.3%) and rate of delivery
of individual house-units (52.8%). Subsequently this component
was labelled customer satisfaction. Satisfied customers as the
evidence suggests are the backbone of the house building industry
(Baker et al, 1983; Torbica and Stroh, 2001). It is therefore
significant that customer satisfaction with house-units emerged as
the most critical factor in this grouping. In particular Torbica and
Stroh (2001) assert that for property developers to compete in the
long term, they must be sure that current and prospective
customers are satisfied.

Interestingly, Toole (1998) has noted that homebuyers approach
the buying decision for a new home very differently from other
purchases, often with very strong bonds to tradition. Furthermore
home buyers respond to “word-of-mouth” effects more than mass
media or other types of advertising placing the reputation of the
property developer in the centre of all these. Subsequently the
satisfaction of “old or current customers” is instrumental in
convincing potential future homebuyers. In this respect Toole
(1998) further found that it is the service provided by property
developers throughout the lifecycle of MHBPs that is most
important in shaping the overall homebuyer satisfaction. The
remaining variables namely overall risk containment, risk
containment on individual house-units and technology transfer
either are directly or indirectly associated with the provision of
some kind of service in the house-building agenda. It would
therefore be necessary for these variables to be appropriately
given the due attention in MHBPs towards satisfying the ultimate
users who are the customers.
Here, technology transfer refers to the application of technology
that is new to the property developer and significantly improves
the design and construction of a living space by decreasing cost,
increasing performance and improving the business of the process.
While the “t-test” suggested that property developers do not
consider the variable technology transfer significantly important
for assessing project success the relatively high factor loading

(.767) it received in the cluster customer satisfaction in the factor
analysis suggests that it could be an an important variable for
understanding the underlying determinants of the success
dimensions of MHBPs.
Uncertainty plays a critical role in the adoption of innovations by
property developers (Toole, 1998). Uncertainty is defined as the
state when the property developer is lacking information relating
to decision-making (ibid). Subsequently, Toole (1998) identified
five characteristics that may make it difficult for property
developers to understand how innovations may affect their
operations. That is: the end product varies considerably; there is a
long time frame and wide range of conditions associated with the
production process; the end product of the task consists of many
interacting parts and/or dynamic subsystems; the task requires
high levels of tacit knowledge and skills and the task requires
interaction with a large number of diverse entities. Hence property
developers have to be made to be convinced that a new technology
will provide significant advantages over existing products before
they will commit themselves.
What is also quite clear is that, the adoption of new technology
involves taking some risk. Hence the more uncertainties that
exists the more reluctant property developers would be to
embrace technological innovations (Toole, 1998). Alternatively
Yang et al (2006) have suggested that a plausible way forward for

minimising the uncertainties is to clearly quantify the benefits to
be derived from technology adaptation and application. They
suggested that it might be appropriate to quantify these benefits
in terms of cost, schedule and safety success as these are issues of
major concern to “project stakeholders.”
Given that customers’ satisfaction is arguably the most critical
factor here, there is also no doubt any uncertainty reduction would
have to take their interest into serious consideration. Ultimately,
whilst it is important for property developers to fully appreciate
the potential risks associated with adopting technological
innovation, their knowledge about the factors that are related to
home buyers satisfaction or dissatisfaction would be an invaluable
tool in achieving a competitive edge (see for instance Torbica and
Stroh, 2001).
6.4.3 Component 3: Quality
Component 3 consists of quality of individual house-units (81.3%),
cost of individual house-units (77.2%) and overall project quality
(59.5%). By similar reasoning as before, this was labelled quality
of house-units and accounted for 9.6% of the variance. Quality of
individual house-units emerged the highest factor in this grouping
and conforms to the empirical evidence that quality significantly
predicts overall homebuyer satisfaction and ultimately project
success (Torbica and Stroh, 2001). Indeed just like satisfaction,

the primary antecedents of quality are product and service
performance and customer expectation concerning the future
performance of the product (Anderson et al, 1994; Al-Monani,
2000).
In effect, a focus on improving quality at all stages of MHBPs is
important to improving project success. The problem however is
that no two identical houses are the same in quality because of
variations in construction process and the weather, the skills and
attitudes of the tradesmen and whether specified materials were
correctly delivered and installed. In short, it is difficult for
property developers to be completely confident that every portion
of a new house that they build will stand up to the same design
installation and occupancy conditions over the years (Ozoy et al
1996; Toole, 1998). The onus is therefore on property developers
to make sure that the appropriate resources are channelled to
enable the understanding of effective quality management that
meets the bespoke needs of potential customers.
Granted that one of the main objectives of repetitive construction
methods is cost effectiveness, it seems plausible that quality of
individual house-units and cost of individual house-units are also
seen to be measuring the same underlying criteria. The potential
implication for PMs is that, whilst striving to make cost savings on
the delivery of MHBPs, this should not be done at the expense of
quality on individual house-units. This is against the background

evidence that often “profit” made by property developers is at the
expense of quality (Rakwaro and Olima, 2003). Property
developers are therefore reminded that while it is important to
strive towards cost effectiveness in MHBPs this should be
achieved by taking advantage of improved productivity of
resources arising out of the repetitive works involved and not
deliberately cutting down expenditure meant for quality
improvement. Furthermore it is recommended that property
developers should create the necessary environment so that their
PMs can take advantage of the management tools available to help
strike the right balance in achieving cost savings on individual
house-units as well as expected quality standards.
6.4.4 Component 4: Cost-time criteria
Component 4 accounted for (8.3%) of the variance and comprised
overall project cost (loading factor 82.7%) and overall project
duration (loading factor 76.5%). Contrary to the earlier
identification approach adopted, here both variables were
combined to identify the cluster. This was done to emphasise the
correlation between overall cost and overall time in MHBPs as
demonstrated in the literature (see for instance Odenyika and

Yusif, 1997). Indeed the issue of shortening construction time,
reducing cost and improving production performance have
engaged both practitioners and researchers for some time, (see for
instance Odenyika and Yusif, 1997; OKuwugo 1998; Chan and
Kumaraswamy (1999); Tam and Zeng, 2002). These studies include
motivation and productivity investigations as well as analysis of
planning and scheduling techniques (Tam et al, 2002).
Prefabrication and industrialisation have also been widely
considered in housing projects towards improving overall time and
cost associated with these projects. Other innovative methods
such as modular boxes, pre-stressed panels and polystyrene
techniques have also been advocated (Tam et al, 2002).
However, against the background of a huge demand for residential
buildings in developing countries, delays and cost overruns are
still major mitigating factors influencing the implementation of
MHBPs (Chan and Kumaraswamy, 1999; Keivani and Werna,
2001). Indeed in some instances, the cost and time over-runs have
been so severe that serious questions about the human resource
management practices have been raised (Kaming et al, 1999). In
the circumstances when an estimated one billion people are living
in inadequate housing in developing countries, the cost-time
relation is an issue that property developers have to seriously
reconsider by devoting more attention towards achieving project
success.
Generally these findings among others lend support to the
prevailing evidence that the challenges facing property developers
in recent times are how to minimise cost and time over-runs and to
keep current and potential customers satisfied (Torbica and Stroh
2001, Tam et al, 2002). It is therefore recommended that property
developers and PMs shell out particular attention and resources
towards ensuring these factors are met in the delivery of MHBPs.
6.5 SUMMARY
This chapter has presented the preliminary analysis of the data.
The analysis undertaken included descriptive statistics on the
demographic data and one sample t-test and factor analysis on the
dependent variables. The demographic results suggest that the
respondents have reasonable experience in the implementation of
MHBPs, which should give credence to the data collected.
Exploratory analysis undertaken suggests that there is the
potential for PMs to improve on their current performance as
perceived by the respondents.
This chapter also reported on the results of one-sample t-test in
respect of the dependent variables and the findings have been
discussed. Thereafter factor analysis has been used to establish
which of the potential success criteria could be measuring the

same underlying effect and also to reduce the variables to a
manageable size for interpretation. The findings suggested that
the success criteria in MHBPs in Ghana could be listed as
environmental-safety, customer satisfaction, quality and cost-time
In the next chapter, the factors identified by the factor analysis
would further be reduced to a single dependent variable.
Thereafter the development of the model is described.

CHAPTER SEVEN
CHAPTER SEVEN: DEVELOPMENT OF A
COMPETENCY-BASED PREDICTIVE MODEL
7.0 INTRODUCTION
Following the preliminary analysis presented in chapter six, this
chapter now addresses the development of the substantive model.
As already explained (see chapter four), for the purpose of this
thesis, the substantive model is developed for the “construction
phase” of the project lifecycle.
Drawing from the factor analysis, an index for assessing the PMs’
performance outcome is first developed. This was necessary to
help provide a basis for converting the broad range of dependent
variables (i.e the potential success criteria for MHBPs) into a
single dependent variable (i.e to meet the requirements of multiple
regression analysis). Subsequently, the components or clusters
extracted from the factor analysis (see chapter six) are converted
to a single dependent or composite variable herein called a
measure of “PMs’ performance outcome”. Thereafter, the
independent variables (comprising both contextual and task
performance behaviours) are regressed against this performance
outcome using “stepwise” regression analysis. The functions
investigated under the regression analysis included the coefficient
of determination (R2), analysis of variance (ANOVA),
multicollinearity test, Durbin-Watson test and residual analysis.

The findings suggest that the developed model is statistically valid
and has the potential for subsequent development for use by
practitioners.
To this effect, a discussion of the convergence of the findings
against the background of the theoretical framework adopted is
provided to help demonstrate the validity of the conclusions
drawn. Subsequently, the chapter closes with an in-depth
discussion of the significance of the individual variables identified
(in the model) including issues relating to their potential
application towards enhancing project management practice in
MHBPs
7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF PERFORMANCE OUTCOME

INDEX
According to Blaikie (2003), an index is a set of items that
measures a concept indirectly by assuming that what is being
measured is related to that concept. To this effect, an index is
useful for structuring multiple and yet distinctly related aspects of
dimensions into a single score (Brown, 1976; Oppenheim, 1992;
Hait et al, 1998).
Factor analysis is an important tool that lends itself to the
construction of such “indexes” by combining a number of separate
measures into a combined measure (Blaikie, 2003). Thus, the four
components/clusters extracted in the factor analysis in the

previous chapter can be likened to representing four sub-indexes
for the measurement of various aspects of the outcome of the PMs’
performance in MHBPs (see for instance Blaikie, 2003). Having
identified these sub-indexes, it is also possible to calculate the
mean scores for each respondent for each index. This is done by
computing a summation of each participant’s response (i.e. in
terms of the participant’s score multiplied by the respective factor
loadings) for the set of variables constituting the index and
dividing by the number of variables involved (see Bailey, 1987;
Blaikie, 2003).
Above all, in multivariate research, the various indexes identified
can be combined to form an overall single index, which is
particularly useful if dependent variables are involved (Meyers et
al, 2005). In this case the various indexes are combined to form a
“linear composite” function where each sub-index is weighted in a
manner determined by the concept underlying the development of
the index (see equation 7.1)
Weighted composite = w1x1 + w2x2+ w3x3 + …xkwk……………
…….. (7.1)
Here, each index in the composite is identified by the symbol x
(with subscripts to differentiate them) while the symbols w1 to wk
are the weights (i.e. proportions) assigned to each variable herein
called “coefficients.” (see Meyers et al, 2005).

Thus, the four components/clusters identified in chapter six (i.e.
with regard to the factor analysis) can be deemed as representing
four sub-indexes of the PMs performance outcome for MHBPs in
Ghana (equation 7. 2):
Yi= w1x1 + w2x2+ w3x3 + w4x4 ………………………………
…. (7.2)
Where x1, x2, x3 and x4 represent the four sub-indexes (see also
equation 7.3) and w1, w2, w3, w4 represent appropriate coefficients
as defined by their percentage proportions to the performance
outcome.
Notwithstanding the unique contribution of each sub-index, in
practice it is not expected that the four components constituting
the sub-indexes would be satisfied at the expense of each other
towards achieving the overall performance outcome (see Xiao,
2002; Barbie, 2006). Subsequently the four components
constituting the sub-indexes were given equal weightings (i.e. co-
efficient) of 25% towards establishing a performance outcome
index (equation 7.3):
Yi = 0.25 x [(environmental impact index) + (customer satisfaction
index) + (quality index) + (cost-time index)] ……………………………
……………………… (7.3)
Here environmental impact comprised overall environmental
impact, environmental impact on individual house-units, overall
health and safety, health and safety on individual house-units;
customer satisfaction comprised customer satisfaction on
individual house-units, technology transfer, overall customer
satisfaction, risk containment on individual house-units and rate of
delivery of individual house-units; Quality comprised quality of
individual house-units, cost of individual house-units, overall
project quality; and cost-time comprised overall project cost and
overall project duration.
While this performance outcome index can be used to indirectly
establish the average performance levels of PMs in MHBPs in
Ghana, here the emphasis was to use it to indirectly establish the
ensuing dependent variable for the development of the substantive
predictive model.
7.2 THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Drawing on the performance outcome index, the dependent
variable herein called performance outcome was computed (with
the aid of SPSS) by establishing the mean score for each of the 57
participants who responded to the survey. Thus the score for
dependent variable for each respondent was established using
equation (7.4), whereby:

yo = 0.25 [(0.909ovenimp + 0.904enimpind + 0.760ovhsfty +
0.730helsian) + (0.815cusatin + 0.767tectrans) + 0.679ovriscon +
0.619ovcustsa + 0.613riconind + 0.528rdelinhs) + (0.813quainhse
+ 0.772cosinhs + 0.595ovprojqu) + (0.827ovprojcs) +
0.765ovprodtn)] ………………………………………… (7.4)
Note that the ratings provided by the participants for the
dependent variables were used in establishing the mean scores,
where ovenimp = overall environmental impact; enimping =
environmental impact of individual house –units; ovhsfty = overall
health and safety; helsian = health and safety relating to
individual house-units; cusatin = customer satisfaction with
individual houe-units; tectrans = technology transfer; ovriscon =
overall risk containment; ovcusta = overall customer satisfaction;
riconind = risk containment relating to individual house-units;
quainhse = quality of individual house-units; costinhs = cost of
individual house-units; ovprojqu = overall project quality; ovprojcs
= overall project cost; ovprojdtn = overall project duration.
7.3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS
The multiple regression technique was selected for developing the
predictive model. Multiple regression was chosen in place of other
possible analysis methods (e.g. logistics regression and
discriminant analysis and artificial neural networks) because of

the characteristics of the variables under consideration and the
aim of the modelling.
Multivariate discriminate analysis and logistics regression were
not considered because the intention here was not to predict a
categorical membership (i.e for instance whether the the PM is
“good performer” or “bad performer”) but rather a score of the
performance. While artificial neural networks (ANN) can capture
and allow the uncovering of latent non-linear relationships
amongst variables it is limited in its explanatory characteristics
(Goh, 1999; Xiao, 2002), which was a most desired function of this
research.
Multiple regression analysis is by far the most widely used
multivariate technique to analyse the relationship (including the
prediction) between several independent variables and a single
dependent variable (Hair et al, 1998). Thus, multiple regression
offers the opportunity to establish the evidence that one or more
explanatory variables (independent variables, X1,X2….Xk) cause
another dependent variable Y to change (Blaikie, 2003). In so
doing, the analysis establishes the relative magnitude of the
contribution of each predictor variable. Furthermore, it offers the
opportunity to examine what proportion of the variance in the
outcome variable is explained by each predictor variable and/or
their combined effect (Brace et al, 2003). Using the classical

linear regression model, the relation between the predicted
outcome yp, and the predictor variables, x1, x2…..xk is defined as:
yp = α + β1x1 + β2x2 + …βKxK + c …………………………….
(7.5)
Where α = a constant on the y –axis; β1 to βK are coefficients so
chosen as to minimise the sum of squared discrepancies between
the predicted and obtained values of yp; c = error term of random
variable with mean 0 and variance σ2 and K= number of
independent variables or parameters. In this case, the independent
variables were represented by the operational measures identified
for both contextual and task performance behaviours while the
dependent variable (yp) as noted earlier is defined as a measure of
the PMs’ performance outcome, in terms of environmental impact,
customer satisfaction, quality and cost-time.
7.2. 2 Stepwise Selection
Given the large number of independent variables identified for this
study, it was decided to use the stepwise selection technique in
this analysis (see also Chan and Kumaraswamy, 1999). Stepwise
selection is the most sophisticated technique of the multiple
regression analysis when large independent variables are involved
(Brace et al, 2003). Here, each variable is entered in sequence and
its value assessed. If adding a variable contributes significantly to

the predictive qualities of the model, then it is retained, but all
other variables in the model are then retested to see if they are
still contributing to the success of the model. If they no longer
contribute significantly, they are removed.
Thus, stepwise selection ensures that the regression ends up with
the smallest possible set of predictor variables in the final model.
Thus, a key advantage of using stepwise is that it results in the
most parsimonious model (Walliman, 2001; Brace et al, 2003).
Here, the objective was to explore the relationships between the
performance outcome as perceived by property developers in
MHBPs using the contextual and task behavioural measures as
independent variables. Prior to developing the model, it was
important to have a fair idea of how closely a change in one
variable is tied to a change in another variable and vice versa and
also whether multicollinearity existed among the predictors. In
particular, predictors that correlate highly with each other (i.e. r >
0.9, where r is Pearson’s correlation coeffieicent) should be a
source of concern (Blaikie, 2003; Brace et al, 2003; Field, 2005).
The Pearson’s correlation (r) (see correlation matrix on Appendix
14) revealed that reasonable correlations existed amongst all the
variables (i.e. r < 0.9) and thus were rationally acceptable to be
included in the stepwise analysis (see for instance ibid) (see
enclosed A3 sheet for more readeable version of correlation
matrix).
Generally, the Pearson’s correlation (by virtue of a 2-tailed test)
demonstrated that a large number of the variables were significant
at p < 0.01 (Appendix 14). This is an indication that, generally the
independent variables which correlate reasonably well with the
performance outcome have to a large extent been appropriately
identified (see for instance Blaikie, 2003).
Table 7.1 presents a summary of the results for the regression
analysis. In stepwise regression each variable is entered in
sequence (i.e hierarchical) and its value assessed until all
variables significantly contributing the to criterion variable are
identified. Because of the sequential assessment different models
are developed at each stage until the optimum (i.e. the most
rigorous) model is identified. Subsequently here the analysis
indicates that seven models were developed (Table 7.1). However,
the Table shows that model number 7 is the optimum model as it
included the smallest possible set of predictor variables.
The model numbers as shown in the first “column”(Table 7.1) give
the minimum number of variables extracted whilst R represents a
measure of the correlation between the observed value and the
predicted value of the criterion variable (i.e. the performance
outcome). R square (R2) is a measure of this correlation and
indicates the proportion of the variance in the criterion variable
which is accounted for by the model. Thus, R2 is a measure of how

good a prediction of the overall performance outcome can be made
by knowing the predictor variables (Field, 2000; 2005). However,
R2 tends to somewhat over-estimate the success of the model when
applied to the real world, so an adjusted R2 value is calculated
which takes into account the number of variables in the models
and the number of observations (i.e. participants) the model is
based on (Brace et al, 2003).
Thus, the adjusted R2 is useful because its gives an indication of
how much of the variance in the performance outcome is
accounted for in the population from which the sample was
chosen. Subsequently, using the adjusted R2 and the analysis of
variance (ANOVA) (Table 7.2), the following conventional
statistical report was extracted from table 7.1:
(Adjusted R2 = 74.4; F7, 49 = 24. 30, p < 0.0005) ………………………
……(7.6)
Given that the p value (as shown above) is less than 0.0005, the
report indicates that model number 7, which accounted for seven
variables out of the total tested is the most parsimonious model
accounting for approximately 74% of the variance in the
performance outcome. The p-value (reported in the ANOVA Table)
also assesses the overall significance of the model. As p < 0.0005,
it confirms that model is significant. The Durbin-Watson test also
recorded a reasonable figure of 2.095 suggesting that the

residuals errors are not correlated or are independent of each
other (Table 7.1) (see for instance Field, 2005).
The emerged model indicates that 74.4% of the variance in the
PMs performance outcome can be explained by the seven variables
extracted namely: job knowledge of appropriate site layout
techniques for repetitive construction works; dedication in helping
work contractors to achieve work programmes; job knowledge of
appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works;
effective time management practices on all project sites; ability to
provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good
relationships; ease with which works contractors can approach the
PM; and volunteering to help works contractors solve personal
problems.
The beta value (i.e. estimated regression co-efficient) is a measure
of how strongly each predictor variable influences the criterion
variable and is discussed in detail later in section 7.3.2 (see also
Table 7.3). However, prior investigation revealed that the t and p-
values associated with the co-efficients for the respective variables
proved significant (at p < 0.0005). This provides reasonable
evidence that the seven independent variables can be used to
predict the potential performance of PMs in MHBPs.
Subsequently, the following model equation is derived using the
respective co-fficients
Yp = 0.702 + 0.356 (Knsterep) + 0.277 (Dediprog) + 0.259

(Knthcrep) + 0.267 (Timemgmt) + (-0.366) (Abilcon) + 0.203
(Easeproj) + 0.192 (Volhelp) (R2 adjusted = 74.4) ………………………
…………………………………………….. (7.7)
In the equation above (7.7), Yp = the predicted performance
outcome and the acronyms representing the independent variables
are defined as Knstlrep = job knowledge in site layout techniques
for repetitive construction works; Dediprog = dedication in
helping to achieve works programme; Kntchrep = job knowledge
in technology transfer for repetitive construction works;
Timemgmt= time management practices on house-units; Abilcon =
ability to solve conflicts while maintaining good working
relationships; Easeproj = ease with which works contractors can
approach PM; Volhelp = volunteering to help works contractors
solve personal problems.
The implication of equation 7.7 is that the independent variables
identified (except ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts)
have a positive relation with the performance outcome herein
identified as meeting environmental, customer satisfaction, quality
and cost-time targets. That is in terms of “project factors” that are
within the control of PMs the appropriate use of these behavioural
competencies should provide a firm foundation towards improving
their managerial performance in meeting success targets in
MHBPs. This suggests that to help improve their managerial
performance in achieving the performance outcome, PMs should

(inter alia) have the potential of improving their knowledge and
skills in these independent variables.

Chapter 7 Model development
Table 7.1: Model Summary showing results of stepwise regression

Model Summary(h)
Std. Error Change Statistics

M R Adjusted of the R Durbin-
odel R Square R Square Estimate Square F Sig. F Watson
Change Change Df1 df2 Change
1 .666(a) .443 .433 .28475 .443 43.771 1 55 .000
2 .768(b) .589 .574 .24678 .146 19.230 1 54 .000
3 .821(c) .673 .655 .22212 .084 13.652 1 53 .001
4 .837(d) .700 .677 .21501 .026 4.566 1 52 .037
5 .850(e) .723 .696 .20854 .023 4.277 1 51 .044
6 .870(f) .758 .729 .19703 .035 7.133 1 50 .010
7 .881(g) .776 .744 .19118 .019 4.106 1 49 .048 2.095
a Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works
b Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works
contractors/and or artisans to achieve work programmes
c Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
and/or artisans to achieve work programmes, knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works
d Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
and/or artisans to achieve work programmes, knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works, Effective time
management practices on all project sites
e Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
management practices on all project sites , Ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good relationships
f Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
management practices on all project sites , Ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good relationships, Ease with which
works contractors and/or artisans are able to approach project manager with their problems
g Predictors: (Constant), Knowledge of appropriate site layout techniques for repetitive construction works , Dedication in helping works contractors
management practices on all project sites , Ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good relationships, Ease with which
works contractors and/or artisans are able to approach project manager with their problems, Volunteering to help works contractors and/or artisans
solve external difficulties
h Dependent Variable: performance outcome
Note: the above indicates the order in which the variables were added
Thus, the implication of this finding is that while it might be
important for PMs to have all the necessary competencies relating
to the management of MHBPs, the presence of the competencies
identified are likely to enhance the achievement of higher
performance levels on these projects. That is, while the knowledge
of other related competencies might help in delivering some
required level of managerial performance in MHBPs, the
knowledge of these competency profiles will help increase the
PMs’ chances of achieving managerial excellence.
The negative regression coefficient of the variable ability to
provide effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good
relationships suggests that it has a negative impact on
performance outcome. This seems to deviate from conventional
wisdom and further discussion on it is provided in section 7.3.2.
7.2.2 Test of goodness of fit
In developing the regression model, the aim was to try and
maximise the measurement of the adjusted R2 which is a measure
of good-fitness. As already pointed out in the previous section, an
adjusted R2 of 74.4% (model 7) is appreciably high and this
suggests that the model is a relatively good model. Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) (Table 7.2) also indicated that the regression
equation (i.e. equation 7) is significant (i.e. at p< 0.0005). The

Durbin-Watson test (see Table 7.1) also recorded an acceptable
figure of 2.095 suggesting that residual errors are not correlated
or conform to the assumptions of normality. These encouraging
test parameters are further indications of the goodness of fit of the
model.
In order to check the potential influence of multicollinearity, two
diagnostic tests, tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) were
undertaken as part of the beta standardised regression coefficients
(see Table 7.3). Multcollinearity is used to check whether high
correlations exist among the sets of predictor (independent)
variables in the regression model. The tolerance values are a
measure of the correlation between the predictor variables and
can vary between 0 and 1. According to Brace et al (2003), the
closer to zero the tolerance value is for a variable, the stronger the
relationship between this and other predictor variables. However,
Brace et al, (2003) cautions that one should be concerned about
such very low tolerances (i.e. tolerances close to zero).
Alternatively, this means that any variable with a VIF of more than
2.0 should be a source of concern (see Blaikie, 2003).
Table 7.2: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Optimum Regression

Model
Model Sum of Degrees of Mean F Significanc
squares freedom Square e
Regression 6.218 7 .888 24.303 .000
Residual 1.791 49 .037
Total 8.009 56
Table 7.3 (containing the diagnostic test) shows that the lowest
tolerance is 0.495 whilst the highest is 0.603. The relatively high
values suggest low level of collinearity in the predictor
(independent) variables. Similarly the VIF values for all variables
were within the reasonably accepted limit of 2.0. In this respect it
could safely be confirmed that there was no issue of
multicollinearity regarding the independent variables.
Table 7.3: Coefficients /Collinearity diagnostic of Optimum

Regression Model
Variable βc σd βe tf Significance Toleran VIFJ
descriptionb g
ceh
(Constant) .702 .238 2.949 .005
Knowledge .190 .047 .356 4.096 .000 .603 1.569
of
appropriate
site layout
techniques
for
repetitive
constructio
n works
Dedication .134 .043 .277 3.142 .003 .585 1.709
in helping
works
contractors
to achieve
work
schedules
Knowledge .125 .040 .259 3.098 .003 .652 1.533
of
appropriate
technology
transfer for
repetitive
constructio
n works
Effective .165 .050 .267 3.321 .002 .707 1.413
time
manageme
nt practices
on all
project
sites
Ability to -1.8 .047 -.366 -3.811 .000 .495 2.020

provide 0
effective
solutions to
conflicts
while
maintaining
good
relationship
s
Ease with .087 .039 .203 2.225 .031 .546 1.831
which
works
contractors
are able to
approach
the Project
manager
with their
problems
Volunteerin .082 .040 .192 2.026 .048 .507 1.971
g to help
works
contractors
solve
external
difficulties
a
Variable acronym as in equation (7.7)
b
Variables as defined in equation (7.7)
c
Regression coefficient
d
Standard error of variable regression coefficient
e
Standardized regression coefficient which gives measure of the contribution of each variable to the
model
f
Value of t-statistics
g
Significance of t-statistics
h
Tolerance for multicollinearity measure
j
Variance inflation factor for multicollinearity measure
7.2.3 Residual Analysis
The test made on the estimated regression coefficient is
dependent on the assumption that the sample points are randomly
selected and each comes from identically distributed normal
populations of data all with the same variance. A residual analysis
can be used to establish the validity of the model in satisfying this
condition (Field, 2000; Field, 2005; Faircoulgh, 2006). Thus, given
the multiple regression model,

y = α + β1x1i + β2x2i + …βKxKi + ε. ……. ………………………………. ( 7.8)
Where, ε the residual error is normally independently distributed
with mean 0 and variance σ2. According to Field (2005), the
residual errors can be used to check the validity of the model by
undertaking residual analysis. Supposedly, if the multiple
regression y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 is fitted to a known data and
obtained some equation in terms of ỹ, then the residuals can be
calculated by establishing the (y - ỹ) values. Subsequently the sum
of the squares of the residual (residual SS) is given by Σ(y - ỹ)2 .
If the analysis is being carried out using a computer package, then
the approximated normality of the residuals can be checked using
normal probability plots (Field, 2000: 2005). This is done by
calculating the expected cumulative probability and plotting it
against the observed cumulative probability. If the multiple
regression model is appropriate, then the standardardized
residuals should normally be distributed with mean 0 and standard
deviation 1. It is also known that 95% of the values of a standard
normal variable would usually be in the interval -2 to +2 and
99.7% in the interval -3 to+3 (see Field, 2000; Fairclough, 2005;
Field, 2005). Besides the normal probability plot should lie close to
a straight line (ibid).

Using SPSS, the histogram for the regression standardized
residual is reproduced as in Figure 7.1. The distribution of the
histogram suggests some normality in the data. The normal
probability plot is also shown in figure 7.2. The normal probability
plot shows that the points lie close to the straight line indicating
that the residuals are approximately normally distributed. Note
also that the Durbin-Watson test (as earlier reported) indicated
that the residual errors are independent or not correlated.
Histogram
Dependent Variable: Overall performance outcome
14
12
10
4
Frequency
Std. Dev =.94

2 Mean =0.00
0 N =57.00
-2
-1 0
-1 5
-1 0
-1 5
-.7 0
-.5
-.2
0.
.2
.5
.7
1.
1. 0
1. 5
1.
2.
2. 0
5
0
5
75
0
25
00
0
2
50
.0
.7
.5
.2
.0
5
0
5
Regression Standardized Residual
Figure 7.1: Histogram for frequency against regression

standardized residual
These results provide reasonable compelling evidence that the
substantive model developed is valid. The graph of unstandardized
predicted value against standardized residuals is shown in figure

7.3. The results also indicate that the residual between parallel
horizontal lines lie at about +2 and -2. Furthermore, there was no
clear pattern in the scatter plot confirming that the regression
equation is robust.
Overall performance outcome (a)

1.00
.75
.50
Expected Cum Prob
.25
0.00
0.00 .25 .50 .75 1.00
Observed Cum Prob
Figure 7.2: Normal probability plot of regression standardised

residual
1
Standardized Residual
-1
-2
2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Unstandardized Predicted Value
Figure 7.3: Scatter of standardized residual against

unstandardized predicted value
7.3 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
Section 7.2.1 has described the optimum statistical model for
predicting the performance of PMs in MHBPs. This optimum model
was obtained through accepted regression modelling practices.
The regression technique included maximizing the R2 value by
adding through stepwise selection technique variables that are
statistically significant. As already noted, the main objective of this
study was to help develop a model for predicting the potential
performance of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana. The motivation for the
study stems from the increasingly important role that PMs are
playing in the management of MHBPs in the Ghanaian

construction industry, and the subsequent necessity for an
empirically structured system to help validate their managerial
performance towards best practice improvement (Amoa-Mensah,
2002; Ahadzie et al, 2004; 2005a; 2006.) Here, the discussion of
the findings (including potential implications for PMs’
performance improvement in MHBPs) is argued in the context of
how they converge with the body of literature in the HRM genre
especially the underlying theoretical framework from applied
psychology. Thereafter, the significance of the individual variables
towards engendering effective managerial performance of PMs is
elucidated.
7.3.1 Convergence of Findings with the Theoretical

Framework Adopted
As demonstrated in chapter two, there is a growing awareness
within the construction industry of the relationship between
project success and PMs’ competencies. Similarly, it is becoming
increasingly apparent that, competency-based models are useful
for enabling an understanding of the professional development
required to engender the appropriate competencies. Accordingly,
the contemporary view is increasingly shifting towards
competency-based metrics which draw on key behavioural
measures (see e.g. Dullaimi et al, 1999; Dainty et al, 2003; 2004;
2005; Cheng et al, 2005: Skipper et al, 2006). Thus, insofar as
competency-based measures represent an established recourse
towards encouraging the PMs’ continuing professional

development, they represent an integral part for addressing a
critical variety of HRM actions and outcomes (Tett et al, 2000;
Cheng et al, 2005).
Indeed these behavioural measures are useful for providing the
psychological understanding needed when selecting and
predicting human performance (Motowidlo et al, 1997; Scullen,
2003). These behavioural measures, more than general traits, are
amenable to change through training and are useful for identifying
training requirements of PMs. Thus, recognising and incorporating
these measures in organisational programmes is useful not only
for the continuing professional development (CPD) of PMs, but
also for their professional competitiveness (Dainty et al, 2003).
These are some of the key reasons why the theoretical framework
adopted for this study, while emphasising the relevance of
performance outcome draws significantly on behavioural
measures. Subsequently, for ease of reference in the ensuing
discussion, the predictor variables have been regrouped to reflect
the philosophy of the theoretical framework which is to distinguish
contextual performance behaviours from task performance
behaviours (see table 7.4).
It is noted that both aspects of contextual and task performance
behaviours were accounted for in the model suggesting that the
established distinction in organisational psychology theory may be
empirically relevant for validating PMs’ performance measures in

MHBPs (Table 7.4). Borman and Motowidlo (1993) and
subsequently Conway (1996) have contended that contextual
performance behaviours could be accounting for 30% of the
variance in managerial performance, and task performance
behaviours could be accounting for over 50% (see chapter four).
A cursory look at Table 7.4 (reproduced from model summary)
shows that in this instance as well, whilst aspects of task
performance behaviours accounted for about 50% of the variance,
aspects of contextual performance behaviours accounted for about
24%. The similarity of the findings suggests that the theoretical
basis of this research is potentially very relevant for understanding
the PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs.
Table 7.4: Independent variables accounted in the optimum

regression model
Performance Variables included % variance of Total %
domain individual variance
variables ( R2 accounted
change) (R2)
Contextual 24.90%
Performance
behaviours
Job dedication • Dedication in 14.6%
helping works
contractors to
achieve works
programme
Interpersonal • Effective time 2.6%
facilitation management on all
project sites
• Ability to provide
solutions to 2.3%
conflicts while
maintaining good
relationship
• Ease with which 3.5%
works contractors
are able to
approach PMs with
their problems 1.9%
• Volunteering to
help works
contractors in
their personal
problems
Task 52.70 %
performance
behaviours
Job knowledge • Knowledge of 44.3%
appropriate site
layout techniques
for repetitive
construction works
• Knowledge of 8.4%
appropriate
technology
transfer for
repetitive
construction works
Cognitive ability Nil
Task proficiency Nil
Experience Nil
With regard to the contextual performance domain, aspects of job
dedication and interpersonal facilitation were both accounted for,
though interpersonal facilitation features more in terms of the
number of variables included in the model (Table 7.3). This
concurs with Borman and Motowidlo’s (1997) assertion that, in
managerial performance evaluations, the antecedents of
contextual performance behaviours are more likely to involve
personality factors. That is, if aspects of contextual performance
behaviours are included as criteria for the performance evaluation,
then personality predictors are more likely to be successful for
selection than if they are not included. However, albeit aspects of
interpersonal facilitation featured more in terms of variables, they
do not necessary account for a greater percentage of the total
variance of contextual performance behaviours.
Job dedication accounted for 14% of the variance whilst aspects of
interpersonal facilitation accounted for approximately 10%. This

result is also very revealing in the context of the theoretical
framework adopted. For instance, Van Scotter and Motowidlo
(1996) and Conway (1999) have contested which of these two
constructs should be more relevant for judging an individuals job
performance. Whilst both researchers concur that aspects of job
dedication and interpersonal facilitation are important, Van
Scotter and Motowildo (1996) suggested that aspects of job
dedication are only marginally significant relative to interpersonal
facilitation and would normally be redundant. Alternately, Conway
(1999) argued for the contrary especially in regard to managerial
job performance evaluation. Here, the findings concur with
Conway’s (1999) assertion that in managerial job evaluation,
aspects of job dedication cannot be discounted and could be
accounting for more of the variance associated with contextual
performance behaviours. At least in this sense, the most relevant
conclusion is that both aspects of interpersonal facilitation and job
dedication are plausible and distinct variables to be considered for
PMs’ performance measures in MHBPs.
The only task performance behaviour found to be significant was
job knowledge (Table 7.4). While the inclusion of this variable is
not surprising, nevertheless it seems odd that for instance aspects
of the constructs “experience” and “task proficiency” (often
implied in construction management literature) (see for instance
Edum-Fotwe and McAffer, 2000: Odusami et al, 2003) did not
emerge in the findings. Yet, this also converges with the relevant
applied psychology literature (see chapter four). For instance
Hunter (1983) and later Schimt et al (1986) both found (using path
analysis) that, in evaluating an individual’s job performance,
aspects of the constructs; experience, cognitive ability and task
proficiency albeit important do largely manifest through their
effect on job knowledge. Here, the plausible interpretation is that
despite the traditionally “task oriented” nature of the construction
industry and for that matter MHBPs, PMs are not expected to
demonstrate strong involvement in task proficiency because they
get jobs done through other people (see for instance Conway,
1999). Thus, while the technical skills of the PM might be
important because they are not traditionally involved in
undertaking most tasks themselves, it seems reasonable that it
should not feature prominently the evaluation of their
performance.
It is also intriguing that aspects of cognitive ability did not feature
at all in the findings, even though Borman and Motowidlo (1997)
had argued that these are more likely to predict task performance
behaviours. However, other writers do maintain that while
cognitive ability is important, (i.e. just like experience and task
proficiency) it also normally manifests itself through job
knowledge (see for instance Campbell, 1993; Campbell et al,
1996). What is more, McCrae and Costa (1996) adopted a
different framework from Hunter (1983) and Campbell (1993), but
ended up drawing similar conclusions that cognitive ability (among

others) often draws on job knowledge. Thus, while it may be valid
that the antecedents of cognitive ability are more likely to predict
task performance behaviours, the evidence suggests that their
effect on job performance is mediated by other variables such as
job knowledge.
Admittedly, the construct experience when viewed in the global
market (e.g. in terms of “seniority”or number of years in a work
seting) is well recognised as important criteria for establishing the
job potential of PMs (see for instance Ogunlana et al, 2002).
However, and as noted earlier in chapter five (page 131), in this
thesis, the construct is viewed in terms of its potential effect in
relation to the judgment of property developers concerning the
performance of PMs on an ongoing (i.e. present) job or task and
not as seen on the “labour market” for the purposes of ,say,
recruitment exercises. Thus, a plausible deduction from the above
finding is that while the behaviours associated with the construct
experience is an important determinant in helping to make
informed decisions on the choice and selection of potentially
competent PMs, in considering its effect in respect to the
judgment of property developers on an ongoing job or the task at
hand, it is rather how any experience acquired by the PM is
translated into job knowledge that seems to matter in the end.
Thus, whilst the level of experience of the PM might be important,
ultimately, it is how the relevant behavioural experience is

successfully translated into job knowledge on an ongoing task that
might be crucial in judging their current performance.
An important benefit of the contextual-task concept is that it
provides a framework for having a deeper understanding of the
PMs’ performance domain (see chapter four). The findings of this
study have demonstrated that aspects of both contextual and task
performance behaviours make a significant contribution to the
PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs. This suggests that the
contextual-task performance distinction may be conceptually and
empirically relevant to other project-based sectors of the
construction industry. Given that behavioural competencies are
more amenable towards identifying training requirements, the
contextual –task typology provides the opportunity for a detailed
analysis of managerial performance and its effect. The findings of
this research could therefore be used to underpin the development
of appropriate training programmes for improving the PMs’
performance in MHBPs. Subsequently an in-depth discussion of
the significance of each of the predictor variables is addressed in
the ensuing section.

7.3.2 The Significance of the Competency Profiles
towards Engendering the Performance of PMs in
MHBPs
As reported in the foregoing discussion, in developing the
predictive model, it was necessary to distinguish between task
performance behaviours and contextual performance behaviours.
While task performance behaviours are job specific and are
associated with the PMs’ technical functions such as organizing,
planning, coordinating and controlling, contextual performance
behaviours are those discretionary job-related acts which
informally contribute to organisational effectiveness but are not
formally recognized as part of the job. As noted in chapter four,
the term “performance” in this research context is defined as the
behavioural action of the PM towards achieving the expected
outcome. Thus in this respect, the identification of these
competency profiles suggest that PMs who have better knowledge
in, for instance, site layout practices and technology transfer
would be expected to exhibit better task behaviours associated
with these variables than those without such knowledge.
Furthermore, if the task behaviours associated with these
variables (i.e. site layout practices/technology transfer) are to lead
to better performance outcome in MHBPs, then PMs should posses
the necessary skills as identified in the remaining variables, these
being related to contextual performance behaviours.

Here, the R2 change, the standardised regression co-efficients (i.e.
beta), the t-values and the respective p-values have been
reproduced and reported in Tables 7.5. The R2 change is a
measure of how the predictive power of the model changes with
the addition or removal of the variables identified. The beta values
(explained earlier in the regression analysis) are measures of how
strongly each variable influences the overall performance
outcome. Thus, for a variable to be deemed as making a significant
contribution, the beta value should differ significantly from zero
(see for instance Field, 2000; 2005). Accordingly, the t-values
provide a test of the hypothesis that the beta values differ
significantly from zero (i.e. the p-value should be less than
0.0005).
Table 7.5: Coefficients of Optimum Regression Model

Variablea Variable Beta t-values Significanc R2
description values e change
NA (Constant) .
Knstlrep Knowledge of .356 4.096 .000 44.3%
appropriate site
layout techniques
for repetitive
construction
works
Dediprog Dedication in .277 3.142 .003 14.6%
helping works
contractors to
achieve work
schedules
Kntchrep Knowledge of .259 3.098 .003 8.4%
appropriate
technology
transfer for
repetitive
construction
works
Timemgm Effective time .267 3.321 .002 2.6%
t management
practices on all
project sites
Abilcon Ability to provide -.366 -.3.811 .000 2.3 %
effective solutions
to conflicts while
maintaining good
relationships
Easeproj Ease with which .203 2.225 .031 3.5%
work contractors
are able to
approach the
Project manager
with their
problems
Volhelp Volunteering to .192 2.026 .048 1.9%
help works
contractors solve
external
difficulties
7.3.2.1 Task performance beahviours
Job knowledge of site layout techniques for repetitive construction
works
The variable job knowledge in appropriate site layout technique
for repetitive construction works accounted for 44.3% of the total
variance (i.e. out of 74%) (Table7.5). This is against the
background that Borman and Motowildo (1993) and Conway
(1999) have confirmed that task performance behaviours and
contextual performance behaviours would normally account for
approximately 70% of total variance in managerial performance

evaluations. Therefore for this variable alone to account for more
than half of the total variance in the performance outcome
suggests that it is critical in determining the managerial
excellence of PMs in MHBPs. In addition, the relative strength of
the impact of the variable as reflected in the beta value (of 0.359)
is shown in both Tables 7.4 and Figure 7.1. The p-value (p <
0.0005) suggests that the beta value differs significantly from
zero, confirming the relatively stronger contribution of this
variable to the overall performance outcome.
While the inclusion of job knowledge in site layout practices as the
most important determinant of the performance of the PM appears
contrary to the findings in some existing literature (see for
instance Fraser and Zakrada-Fraser, 2003), the high impact value
it received here suggest that it can not be discounted in the
context of the study area. In particular, the finding suggest that in
the Ghanaian context, there might be some underlying managerial
issues relating site layout practices that property developers feel
PMs should probably focus on towards improving their
performance on MHBPs. There might therefore be the need for
further investigations towards understanding and managing the
situation better, especially given that a well planned site can
contribute to reducing construction cost and time by minimizing
travel time, decreasing time and effort in materials handling,
increasing productivity and improving safety and eliminate waste
(Pheng and Sui, 1999; Elbeltagi et al, 2002; Ngowi, 2001).

Without a doubt, it should be recognised that, in multiple and
large scale projects such as MHBPs, it is more difficult to manage
the site layout efficiently due to the vast number of trades and
inter-related planning constraints (Tam and Tong, 2003). Thus,
further investigations in the context of the study area might help
in revealing problem areas that can help PMs to be better focussed
towards developing the appropriate competencies for facilitating
effective site layout management practices.
Job knowledge in technology transfer for repetitive construction
works
Technology transfer as used here is the application of innovations
that are new to the property developer and have the potential of
significantly improving performance by decreasing installed cost,
increasing installed performance and improving the business of
the process (Toole, 1997). Many researchers concur that
technology transfer has the potential of improving performance
outcome (see for example Yang et al 2006). This assertion is also
confirmed by the factor analysis in chapter six. However, generally
property developers are often reluctant to embrace technology
transfer because of the uncertainties surrounding its adoption
(Toole, 1997; Yang et al, 2006). Uncertainty as used here relates to
the situation where the property developer lacks the relevant
information towards making an informed decision on adopting
innovations (Toole, 1997).

The finding provides some evidence that the PMs’ knowledge in
technology transfer impact positvely on performance outcome (R2
change of 8.7% and co-efficient of 0.259) (Table 7.4 and figure
7.1). That is, the PMs’ knowledge of innovation related activities
has the potential of contributing to their being rated as successful
in the management of MHBPs. In particular, Toole (1997) has
argued that the adoption of innovation by property developers is
positively and significantly related to them having an individual
with a background in innovation related activities. Thus, given the
increasingly strategic role that PMs are playing in MHBPs in
Ghana for instance, the findings suggest that their knowledge in
innovation related activities could be important towards enhancing
their performance. This should therefore also encourage PMs to
strive to develop their knowledge and understanding of innovation
related activities especially in developing countries where the urge
to increase the quantity of housing has often brought to the fore
the need for adopting appropriate technology transfer (especially
with regard to the use of local materials) (Mehta and Bridewell
2006).
7.3.3.2 The Contextual performance behaviours
Regarding the interpersonal behaviours associated with
dedication, time management; ease of approachability of PM,
volunteering and ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts,

there are already widespread research studies of the importance
of these variables in performance management (see Pheng and
Chuan, 2006). From an applied psychology perspective, the reason
why these contextual performance behaviours are critical is that
while they may not be specifically goal oriented, their presence is
needed to facilitate the successful achievement of organizational
goals.
Job Dedication in helping works contractora achieve works
programme
According to Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1996), job dedication is
the motivational foundation that drives people to act with
deliberate intention of promoting an organisations best interest
and includes self-disciplined behaviours such as following rules,
working hard and taking initiative to solve problems at work.
Here, the variable job dedication in helping works contractors
achieve works programme is associated with the PMs’
commitment in helping works contractors to systematically plan
and schedule their tasks ahead of execution. In this case the R2
change recorded approximately 14% (Table 7.5) and beta (0.227)
was positively significant at p < 0.0005 (Tables 7.5).
It is noted that some researchers have contested the need to
separate job dedication from interpersonal facilitation in
performance evaluations. However, Conway (1999) and Scullen et
al (2003) have recently shown that job dedication makes unique

and significant contribution and needs to be treated separately
especially in managerial performance evaluations (see also Wang
and Amstrong, 2004). The evidence as reported earlier also
suggests that contextual performance behaviours would normally
account for 30% of the total variance in managerial performance
evaluations. Thus for this variable alone to account for
approximately half of the potential total contribution of contextual
performance behaviours affirms the significant contribution this
makes towards achieving managerial excellence in MHBPs.
Interestingly job dedication has also not been subjected to any
rigorous and independent academic studies within project-based
sectors such as MHBPs. This is because it is often treated as an
inherent part of interpersonal skills, which makes it more or less
redundant for specific investigations to understand its impact.
However these research findings have revealed that it may be an
important aspect of helping to predict/determine the performance
of PMs. It might therefore be important for the subject to receive
future research attention so that its impact could be fully
understood towards improving the performance of PMs in MHBPs.
Interpersonal Facilitation
The remaining variables (namely time management,
approachability, effective conflict resolution and volunteering) fall
under the construct interpersonal facilitation. Interpersonal
facilitation encourages a range of interpersonal acts that help

maintain the social context needed to support organisational
effectiveness. The R2 change for the variables are effective time
management (2.6%), ability to provide effective solution while
maintaining good relationships (2.3%), ease with which PM is
approachable (3.5%) and the PM volunteering to help works
contractors (1.9%). While these R2 seem relatively small (as
compared to the others) the model results indicate that they are
nevertheless significant. Despite these R2 being relatively small,
the t-test suggests that the beta values (Table 7.5) are significantly
different from zero (i.e. p< 0.0005). This suggests that these
competency profiles make a reasonably significant contribution
towards predicting the performance outcome and therefore could
be helpful in improving the PMs’ performance. Alternatively, their
combined effect in terms of the R2 change accounts for
approximately 10% which is a significant portion of the total
variance (i.e.30%) normally accounted for by contextual
performance behaviours in managerial performance (see for
instance Van Scotter and Motowidlo, 1996).
What is also particularly interesting is that the beta value for the
variable ability to provide effective solutions to conflicts while
maintaining good relationships emerged negative (see figure 7.4).
This suggests that it has a negative impact on the performance
outcome, which seems to deviate from conventional wisdom.
However there is also a reasonable explanation for this.

Generally the issue of conflicts and conflict resolution is a complex
issue in the construction process (Leung et al, 2005). The most
commonly held view is that conflicts are detrimental to project
success and must be eliminated and resolved. Others regard some
moderate level of conflict as a catalyst to product/process
improvement (ibid). Leung et al (2005) has provided evidence to
suggest that in solving conflicts, various approaches tend to have
different impacts on the satisfaction of the project participants and
hence performance outcome. They argued that, there are basically
three established approaches for solving conflicts, namely;
emotional/rational which focuses on the cognitive component of
conflicts; task/relationship which highlights how individuals differ
in the extent to which they attribute conflicts to problems in
relationships; and the integration which signifies a “win-win”
situation in the interest of all concerned parties. The evidence
provided by Leung et al (2005) suggests that, paying too much
attention to the former two approaches does not necessarily prove
a direct relationship with satisfaction and hence may induce a
dysfunctional performance outcome. On the contrary, they found
that there is a positive relationship between the integrated
approach and the satisfaction of participants. Here, a plausible
explanation for the negative coefficient of this variable (ability to
provide effective solutions while maintaining good relationships)
may be that, at least in the Ghanaian situation (and perhaps for
many other developing countries), property developers do often
experience excessive conflicts amongst works contractors and

moreover, PMs are not able to provide effective solutions towards
improving performance. There might therefore be the need for an
in-depth study at least in the Ghanaian context in conflicts/conflict
resolution towards understanding the situation better and
establishing an effective way forward.
It is to be noted that while PMs are accountable for success in
project management practice, their effectiveness is only one of
many factors that impinges on the outcome of projects. However
as noted by Goodwin (1993), the effectiveness of the PM
constitutes a critical parameter among the variables that directly
affect the performance outcome. It is for this reason that the
personal skills of PMs such as those identified here need to be
clearly understood by stake holders (property developers in this
case) and those aspiring to be PMs.
Given that the data elicited for this study was based on the
experience of property developers, the findings provide a clear
indication for aspiring and experienced PMs of what property
developers expect of them towards engendering managerial
excellence in MHBPs. It is therefore contended that the variables
identified (herein called competency profiles) should provide the
empirical basis on which PMs can aspire to improve their own
performance through appropriate professional development.
Subsequently the potential application of the model is described in
the following section.

7.4 RECOMMENDED APPLICATION OF THE
COMPETENCY-BASED PROFILES
Competency models are the first step in developing job-specific
profiles and in rating an employee’s level of competency against a
validated set of measures (Mirabile, 1997). Competency profiles
are also important issues presently in a variety of settings
including education, business organisations and many other
human resource management activities (see for instance Lyons,
2003; Gale, 2003; Ford, 2004; Schultze and Miller, 2004). The
predictive model developed in this thesis therefore has potential
for application in various HRM practices in MHBPs such as team-
deployment and job-matching, recruitment and selection, career
development and succession planning and curriculum
development for PMs. The recommended details are as follows:
7.4.1 Team Deployment and Job-Matching
It is recognised that an individual’s competency profile can be
used to reconcile against the competency profile of a job position
so that the degree of fit can be established (Spencer and Spencer,
(1993) cited in Dainty et al (2003) (Lyons, 2003). Consequently

these competency profiles can be used in practice by property
developers for deploying PMs with the appropriate competencies
for managerial positions in MHBPs. The model could be used to
develop an inservice decision making tool in the event that
property developers may want to deploy other categories of staff
(e.g. deputy PM and/or project coordinator) who demonstrate
some reasonable understanding of the relevent knowledge and
skills to assist the PM. Alternatively, if the PM falls sick for
example and a replacement is needed as quickly as possible, the
checklist so developed could be used to quickly identify the
appropriate person. Subsequently the profiles can be used in
recruitment and selection as well in succession planning.
7.4.2 Recruitment and Selection
Ogunlana et al (2002) have observed that, one of the key problems
often encountered by construction executives in project based
industries such as MHBPs is the appointing of the “right” PM. In
particular any mismatch has a potential basis for a conflict of
interest which can result in differing behaviours and outcomes
from an individual (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Arglye, 1994; Pickett,
1998; Dainty et al, 2003). However, competency-based models
provide a robust framework that can help circumvent this
weakness (see e.g. Dainty et al, 2003). These research findings can
therefore be used for administrative purposes with regard to the
matching and selection of PMs onto MHBPs. Subsequently,

property developers can apply them so that they can make
informed and objective judgments in the selection and/or
appointment (including interviewing) of PMs who have the
appropriate skills and competencies.
It is also recognised that one of the major problems faced by
panellists in many organisations when interviewing is to have an
objective framework on which to make informed and uniform
decisions (Hartley and Braithwaite, 1979; Roberts, 1998; Lyons,
2003). These findings could therefore be used as an “interviewing
checklist” by the property developers so that when selecting
potential PMs, the interview panel will have a working framework
on which to ask questions and also score points for the PM with
the appropriate competencies and skills.
7.4.3 Career Development and Succession
The matching of skills to project based sectors of the construction
industry has been recognised as a critical tool for the career
prospects and professional developement of PMs (see for instance
Egbu, 1999). Interestingly, one of the main benefits of competency-
based measures is their usefulness for the development of training
requirements (Tett et al, 2000; Gale, 2004; Ford, 2004). This is
because competency-based measures enable PMs to understand
their strengths and weaknesses and, this contributes more
effectively to their professional development (Latham et al, 1979:

Brohpy and Kiely, 2002). These competency-profiles could
facilitate the CPD of PMs by ensuring that they maintain the
currency of the scope of the knowledge and skills that property
developers expect of them and are required by the demands of the
job. There is therefore the potential for the model to be used for
identifying training requirements to help engender the
professional development of PMs of MHBPs. Potentially, the
simplicity reflected in the findings (in terms of the relatively few
variables identified) should make it easy for adaptation by
property developers (see for instance Pickett, 1998).
Subsequently, it is contended that these competency profiles could
be used as a foundation for developing a knowledge-based tool-kit
or a skills charting competency mapping processes (see for
example, Lyons, 2003) for which PMs can review, plan and
undertake self-assessment of the key knowledge and skills they
require to engender their managerial excellence in MHBPs. In this
respect these profiles could be built into a point system (i.e. rating
system) similar to the Association of Project Management (APM) 4
point plan for professional development so that both aspiring and
experienced PMs in MHBPs can undertake self-assessment to
review and plan their CPD programmes and also to prove their
value and gain recognition of their professional expertise in the
management of MHBPs.
Alternatively, property developers could use this model to develop
competency-based schemes to reward management for developing
competencies in line with their organizational requirements (see
for instance Tett et al, 2000; Olomolaiye and Ebgu, 2004; Dainty et
al, 2005). To this effect, property developers could use the model
to develop in-service training schemes to empower PMs to take
action to address the deficiencies in their own competency
profiles. Subsequently by regularly monitoring their development
via the established profiles, property developers can reward PMs
who make efforts to align their performance with their
organizational competency training requirements.
Many project-based organisations are under pressure to devise
means for retaining and sustaining the commitment of their key
managerial staff (see for instance Kyriakidou and Ozbilgin, 2004;
Schultze and Miller, 2004). Interestingly, there is the evidence to
suggest that human resource personnel are most likely to be
committed to an organisation if they are rewarded and valued for
aligning their performance to the core objectives of the culture
and business environment within the organisation they operate
(Amstrong, 2003 cited in Olomolaiye and Ebgu, 2004). The
competency profiles developed could also be used as the basis to
design competency-based reward schemes for PMs engaged in
MHBPs thereby helping to reinforce, the acquisition and
implementation of the appropriate knowledge and also sutain their
commitment to best practices improvement in future projects.

7.4.4 Curriculum Development
Presently in Ghana (and perhaps many other developing countries)
construction project management training is generic and there is
very little room for professional development (either by short
courses) for specific project-based sectors. For instance, while the
implementation of MHBPs is increasingly emerging as a critical
foundation for most-project based sectors of the construction
industry, very little emphasis is placed on curriculum development
towards engendering project management practices in that sector.
However as demonstrated by, for instance, Gale (2004), it is
possible to develop an industry led programme which could be
used for both formal and informal project management
professional development. Given the strategic position of MHBPs
in many developing countries both in terms of scope and the
potential for advancement of improved HRM practices, these
findings (inter alia) could therefore be used as a foundation for
developing specific curriculae for HRM education and training in
the management of MHBPs.
7.5 SUMMARY
This chapter has provided a detailed account of the development
of a model for predicting the performance of PMs in MHBPs. The
findings suggest that the best predictors of PMs’ performance in
MHBPs at the construction phase are: job knowledge in site layout

techniques for repetitive construction works; dedication in helping
works contractors achieve works programme; job knowledge of
appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works;
effective time management on multiple house-units; ability to
solve conflicts while maintaining good relationships; ease with
which works contractors are able to approach the PM; and
volunteering to help works contractors solve personal problems.
ANOVA, multicollineriality, the Durbin-Watson test and residual
analysis undertaken confirm the goodness of fit of the developed
model and indicate that the model is statistically robust
Subsequent to the model development, the results have been
discussed in the context of identifying convergence with the basis
of the theoretical framework and potential relevance and
application in the management of MHBPs. It was argued that
based on the findings there is compelling evidence that the
contextual-task typology is relevant for the PMs’ performance
measures in MHBPs. It is asserted that, given the potential
benefits of competency-based models towards identifying the
training needs of PMs, the findings of this study could be used as a
foundation towards underpinning their continuing professional
development in MHBPs. The next chapter addresses the validation
of the model.
Chapter 7 Model Development
CHAPTER EIGHT
Chapter 8 ModelValidation
CHAPTER EIGHT: VALIDATION OF THE
COMPETENCY- BASED PREDICTIVE MODEL
8.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter addresses the validation of the competency-based
model developed for the construction phase of MHBPs in Ghana.
The aim of the validation process was to help establish whether
the concepts and methodologies used in developing the model are
sound and also to establish whether the findings are reliable.
Validation also provides a firm background against which, the
findings could be generalised. Thus validation is important
because it reflects the potential objectivity and reliability of the
model.
A generic discussion of the concept of validation is first presented.
Thereafter, a methodology for undertaking the validation exercise
namely, external and internal validation procedures are
introduced. Subsequently, the details involved in both validation
procedures as applied in this context are discussed.
8.1 THE CONCEPT OF VALIDATION

The concept of validation has different meanings in the various
stages of the research process especially the conceptual,
methodological, and empirical domain (Brinberg and McGrath,
1992) (Figure 8.1). At the conceptual domain, the validation can be
established (among others) by assessing the effectiveness, internal
consistency, testability and adaptability of the concepts used. At
the methodological domain, it would be expected that efficiency,
power (rigour), unbiasness, and explicitness would prevail.
Alternatively at the substantive domain, it would be expected that
the research should be beneficial or relevant in terms of any
potential practical applications and should also be subject to
replication and convergence towards identifying its boundaries
(Figure 8.1). Thus, after the development of the substantive model,
its generalization and transferability have to be validated to
ensure that it represents the characteristics of the general
population and that they are not specific to the samples used in
the estimation.
Conceptual Methodological Substantive
Effectiveness Efficiency Benefit

Internal Power Replication
Consistency Unbiasness Convergence
Testability Explicitness
Adaptability
Figure 8.1: Framework of validation
Source: Adapted from Brinberg and McGrath (1985)

In principle, any attempt at validating a research process should
reasonably aim at integrating the three domains and a plausible
methodology for assessment is for the researcher to strive towards
value, correspondence (or fit) and robustness (Brinberg and
McGrath, 1992). Value in this sense deals with the worthiness (or
added value) of the research, while correspondence is the degree
at which the features of the relations in the various domains match
or fit together. Robustness deals with testing the consistency of
the empirical findings through replication, convergence and
differentials (see also Walliman, 2000). That is, robustness deals
with the wider issue of generalizability or as is often called
external validity (Brinberg and McGrath, 1985; Bailey, 1987;;
Blaikie, 2003).
It is interesting to note that while reseachers agree that both
internal and external validation are important for validating the
research process, the literature is largely silent on what form the
internal validation process should to take (see for instance Fellows
et al, 2003). A useful technique that has been employed
successfully in recent times to achieve this integration is the two
dimensional methodology identified as; external and internal
validation (see for instance, Proverbs, 1998; Xiao, 2002). External
validation is particularly used in respect of the substantive domain
of the research process while internal validation has been applied

to the conceptual and methodological domains. Both validation
processes are now described in respect of this study.
8.2 EXTERNAL VALIDATION
Various external validation techniques are discussed including the
choice made for the purpose of this study. Details of the results are
then presented.
8.2.1 Background to the External Validation Analysis
Five main techniques have been identified for undertaking
external validation (Snee, 1977; Good and Hardin, 2003; Field,
2005). These are:
1) Using independent verification obtained by waiting until the
future arrives or through the use of surrogate variables.
2) Splitting the samples and using one part for estimating the
model and the other for validation.
3) Re-sampling, taking repeated samples from the original
sample and refilling the model each time.
4) Using Stein’s equation of re-calculating the adjusted co-
efficient of determination (R2) (Field, 2005).

5) Approaching experts to comment on relevant aspects of the
model including potential benefits (Brinberg and McGrath,
1985).
As a result of resource constraints (in particular financial and time
limits), using independent verification when the future arrives was
an option that could not be pursued here. The re-sampling
procedure was also discounted because as noted by Field (2005),
researchers particularly in social science related research such as
this rarely have sufficient data to perform this kind of analysis.
While splitting the sample seems to be the easier option, it also
sometimes suffers from the same problem as re-sampling if the
data is not large enough (Good and Hardin, 2003; Field, 2005).
However, Brown (1975) had suggested that instead of splitting one
can adopt what is termed “pool aside”. The proposition is to set
some of the data aside for validation purposes in which the mean
square errors (i.e. the residuals or predictive fit) can be used for
validation. If this methodology is adopted then Picard and Berk
(1990) implies that errors can be minimised by using
approximately 1/4th of the sample set aside for developing the
model for the validation.
Alternatively, Stein’s equation re-calculates the adjusted R2 and so
can be used for validation (Field, 2005). According to Field the
equation used in calculating the adjusted R2 in SPSS is somewhat
flawed because it does not account for how the regression model
would predict an entirely different set of data. Stein’s equation
addresses this flaw and thus reflects how well the model will
predict an entirely different set of data (Stevens, 1992; Field,
2000; 2005). That is, Steins equation is a measure of how well the
model can predict scores of different samples from the same
population. Stein’s equation for validating models is given by:
Adjusted R2 = 1- n- 1 n– 2 (1 – R2 )
..(8.1) n+1
n–k–1 n–k–2
n
Where, R2 is the unadjusted value, n is the number of cases and k
is the number of predictors in the model,
Given that in this study, the data collected was not very large in
relative terms, a “cross-validation” process was used involving the
“pool aside” technique and Stein’s equation. The “pool aside”
involved the use of 12 independent data (i.e. held-back data) not
previously used in the model development. In view of the
proposals made for the recommended application of the model
(section 7.4), it was also decided to consult some “experts” (i.e.
property developers, PMs and construction management
academicians) to comment on the potential relevance.

8.2.2 Test Results for External Validation
Here, the validation is discussed in terms of assessing predictive
accuracy of the model across different samples from the
population and the potentail relevance of the findings with respect
to, in particular, the recommended application in Ghana.
8.2.2.1 Predictive accuracy across samples
There are three methods of calculating the predictive fit: the mean
absolute value (MAD), the predictive mean squares error (MSE)
and the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). The MAD is the
average of the absolute values of each residual (i.e. the difference
between the observed values and the predicted values from the
model). MSE is the average of the squared residuals and MAPE is
the average of the absolute percentage error for each predicted
value (Good and Hardin, 2003; Xiao, 2003). Among the three, the
MAPE is preferred as a predictive accuracy measure as it is a
relative one (Xiao, 2003 citing Makridas et al, 1983).
The MAPE measures the magnitude of the errors incurred by the
forecast. Drawing from the observation made by Xiao (2003), it
was decided to use the MAPE to undertake the external validation.
Subsequently using the regression equation obtained from the
model, the predicted values were calculated using the scores of 12

respondents whose data were held back. Thereafter the residuals
of the actual and predicted performance scores were calculated as
shown in Table 8.1. Subsequently, the MAPE is calculated as
shown in Table 8.2. The MAPE is computed using |(e/y t)|/n where yt
is the predicted y over time t and n is the sample size used for
validation.
The result gives a MAPE of less than 5% and this corresponds well
with the relatively high R2 achieved for the model. Furthermore,
this MAPE compares favourably with many other multiple
regression models in construction management research such as
7.30% from Akintoye and Skitmore (1994), 6.99% from Goh
(1999), 10% from Chan and Kumaraswamy, (1999) and 5.25% from
Xiao (2003). The predictive accuracy of the model is acceptable
relative to conventional validation results in construction
management research.
Table 8.1: Tabulation of residuals

Respondent Yo (Actual) ỹ Yo-ỹ
(predicted) (residuals=
e)
1 3.17 4.28 -1.11
2 2.85 4.97 -2.12
3 3.74 5.77 -2.03
4 3.10 5.47 -2.37
5 3.08 4.82 -1.86
6 2.95 4.27 -1.32
7 2.95 4.73 -1.78
8 3.46 2.68 -2.38
9 3.06 4.87 -1.81
10 2.41 3.90 -1.49
11 3.09 4.56 -1.47
12 3.19 4.87 -1.68
Σ 21.42
Table 8.2: Calculation of mean absolute percentage errors

MAD Σ|e|/n) MSE (Σe2/n) MAPE Σ|(e/yt)|
/n
0.38 8.04 3.57%
The MAD and MSE values also indicated the variation of the
predicted value from the model. These values also compared
favourably with, for instance, Xiao’s (2003) of 0.37 and 17.28
respectively.
Hereafter, the adjusted R2 was also undertaking to establish
whether it will provide reasonable support to the predictive
accuracy.
The adjusted R2 using Stein’s equation resulted in the following:
Adjusted R2 = 1 - 57- 1 57 – 2 (1 – 78%)

57 + 1
57 – 7 – 1 57– 7 – 2
57
Thus Stein’s adjusted R2 = 69%
Stein’s equation also confirms that the model has the potential of
predicting quite well different samples of data from the
population.
In effect, this cross-validation exercise has indicated that the
model developed has the potential for achieving reasonable
predictive accuracy. That is, there is reasonable evidence to
suggest that the model reflects the characteristics of PMs’
performance and practices in MHBPs in Ghana and could be
applied in other developing countries particularly those in sub-
Saharan African (SSA) where the conditions are likely to be very
similar. Ultimately, it must be said that stochastic models such as
the one developed in this study are not absolutely perfect and it is
worth readers reflecting on this towards the potential application
of the model (Hair et al, 1998; Walliman, 2001; Field, 2005).
8.2.2.2 Feedback from experts on the potential relevance of

the findings viz. recommended application
Preamble
While these mathematical approaches are indeed useful for
establishing external validity, it is also often important to assess
any intended benefits of the model by, for instance, assessing how
potential users (i.e. practitioners and experts) view the relevance
of the findings (Brinberg and McGrath, 1985) (Figure 8.1). That is,
apart from establishing the predictive validity of models, it is also
useful to approach experts and practitioners to assess whether the
models correspond with reality.
It would be recalled that in the pilot and main surveys, a
representative of the KNUST was contacted to assist in the

delivery and retrieval of the questionnaires. Currently, a major
housing programme (among many others across the country) is
being implemented less than 2 km from the outskirts of the
KNUST and the opportunity was used to help validate any
potential benefits of the model.
Project description
The project (an affordable mass housing building project
sponsored by the GoG) commnenced in the later part of 2006 and
is located at Ayigya a suburb of Kumasi, (the second largest city of
Ghana) and less than 1.5 km from the KNUST. The total project
site covers an area of approximately 30 hectares (50 acres) and
comprises the construction of 66 No. 4-storey block apartments of
1- bedroom and 2-bedroom types including a living room, dining,
kitchen, store, toilet and bathrooms and shopping area. The total
contract sum is estimated to be in the region of about 250 billion
cedis (approximately 16 million pounds sterling at current
exchange rate)). Works in hand presently involves the completion
of structural core to roofing level and the first stage of the fixing of
services. 11 property developers are engaged on the site with each
handling up to six apartment blocks.
Data collection
As documented in section 5.3.6 in the research methodology
(chapter five), to help validate the potential relevance of the
recommended application of the model a “one- page”

questionnaire was sent to the representative (at the KNUST) to be
targeted at property developers and their PMs on the ongoing
project (Appendix 16). The sample size targeted was five property
developers (i.e. managing directors) and five PMs who work for
the property developers identified. Also targeted were five
construction management academicians (of the KNUST). The “one-
page” questionnaire as noted earlier in the research methodology
were sent on the 31st May 2007 and distributed on 1st June 2007.
Given the simplicity of the questionnaire (and also the fact the all
the respondents particularly the property developers were
operating on the same project site), all completed questionnaires
were retrieved within four days and faxed back to the UK on
6thJune 2007.
Tables 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5 provide details of the feedback received.
The questionnaire (Appendix 16) first introduced the variables
identified in the model development and asked the respondents to
assess on a scale of 1-5 the importance of the variables identified
in the research for engendering the performance of project
managers in MHBPs in Ghana. Generally, there was consensus
amongst the set of respondents with over 90% indicating these
variables as either important or very important (Tables, 8.3, 8.4
and 8.5).
Table 8.3: Feedback from property developers in respect of findings

(No. of respondents = 5)
Themes (Variables) Rating
Not Not Average Importa Very

n =5 very Import nt impotant
import ant
ant
1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge in site 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40) 3(60%)

layout techniques
Knowledge of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%)
appropriate
technology transfer
Dedication of the 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)
PM
Ability to provide 0(0) 1(20%) 4(80%)
effective solutions
to conflicts
Effective time 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)
management
practices on house-
units
Ease of 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(4%0)
approachablilty of
the PM by worrks
contractors and/ or
artisans
Volunteering to 0(0) 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 0(0)
help works
contractors and/or
artisans solve
personal problems
Note: Outside bracket represents number of respondents
Table 8.4: Feedback from project managers in respect of findings (No.

of respondents = 5)
Themes (variables) Rating
n=5 Not Not Average Importa Very

very Import nt impotant
impport ant
ant
1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge in site 0 (0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(80%)

layout techniques
Knowledge of 0 (0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
appropriate
technology transfer
Dedication of the 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)
PM
Ability to provide 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 2(40%) 1(20%)
effective solutions
to conflicts
Effective time 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(6%0) 2(40%)
management
practices on house-
units
Ease of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
approachability of
the PM by works
contractors and/ or
artisans
Volunteering to 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60 %) 0(0)
help works
contractors and/or
artisans solve
personal problems
Table 8.5: Feedback from academics in respect of findings (No. of

respondents=5)
Not Not Average Importa Very

n =5 very Import nt impotant
impport ant
ant
1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge in site 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 4(100%)

layout techniques
Knowledge of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%)
appropriate
technology transfer
Dedication of the 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)
PM
Ability to provide 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)
effective solutions
to conflicts
Effective time 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 4(80%)
management
practices on house-
units
Ease of 0(0) 0(0) 1(20) 1(20%) 3(60%)
approachability of
the PM by works
contractors and/or
artisans
Volunteering to 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
help works
contractors and/or
artisans solve
personal problems
The respondents were also asked questions relating to whether
they agree that it is important to further develop the findings into
a management checklist for practical application in Ghana;
consider it important for the themes to be used as a management
checklist to be used by property developers; consider the themes
to important to used used for curriculum development and their
willingness to use the toolkit when developed (Tables 8.6, 8.7 and
8.8). In this case too the feedback suggests that there was
somewhat overwhelming support that the potential application of
the findings would be welcomed and beneficial (ratings of
important and very important in most cases). It was also
encouraging to note the PMs largely concur to the feedback
suggesting that there is the potential for development of the
toolkit if developed for training purposes.
While the sample size used for this validation exercise is relatively
quite small for each set of consensus reached, the feedback, in
particular, the convergence achieved is generally encouraging and
generates some confidence that the developed model in in
congruence with the reality in Ghana and that, the recommended
application has the potential of being well received.

Table 8.6: Feedback from property developers in respect of

potential recommended application (respondents = 5)
Not very Not Average Importan Very

n=5 impporta Importan t impotant
nt t
1 2 3 4 5
Do you agree that 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 2(40%) 3(60%)

it is important to,
further develop
these themes into a
management
toolkit/checklist for
practical
application in
Ghana? Please
circle the
appropriate
number.
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
it important for
these themes to be
further developed
into a management
checklist, so that
property
developers can use
them as a guide for
recruiting and
appointing
potential project
managers for
MHBPs?
it important for the
themes identified
above to be further
developed as a
foundation for
curriculum
development, for
the training of
project managers
in the management
of MHBPs in
Ghana?
Please indicate 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)
your willingness to
use the
management
toolkit/checklist if
developed for
practical
application.
Note: Outside bracket represents number of respondents
Table 8.7: Feedback from project managers in respect of potential

recommended application (respondents = 5)
Themes (Variables) Rating
Not very Not Average Importan Very

n=5 impporta Importan t impotant
nt t
1 2 3 4 5
Do you agree that 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
it is important to,
further develop
these themes into a
management
practical
application in
Ghana? Please
circle the
appropriate
number.
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
it important for
these themes to be
further developed
into a management
checklist, so that
property
developers can use
them as a guide for
recruiting and
appointing
potential project
managers for
MHBPs?
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 2(40%) 2(40%)
themes identified
above to be further
developed as a
foundation for
curriculum
development, for
the training of
project managers
in the management
of MHBPs in
Ghana?
Please indicate 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 3(60%) 2(40%)
your willingness to
use the
management
developed for
practical
application.
Table 8.8: Feedback from construction management academics

with respect of potential application (respondents = 5)
Feedback variables Rating
N=5 Not very Not Average Importan Very

impporta Importan t impotant
nt t
1 2 3 4 5
Do you agree that 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1(20%) 4(80%)

it is important to,
further develop
these themes into a
management
practical
application in
Ghana? Please
circle the
appropriate
number.
it important for
these themes to be
further developed
into a management
checklist, so that
property
developers can use
them as a guide for
recruiting and
appointing
potential project
managers for
MHBPs?
Would you consider 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)

themes identified
above to be further
developed as a
foundation for
curriculum
development, for
the training of
project managers
in the management
of MHBPs in
Ghana?
Please indicate 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 5(100%)

your willingness to
use the
management
developed for
practical
application.
Finally, the respondents were also asked to make their own
assessments of the research findings and also offer suggestions on
any other way they think the model could be applied for the
benefit of the construction industry in Ghana. While many of them
re-emphasised that the findings have the potential for improving
project management practices in MHBPs in Ghana, there were

some particularly interesting assessments which are worthy of
note: For instance, one property developer wrote that;
“The themes are appropriate in application and in development
of training programmes for prospective project managers and
also to guide other stakeholders such as property developers and
governmental agencies” (Appendix 17)
Another propterty developer wrote thus:
“This will help Ghanaians or Contractors to have basis or
foundation to manage projects very well and efficiently. It should
be straight forward and understandable to the ordinary
contractor.” (Appendix, 18)
A contribution from one of the academics also read thus:
“I think it’s a timely research work which will be very relevant to
the Ghanaian constriction industry. I think almost all the areas
needing attention has been covered in the themes” (Appendix 19)
A contribution from one of the project managers also read thus:
“For any effective implementation, it is recommended that all
stakeholders within the hierarchy of property developers should
be involved and not just the project managers.” (Appendix, 20)

It is also refreshing to note that it is a PM who is drawing attention
to the fact that if potential application of the model is to be
successful all stakeholders should be involved. As noted in the
earlier part of the research, in project management practice it is
believed that the PM should be help accountable for project
success. However it is also noted that many of the factors that
affect the outcome of projects are outside the control of the PM.
The potential for achieving excellent managerial practices
therefore requires an integration of work, people, technology and
information in concomitance with an organisations strategy and
culture (Pickett, 1998). This suggests that other stakeholders
involved would have to play their part by making sure that those
factors outsite the PM are also appropriately integrated and
managed to help focus the effective use available resources on the
prime task of improved performance levels from PMs. There might
therefore be the need for future research to help understand the
taxonomy of the many of the other factors outside the control of
PMs that could impact negatively on their effort to strive for
excellence in the management of MHBPs.
8.3 INTERNAL VALIDATION
Internal validation seeks convergence of research findings among
three major aspects of the work namely; literature, questionnaire
development, analysis of questionnaire and academic validity. The
details are as follow:

8.3.1. Convergence 1: Literature search, Questionnaire

development and Analysis
8.3.1.1 Literature search and questionnaire development
Validation of the questionnaire development is reflected in the
convergence with the literature search and the theoretical
framework adopted (chapter four). The constructs for
operationalising the variables are supported by the well-acclaimed
organisational psychology theory of job performance (e.g. Borman
and Motowidlo, 1993; Conway, 1999) and Pinto and Slevin’s (1988)
project success model. Thus, the predictor variables had
reasonably theoretical bases for them to be included in the
questionnaire. The design and wording of the operational
measures were informed by extensive literature review of common
behavioural skills used in the construction and the human
resource management genre (e.g. Dainty et al, 2003; Johnson et al,
2002).
8.3.1.2 Literature and Questionnaire analysis

Three sets of analyses were undertaken in respect of the data
elicited, namely; the one-sample t-test, factor analysis and
regressional analysis. Convergence of the findings from the
literature and these analyses were identified. That is, the findings
from all three analyses were found to replicate the literature. The
details are as follows:
T-test and Factor analysis
One-sample t-test and factor analysis were used to identify the
constructs of the success criteria for MHBPs. Factor analysis
revealed four underlying clusters namely environmental impact,
customer satisfaction, quality and cost-time criteria and these
converged with a number of literature relating to MHBPs. (e.g.
Toole 1997; Torbica and Stroh; Ngowi, 2001). For instance, Ngowi
(2001), Morrel et al (2001) and Poon et al (2004) have all recently
highlighted the environmental criterion. Whilst Ngowi (2001)
focused on using environmentally-friendly building processes to
help address the environmental crisis resulting from MHBPs,
Morrel et al (2001) concentrated on how local materials can
effectively be managed to drastically reduce environmental waste.
Similarly, Poon et al (2004) addressed issues relating to waste
management arising out of the use of building materials on
housing projects. Other researchers such as Ukoha and Beamish,
(1999), Rukuro and Olima (2003) and Torbica and Stroh (2001)
have all addressed critical issues relating to customer satisfaction
in recent times. Equally, quality is also relatively well addressed

(Anderson, 1994; Ozoy et al, 1996; Torbica and Stroh, 2001; Mehta
and Bridewell, 2006). The analysis conforms to empirical evidence
that quality significantly predicts overall homebuyer satisfaction
(Torbica and Stroh, 2001). The cost- time criteria have also been
the subject of extreme research for the last 30 years (see Odenyika
and Yusif, 1997; OKuwugo 1998), and still continues to receive
considerable attention (e.g. Tam et al, 2002; Mhadi, 2004).
Multiple regression analysis
Here, the convergence is discussed in relation to the independent
variables identified in the model. Subsequently, the variables are
discussed under the various constructs under which they were
represented in the conceptual model, namely; job knowledge, job
dedication and interpersonal facilitation.
Task performance behaviours (Job Knowledge)
The variables identified under this construct were site layout
techniques for repetitive construction works and technology
transfer for repetitive construction works and, their convergence
was discussed extensively in sections 7.3.1 and 7.3.2. Some of the
cited works that supported the findings are Enhassi et al, (1997)
Elbeltagi et al, (2001) and Tam and Tong, (2003). Others works of
significance are attributed to Pheng and Sui (1999), Ngowi (2001)
and Sadeghbpour et al (2006). These writers recognise that space
on construction sites is as important as other resources including

money, time, material, labour and equipment. To conclude, Enhassi
(1997) argued that site layout planning in MHBPs is not only
critical but a necessity towards establishing an efficient site
organization and making a decisive influence on the performance
outcome.
Technology transfer has also been critically investigated in the
literature (Carrilo, 1996; Toole, 1997; Yong et al, 2006; Ganessan
and Kesley, 2006). Toole (1997) for instance emphasises the
importance of technology transfer when investigating uncertainty
and home builders’ adoption of technological innovations. In
particular, Toole (1997) found out that the adoption of innovation
by property developers is significantly related to the engagement
of an individual (e.g. the PM) with background knowledge in
innovation related activities. That is, it is reasonable to argue that
the PMs’ knowledge in technology transfer influences adoption
behaviour which is reflected in the implications of this finding. The
works of Akubue (2002) and Mehta and Bridwell, (2005) are all
notable in respect of the significance of technology transfer for
MHBPs.
Contextual performance behaviours (Interpersonal facilitation/Job
dedication)
The variables identified under contextual performance behaviours
were related to the PMs’ job dedication, time management,

conflict resolution techniques, ease of approachability and
volunteering skills.
These variables have in recent times become the focus of
construction management research (Crawford, 2005; Phen and
Chuan, 2006). Phen and Chuan (2006) for instance note that there
have been widespread research studies of personal managerial
skills of PMs and how they affect the performance of a project. The
importance of interpersonal relations, team spirit and
collaboration has also become recurring themes in construction
management research in recent times (Nicolini, 2002). El-Saaba
(2001) also highlighted that human factors are important skills
required by the PM. Recent behavioural studies undertaken in the
construction industry such as those by Dullaimi and Langford
(1999), Dainty et al, (2003; 2004; 2005), Cheng et al (2005) also
significantly support the findings.
Conflict resolution has also witnessed relatively intense research
interest in recent times (see for example Dershimer, 1993; Leung
and Yu, 2001; Leung et al, 2005). Indeed Leung et al (2005) noted
that the conflicts are bound to happen in construction because of
its labour intensive nature. Dershimer (1993) also concurs that
conflicts are bound to happen on construction sites and that what
is important is for the PM to have the skills to deal with them
effectively (see also Pinto and kharbanda, 1995).

The importance of time management, for instance, has also
received some considerable attention. Ramo (2004) explains that a
well managed “time” signifies the difference in managers either
being efficient and effective, achieving higher productivity;
enhanced job satisfaction; reduction of stress aiding forward
planning and higher creativity or not. Fryer et al (2004) also draw
attention to the fact that unlike other resources such as money and
materials, “time” is finite and cannot be replaced, making it
probably the most important resource (see also Seiwart, 1989).
It is also important to restate here that the contextual-task
behaviours identified demonstrated convergence with the
theoretical framework which has been discussed extensively in
section 7.3.1
8.3.2 Convergence 2: Questionnaire analysis and

academic validity
The findings of this research have been submitted to reputable
international construction management peer reviewed journals. A
total of 3 journal papers are currently under review. The journals
targeted so far are the Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),
International Journal of Project Management (IJPM). To buttress
the academic validity, the papers focus on specific aspects of the
findings of the research. For instance, the paper submitted to the
ASCE focuses on the key aim of the research which is the

development of the model. As noted earlier in the introductory
chapter this paper has recently been revised at the request of
ASCE and the reviewers’ comment suggests that the methodology
(analysis) used satisfies academic validity (see Appendix 21). The
IJPM papers addresses the theoretical framework adopted and
systematic understanding of the potential success criteria of
MHBPs in developing countries. The paper on the systematic
criteria for MHBPs has also been accepted for publication subject
to revision (Appendix 22)
A fourth paper is being prepared for the consumption of the GoG
to help influence policy direction in PM training and education in
Ghana. Furthermore, a summary of the report would be made in a
format that would be useful to practitioners who wish to
implement the findings. The dissemination of the research findings
with regard to academic validity is ongoing with the intended
papers aimed at focussing on specific and distinct aspects of the
findings.
8.3.3 Academic validity and literature search
To demonstrate this convergence, it is convenient to consider the
papers cited in the journal and conference papers that have been
published and/or to be published out of the study (Table 8.9). This
technique has successfully been used by many other researchers
such as Proverbs (1998) and Xiao (2003).

Table 8.9: No. of references cited in paper published

No. Authorship Year No. of Remarks
references
cited
1 Ahadzie et al 2004 33
2 Ahadzie et al 2005a 33
3 Ahadzie et al 2005b 40
4 Ahadzie et al 2005c 46
5 Ahadzie et al 2006a 38
6 Ahadzie et al 2006b 37
7 Ahadzie et al 2006c 27
10 Ahadzie et al 2007c 40 In press
(expected)
11 Ahadzie et al 2007d 38 In press
12 Ahadzie et al 2007e 39 Under review
13 Ahadzie et al 2007d 40 Under review
Total: 479
Mean 37
The significance of the papers cited lies in their use in supporting
the main findings presented. A major characteristic of all the
papers cited is that the main findings of the research were
supported by comprehensive literature. A total of 479 papers have
been referenced. While some of the references cited are
duplicated as a result of similarities in their focus, many are
unique and specific to the papers in question and have been used
to support the findings. The established mean shows that on
average 37 references have been cited per paper. This does not
include bibliographies that have also served as useful guides for
shaping the focus of the research. The considerable volume of
literature provides evidence of convergence between the literature
search and academic validity. The full bibliography of these papers
is listed at the end of this thesis.

8.4 SUMMARY
This penultimate chapter has addressed the validation of the
model developed in this study. Both external and internal
validations have been described. External validation was
undertaken using the held back data and Stein’s equation of
adjusted R square. The findings suggest that the model reflects
reasonable predictive fit and could therefore be generalised.
Internal validation was undertaken at three levels namely:
convergence between literature and questionnaire analyses;
convergence between questionnaire analysis and academic
validity; convergence between academic validity and literature
search. Throughout this process the concepts, methodology and
the findings of the research have been found to be reasonably
supported by the extensive use of literature in support of the
study.
It is therefore contended that the developed model has the
potential for subsequent development and use by practitioners.
The next chapter therefore concludes the research by providing a
summary of the works done, drawing the main conclusions arising
from the study and and recommendations for future research and
for future implementation in the construction of MHBPs.

Chapter 8 Model Validation
CHAPTER NINE
CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Against the background that professionals in developing countries
(such as Ghana) need to be proactive in employing performance
measures for advancing effective HRM practices, this research has
developed a model for predicting the performance of PMs in
MHBPs in Ghana. Subsequently, the appropriate competency
profiles for engendering improved performance of PMs in MHBPs
in Ghana have been identified. The eight chapters presented so far
have elucidated the literary, conceptual, methodological and
substantive approaches for addressing the research agenda.
In this chapter, the research is brought to a close by summarising
the issues addressed throughout the study. Readers are first
reminded of some of the key definitions used in the study
particularly with respect to the term project manager (PM). This is
then followed by a recapitulation of the key research questions.
Thereafter, a summary of how the key objectives were satisfied is
elucidated followed by the main conclusions of the research. The
thesis is brought to a close with recommendations for future
research and future adoption of the findings in practice.

9.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT MANAGER
In this thesis, it has been noted that the term PM albeit widely
used in construction management practice is subject to debate
amongst professionals and practitioners. Traditionally, the term is
often used to describe persons/entities that monitor, oversee
and/or provide broad supervision on projects, but Lock (1987)
contends that it should be used for one who exercises total
authority and also accepts full responsibility for the management
of projects. It is noted that MHBPs are often speculative in the
sense that, the acquisition of land, design of house-unit and
construction are made without reference to any specific customer
in mind, who might wish to take ownership of some part of the
management process by, say, appointing its own design team. It is
therefore common for the management of the design and
construction (including facilities management) of the house-units
to be the sole responsibility of a single organisation- the property
developer. The practice therefore in the Ghanaian house building
industry is for property developers to engage the key management
personnel including the appointment of the PM as “in-house”
throughout the inception to the completion/commissioning of these
projects. Therefore, within this research context, the PM is defined
as an individual who operates in the interest of the property
developer and has the authority and responsibility for the
management of MHBPs from inception to completion.

9.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In undertaking this research three main questions were posed,
namely:
• What should be the appropriate framework for isolating the
PMs’ performance domain in MHBPs in developing countries
such as Ghana?
and change as MHBPs develop through the project lifecycle,
how should these be factored into the performance
framework?
• In recognition of the unique (e.g. weak economic,
technological and structural systems) and relatively difficult
project environment (e.g. lack of economic and purposive
rationality) prevailing in developing countries such as
Ghana, what performance profiles are appropriate for
engendering the professional development of PMs
throughout the lifecycle of MHBPs?
9.3 REVIEW OF OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this research, as noted earlier, was to develop a
model for predicting the performance of PMs in MHBPs in Ghana.
Subsequently a number of research objectives were developed in
order to collectively satisfy this aim. Here, the research objectives
are revisited to highlight the extent to which they were
accomplished through the various phases of the research.
Objective 1: To undertake a critical review of recent
developments in HRM practices, in particular, the
performance of PMs towards developing a deeper
understanding of their key performance measures.
Some important issues regarding the significance of performance
measures were identified from the broader HRM literature
including recent contributions in construction management
publications. While performance measures were described as an
important contributor to improving HRM practices, it was
established that this is yet to be adequately reflected in
construction project management practice in developing countries.
In particular, the literature revealed that while some attempts
have been made towards human resource development (HRD) in
the construction industry in developing countries, the focus of
most of these studies have centred on improving craftsmen
productivity. The review was therefore helpful in underpinning the
view that there was indeed a dearth of research towards
improving HRM practices in project-based sectors of the

construction industry in developing countries and thus provided
reasonable justification for the need of the research.
Objective 2: To undertake a critical review of literature on
project management in developing countries towards
identifying the contribution of PMs in achieving project
success.
This second objective was satisfied by undertaking an extensive
review of recent developments in project management in
developing countries. To this effect, project management practices
in the Ghanaian construction industry were also discussed with
particular reference to the contribution of PMs in MHBPs. The
literature revealed that, very little has been done to help engender
the personal skills of PMs in project-based sectors of the
construction industry in developing countries. While there existed
an acknowledgement of the contribution made by PMs in the
construction industry of developing countries, a lack of detailed
research on the performance of PMs in this context was also
revealed.
Objective 3: To identify an appropriate theoretical
framework for developing a conceptual model suitable for
achieving the key research aim.

The literature review revealed a reliance on psychology - based
theories and models for establishing frameworks useful in
measuring the performance of PMs (chapter two). This third
objective was therefore addressed by reviewing, in particular, the
relevant literature on mainstream applied psychological literature.
This led to the identification of the organisational psychology
theory of job performance as an appropriate methodology for
addressing this research agenda.
The organisational theory of job performance posits that a
plausible but robust way of understanding the performance
domain of managers is to distinguish contextual performance
behaviours from task performance behaviours. Task performance
behaviours being job specific behaviours and are associated with
the PMs’ “demonstratable” functions such as organising,
programming planning, coordinating and controlling; and
contextual performance behaviours being those discretionary job-
related acts which contribute to organisational effectiveness but
are not formally recognised as part of the job. Contextual
performance behaviours are best predicted by drawing on the
constructs of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication while
task performance behaviours are best predicted by drawing on
cognitive ability, job knowledge, task proficiency and experience.

Granted that behavioural competencies are also a function of the
expected outcome of projects, it was also important to establish
what constituted project success for MHBPs. Drawing on the
project success criteria (and in particular Pinto and Slevin, 1988
success model), a project success framework for MHBPs was
developed to represent another dimension of the theoretical
framework. In addition, the project life cycle framework proposed
by Lim and Mohammed (1999) was incorporated into the
theoretical framework. This framework was adopted here as it
offered the opportunity for a potentially more detailed
conceptualisation of the PMs’ performance dimension.
Objective 4: To develop a conceptual model for predicting
the performance of PMs in MHBPs adopting the theoretical
framework identified in objective 3.
Drawing from the organisational psychology theory of job
performance and distinguishing contextual performance
behaviours from task performance behaviours; a robust conceptual
model was developed reflecting the conceptual, design, tender,
procurement, construction and operational phases of the project
lifecycle. The constructs identified from the contextual-task
framework, namely; cognitive ability, job knowledge, task
proficiency and experience, interpersonal facilitation and job
dedication were incorporated into the various phases of the
project lifecycle and represented the behavioural facet of the

performance of PMs in the conceptual model, and reflecting the
context of MHBPs (see chapter, Figure 4.5).
Objective 5: To develop a robust research design to elicit the
relevant data from experienced practitioners and
professionals in the construction of MHBPs in Ghana
Bailey (1987) argues that the development of an appropriate
conceptual model is key to identifying the relevant research
methodology. The identification of an appropriate theoretical
framework and development of the conceptual model paved the
way towards fulfilling this objective. It was contended that, given
that behaviours (as evidenced in the literature) are often stable
and enduring over time, the operational measures involved can to
a reasonable extent be assumed to be subjected to quantitative
laws/logic. Subsequently (and in particular), in order to help
establish the necessary convergence with similar studies on
behavioural competencies, positivism was adopted as the
underlying research paradigm that influenced the design of the
research instrument. Therefore using the construct from the
contextual-task framework and also drawing extensively on recent
construction management literature, a broad range of behavioural
measures were operationalised. These operational measures
represented the independent variables of the model.

Contending that behavioural measures are complex and
multidimensional (see chapter two), it was important to identify a
large number of behavioural measures. This was necessary to
make sure that all the possible potential variables had been
accounted for. Acknowledging that in the management of MHBPs,
PMs have to exhibit competencies in the management of repetitive
techniques, it was considered reasonable to draw on this
underlying concept of repetition towards understanding
perceptions on success criteria in MHBPs. That is, based on the
ideology that repetition is to draw on learning or experience
curves to achieve, for instance, cost savings on house-units, this
was interpreted to mean that there could be different cost targets
to be met by property developers in respect with say the individual
house-units and in the overall project cost.
Subsequently considering the key criteria cost for instance, the
success criteria were categorised as cost on individual house-units
and overall project cost respectively. Informed by the literature,
overall project cost was defined as final-out-turn cost on overall
project including for instance infrastructure such as road networks
and street lighting (Table 4.1). Alternatively cost of individual
house-units was defined as final out-turn relating to the specific
house-unit. Similar reasoning was applied with regard to other key
criteria such as quality, time, satisfaction and so on. In the end, 15
potential success criteria were identified to represent the
dependent variables (see Conceptual model and also chapter five).

Based on these dependent and independent variables, a research
instrument in the form of a self administered postal questionnaire
was developed. The questionnaire was piloted in Ghana by
drawing on the expertise of 10 experienced property developers.
Suggestions made by the respondents were incorporated to
improve the quality and suitability of the research instrument.
Objective 6: To employ appropriate analysis to help develop
the substantive model for predicting the performance of
PMs in MHBPs.
In fulfilling this objective, multiple regression analysis was
employed in developing the model as designated in chapter seven.
Multiple regression was chosen as against other alternative
methods such as discriminant analysis and artificial neural
network because of, in particular, its explanatory characteristics,
which was a most desired function of this research. The regression
technique included maximizing the R squared value (i.e. the
coeffiecient of determination), and including only variables that
had been proven to be statistically significant through stepwise
regression, ANOVA, the Durbin-Watson test, multicollineraity
diagnostics, and residual analysis.
Prior to undertaking the regression analysis, scale ranking and
factor analysis were undertaken on the success criteria identified.

The scale ranking (using one-sample t-test) revealed some
interesting hierarchies in the way property developers perceive
the importance of the 15 success criteria identified (Table 6.9). It
was noted that the hierarchies revealed could assist both property
developers and PMs to come to agreement on how to appropriately
channel resources towards achieving project success in MHBPs.
Thereafter, it was necessary to convert the 15 dependent variables
to a single dependent variable. This was achieved using factor
analysis as explained in chapter six. The factor analysis was useful
in establishing which of the variables could be measuring the same
underlying effect. Above all, the findings obtained emerged
reasonably convincing and supported by the literature (see for
instance Odusami, 2003).
Objective 7: To test, refine and validate the model towards
establishing its predictive accuracy and the potential
relevance of its intended application
This objective was fulfilled by employing external and internal
validation procedures. External validation involved the
computation of the mean absolute percentage error of the
residuals and the adjusted R2 using Stein’s equation as reported in
chapter eight. Both computations revealed that the predictive
accuracy of the model was robust and thus could be generalised.
As part of the external validation a consensus of expert opinion
was also sought from the field incorporating experienced

professionals and practitioners in Ghana to help gauge the
potential relevance of the intended application of the model.
Internal validation involved triangulation of convergence among
different sources of information comprising the literature search
and analyses of the questionnaire. Academic validation was
established through publication of the research findings at major
international conferences and reputable construction management
journals. The convergence of the three sources of information
provides evidence of the validity of the findings.
Objective 8: To disseminate broadly the research findings
for the benefit of industry and academia.
This final objective relating to dissemination was an ongoing
process throughout the research process. The literature review
and development of the conceptual framework were reported at
various international conferences. Additionally, the findings
emanating from the data analysis are soon to be published in two
international construction management journals. A technical
report, which includes a summary of the main findings, has also
been prepared for the Government of Ghana to help influence
policy direction in the future education and training of PMs in
Ghana. It is expected the findings would be published in a format
that practitioners, by and large may use in practice to enhance
their performance in the implementation and management of
MHBPs.
9.4 CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions are summarised as follows:
• The determinants of project success in MHBPs as perceived
by property developers in Ghana can be defined as
constituting environmental-safety, customer satisfaction,
quality and cost-time criteria.
• The best predictors of PMs’ performance in MHBPs are: job
knowledge in site layout techniques for repetitive
construction works; dedication in helping works contractors
achieve works schedule; job knowledge of appropriate
technology transfer for repetitive construction works;
effective time management practices on house-units; ability
to provide solutions to conflicts while maintaining good
relationships; ease with which works contractors are able to
approach the PM; and volunteering to help works
contractors solve personal problems. These variables

explained approximately 74% of the variance in the PMs
managerial performance. PMs who want improve their
managerial performance on MHBPs should aspire to improve
their knowledge and skills in theses competencies.
• It is noted that from the empirical findings of this study that
aspects of task performance behaviours, (52%) and
contextual performance behaviours (24%) determine the
performance of PMs.
• Based on the validation exercise, predictive accuracy
suggests that the findings could be generalised with respect
to the PMs’ performance in MHBPs in the Ghanaian context.
• Based on a consensus reached by “experts” namely,
convenience sampling of PMs, MDs and construction
academicians on the potential relevance of the model in the
Ghanaian house building sector, there was an indication that
the intended application of the model is in congruence with
reality and could serve a useful purpose if it were to be
applied in practice.
9.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
An original contribution to knowledge is an important concern in
any doctoral research (Walker, 1997). The problem is that the

concept of originality could be arbitrary (Fellows and Liu, 2003;
Sutrina, 2004). Walker (1997) has documented various ways to
demonstrate originality such as development of new
methodologies, tools and/or techniques, new areas of research,
new interpretation of existing material, new application of existing
theories to new areas or a new blend of ideas. Drawing on this
background the contribution to knowledge of this research could
be viewed in respect of its immediate contribution and what
potential it may have in the future if further work is carried out.
Presently, managerial competencies are becoming increasingly
important issues in a variety of settings including education,
organisations and practitioner groups (Lyon, 2004). Information,
advice and guidance about learning and training have also been
seen as highly relevant to the professional development of HRM
personnel (Gibb, 2003). However, identifying and developing
appropriate measures for project-based sectors of the construction
industry in developing countries is yet to be explored.
Identification of these competency profiles therefore provides an
important guideline to both aspiring and experienced PMs on what
property developers expect of them in terms of their managerial
skills in MHBPs. Subsequently, these findings may help PMs who
lack the relevant skills to strive to acquire the relevant training as
part of their professional development. PMs who already possess
the relevant skills may also appreciate the findings as it may

provide a knowledge-based impetus for achieving higher
performance. The findings also provide a basis on which property
developers in the Ghanaian house building industry seeking to
recruit, monitor, retain and promote PMs, can make informed and
objective decisions towards engaging those with the appropriate
skills and competencies.
Thus, a contribution to knowledge from the findings reported in
the thesis is the identification of competency profiles that can be
mapped and/or customised towards improving work place learning
and/or training requirements of PMs and subsequently towards the
organisational development of property developers in Ghana.
Property developers and PMs in many other developing countries
can also benefit from the findings especially those in sub-Saharan
African countries where the managerial challenges facing
homebuilders are likely to be similar.
The body of knowledge in predicting the performance of PMs
based on behavioural competencies in project-based sectors of
developing countries is relatively unexplored. Subsequently, PMs
who want to improve upon their own personal performance have
up until now had to rely on their conviction on uninformed and
largely subjective evidence. Thus, the developed model serves as
an important knowledge base for replicating and advancing the
performance of PMs in the Ghanaian construction industry and

perhaps the construction industry of many other developing
countries.
The adoption of the organisational theory of job performance,
while widely used in mainstream HRM research has not previously
been explored in regard to the performance of construction project
managers (CPMs). Furthermore, the concept of linking the PMs’
performance measures to the project lifecycle is also a novel
contribution in construction management research. That is, while
other models exist that purport to link success to the project
lifecycle, this attempt at explicitly focussing the relation of the
PMs’ performance to the project lifecycle adds significantly to the
knowledge base of construction management research. The
conceptual model could therefore be adopted across other
geographical and project-based sectors towards identifying and
developing appropriate competency profiles in the wider
construction industry.
9.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
As with all survey based research there are bound to be
limitations, which need to be acknowledged. Readers are therefore
reminded of the potential effect of sampling, unsystematic (i.e.
random) and measurement errors and their likely impact on the
data collected, analysis undertaken and the conclusions drawn.
These notwithstanding, the demographic profile of the

respondents suggest that they have reasonable and direct
professional experience in the implementation of MHBPs which
should accord some reasonable credibility to the quality of
responses received.
It is also important to acknowledge the relatively small sample size
used for the study. However, this should not nullify the conclusions
drawn, given that the relevant preliminary tests associated with
the adequacy of sample size (including the assumptions of central
limit theorem) proved favorable for the analysis to proceed.
Furthermore, the margin of error associated with the study only
marginally increased from 10 to 13% (see chapter five). That is,
the predictive power of the model at 95% confidence level can be
tolerated at a confidence interval of ±13%, which appears
reasonably good for a stochastic study of this nature (see for
instance Walliman, 2000). Cross validation of the model suggested
it has reasonable predictive power and could therefore be
generalised at least in the Ghanaian context.
While emphasising the significance of model in reflecting the
project lifecycle, it is important to remind readers that
development of the substantive model focussed on the
“construction phase”. This is largely due to resource constraints
placed on the study. However, the successful completion of the
developed model for the construction phase provides an important
stepping stone for further research as indicated in the following.

9.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Competency-based measures are increasingly being recognised as
a viable option for engendering the managerial excellence of PMs.
The contextual-task framework was used in developing a
conceptual model that reflected the various phases of the project
lifecycle in MHBPs. The successful development of the model for
the “construction phase” suggests that there is the potential for
the subsequent development of the competency profiles for the
other phases of the project lifecycle. The conceptual model could
therefore form the basis for future research towards the
development and understanding of a holistic profile of PMs
throughout the whole lifecycle of MHBPs.
It has been contested elsewhere that job dedication is normally
redundant and should not be treated separately from
interpersonal facilitation (section 7.3.1). In this study, aspects of
job dedication accounted for more than half of the contribution of
contextual performance behaviours affirming Conway’s (1999)
assertion that in managerial performance, job dedication is very
relevant and should be studied independently from interpersonal
facilitation. This significant contribution might therefore be used
as a basis for future research towards understanding fully its
impact on MHBPs especially given that these projects are
inherently much more difficult to manage than many one-off

projects (see for instance Mahdi, 2004). In many developing
countries, economic and purposive rationality do not exist as a
result of the weak socio-economic structure prevailing (Murithi
and Crawford, 2004), and this has the potential of influencing the
organisational allegiance and commitment of PMs towards
concentrating fully on achieving organisational goals. This
investigation could therefore provide the basis for understanding
how PMs are able to maintain their job dedication on MHBPs in
the face of these difficulties.
It is recognised that the competency profiles identified do not
operate in a vacuum and would be influenced, in particular, by
situational and environmental factors. There is therefore the
research opportunity to identify the key determinants that affect
each of the competency profiles identified. This will help both
stakeholders and the PMs to identify the important variables that
militate against the effective implementation of the appropriate
knowledge and skills. Subsequently, the significant variables that
are controllable could then be properly managed to help engender
superior performance levels. Potentially, identification of these
factors will enable the appropriate allocation of the limited
resources available towards engendering the professional
development of PMs in MHBPs.

9.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDUSTRY
As noted throughout the thesis, competency programmes are
helpful for developing and matching the skills of HRM personnel to
the core organisational strategies. The competency profiles
identified here offers PMs in the Ghanaian house building industry
the opportunity to have a clearer idea of what property developers
expect of them in relation to their competencies. The findings can
therefore be used as a rating system (either in terms for instance
360 degrees evaluation or self-evaluation) so that PMs can review
and appraise their performance levels towards identifying current
and/or projected skills deficiencies; proving their value; gaining
recognition of their professional expertise towards best practice
improvement.
It also recommended that property developers seeking to recruit,
monitor, retain and promote the services of PMs could use the
findings to make informed and objective decisions towards
engaging those with appropriate skills and competencies.
As already noted by Mirable (1997), competency models are the
first step in developing job-specific profiles and in rating an
employee’s level of competency against a set of validated
measures. Competency profiles have also become an important
recourse in a variety of settings including education, business

management and other HRM activities. Interestingly, while project
management practice is gradually gaining popularity in the
construction industry in Ghana, it is also evident that appropriate
systems for sustaining the career and professional development of
PMs is lacking. In particular, there is a lack of appropriate
professional institutions to help unify the activities of PMs and also
govern their professional examination, certification and
accreditation practices.
Here the view is that, the findings of this research could be used
by professionals as a reflective document for initiating the
establishment of a Ghanaian Association of Projects Managers
(GAPROM), and the competency profiles identified herein could be
further developed to form baseline competencies in PMs’
performance, for gaining recognition and value in their
performance and for benchmarking and best practices (see also
section 7.3.2 on recommended application of model).
Thus, given the strategic position of MHBPs in the context of this
study both in terms of scope and potential advancement for
improved HRM practices, this finding (inter alia) could therefore
be used as a foundation for developing an appropriate body
knowledge that PMs could use to identify their professional and
development needs and also collectively used by a professional
body such as the GAPROM (proposed here) to ascertain the key
managerial competencies.
With the support provided by the Government of Ghana for the
research and the reasonable interest shown by the property
developers (i.e. the GREDA) in participating in the survey, it should
be possible for the key stakeholders including PMs in the housing
industry in Ghana to pool resources together towards establishing
a framework for the development of the GAPROM and the
associated body of knowledge.
9.9 SUMMARY
This chapter has provided a review of the original research
objectives and the extent to which they were achieved. The main
conclusions have been presented and the limitations of the
research have been acknowledged. Recommendations for further
research and for practicing PMs and property developers have
been proposed.
In summary the research has developed a competency-based
model representing a robust mechanism for predicting the
performance of PMs. The model could be used by property
developers to recruit, retain and develop their PMs. PMs could
also adopt the model for their own personal development in
helping to identify strengths and weaknesses. It is contended that
the developed model has the potential for improving the

performance of PMs in developing countries such as Ghana, when
used as part of a wider sphere of HRM practices and procedures.

Conclusions and recommendations
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Biliography
APPENDICES
Appendices
Appendix 1: General Attributes for evaluating the PMs’ performance
Egbu (1999)
Fraser (2003)
(1996)Kumaraswamy and Thorpe
Fraser (1999;2000)
Musthpah and Naoum (199)

Muriithi and Crawford (2003)
Brown and Adams (2000)
Lei and Skitmore (2004)

Ogunlana et al (2003)
Odusami et al (2003)
Edum-Fotwe (2000)
Morris et al (2000)
Dainty et al (2003)
Chan et al (2004)
Odusami (2002)
El-Saaba (2001)
Ling (2003)
Ling (2002)
Ling (2004)
Creativity and
innovativeness    
Problem identification
ability  
Problem solving ability    
Mental alertness 
Ability to think ahead
Good project approach   
Intelligence 
Emotional stability 
Physical condition 
Self Confidence 
Sense of Humour
Judgement 
Sense of responsibly 
Pride in performance 
Communication       
Sensitivity 
Negotiation skills       
Experience    
Maturity  
Educational qualification  
Appendices
Egbu (1999)
(1996)Kumaraswamy and Thorpe
Fraser (1999;2000)
Musthpah and Naoum (199)
Fraser (2003)
Muriithi and Crawford (2003)
Brown and Adams (2000)
Lei and Skitmore (2004)

Ogunlana et al (2003)
Odusami et al (2003)
Edum-Fotwe (2000)
Morris et al (2000)
Dainty et al (2003)
Chan et al (2004)
Odusami (2002)
El-Saaba (2001)
Ling (2003)
Ling (2002)
Ling (2004)
Management abilities        
Leadership qualities         
Technical credibility        
Administrative capability      
Sensitivity  
Entrepreneurial capability      
Special experience 
Other applicable
experience      
Past performance 
Performance within budget           
Performance within time           
Performance within quality
specification            
No. of years of practice in
construction 
Social skills   
Time Management         
Political awareness 
Team formation and
development        
Risk management       
Integrity 
Appendices
Commitment   
Knowledge transfer  
IT skills  
Legal skills   
Health and safety issues       
Honesty 
Dedication 
Commercial awareness  
Rapid understanding of situations
and issues 
Ambition 
Enthusiasm  
Dedication
Managing client relations 
Presentation skills
Business acumen   
Self-discipline 
Understanding organizational
objectives 
Coordination skills  
Achieving production targets  
Cultural background  
MusculinityAssertiveness   
Motivation      
Flexibility    
Stakeholders Satisfaction    
Appendices
Appendix 2: Potential Dimensions of Management Skills Profile-

Industrial/psycho perspective
Dimension Definition
Delegating and Controlling Assigning tasks to others and
ensuring that they have the necessary
resources and authority: monitoring
progress and exercising control
Personal Organization and Time Using time efficiently; arranging
Management information effectively without being
mired in detail
Planning Setting goals and developing
strategies for meeting those goals
Information Letting people know of relevant
information on a timely basis
Coaching and Developing Evaluating employees, providing
feedback and facilitating professional
growth
Organizing Coordinating work of others; setting
priorities; establishing efficient work
procedures
Human Relations Developing and maintaining good
working relationship with others;
showing considerations for the
opinions and feelings of others.
Listening Paying attention to, and conveying
understanding of, others when
speaking.
Motivating Others Creating an environment in which
subordinates and others are
rewarded for accomplishment of
group and individual goals
Conflict management Arriving at effective solutions to
conflict while maintaining good
working relations.
Personal Adaptability Responding well to the demands of
work challenges when confronted
with changes, ambiguity, adversity or
other pressures.
Occupational and Technical Knowledge Applying knowledge and skills needed
to do the job; technical expertise in
own field; familiarity with
organization and industry
Problem Analysis and Decision-Making Identifying problems and alternative

solutions; making timely, sound
decisions
Personal Motivation Displaying a high energy level;

working long and hard to get things
done; seeking increased responsibility
on the job
Financial and Quantitative Drawing accurate conclusions from

financial and numerical material and
applying quantitative techniques to
management problems
Oral Communication Speaking effectively one-to one and

groups; making effective
presentations
Written Communication Writing clearly and effectively in

business communications
Appendices
Leadership Style and Influence Task charge; directing others’

activities towards meaningful goals;
commanding respect
Results Orientation Measure of overall performance,
Source: Johnson et al (1997)
Appendix 3: Potential Dimension of Project managers’ skills

profile in construction
Dimension Definition
Team building Bringing the team together,
adapting working methods and
developing good internal relations
(team formation and development);
appreciating team members
strengths and weaknesses, listening
to their concerns and developing a
culture of mutual respect (people
management); ensuring that the
team are motivated and enjoy
working for the organization in
order to promote stability
(maintaining low staff turnover);
showing understanding and
empathy, focus rather than
attributing blame during crises
(supportiveness)
Leadership: Evaluating project performance

parameters to ensure that
deficiencies are addressed quickly
(monitoring and evaluation);
foreseeing problem issues and
taking action to avoid them (forward
thinking); taking responsibility for
the tasks and not delegating blame,
understanding individuals needs,
protecting team members interest
(responsibility); offering guidance
and providing help, advice and
assistance as appropriate
(direction); delegating and
empowering the right people with
appropriate task and
responsibilities, ensuring effective
upstream reporting of task progress
and performance (delegation);
having confidence to deal with
problems, letting people know what
you want to be an effective manner (
assertiveness); being able to adapt
to different situations;
understanding and appreciating
different and opposing perspectives
on issues (flexibility)
Appendices
Decision-making: Unbiased and objective decisions,

knowing when to make decisions
themselves or take on board others’
comments; awareness of the wide
impact of decision made (clear
decision making approach);
prioritizing issues in accordance
with their influence on project
success (recognising key issues);
Understanding health and safety
risks, and managing construction
activities in a way which ensure the
welfare of all those involved with the
project (safety management
awareness); taking a thorough, well
thought out approach to solving
unexpected problems (problem
solving); understanding risk,
discussing them with team members
and managing them in a way that
mitigates their impact (risk
management); managing resources
in a way that meets outturn
production targets (achieving
production targets); ensuring that
the team and resources work
together coherently and smoothly
(coordination skills)
Appendices
Mutuality and approachability: Developing a culture of mutual respect

and trust with the team, supporting staff
who want to take on more responsibility,
involving people in decision making and
providing autonomy (mutuality and
trust); breaking down hierarchical
barriers to ensure open and honest
relations between all team members
(approachability)
Honest and Integrity: Being honest with both the client and
project team, managing expectations
appropriately (honesty); Keeping
promises and adhering to agreed actions
(integrity); putting project goals and the
organizational mission before personal
preferences (commitment);
understanding weaknesses and how to
overcome them (admitting weaknesses
Communication: Explaining issues to others through

written, oral and non-verbal
communications (communication);
transferring knowledge to others within
the team in an open and effective way to
ensure the achievement of project goals
(knowledge transfer)
Learning, understanding and application: The ability to grasp situations quickly

and understand their implications (rapid
understanding of situations); learning
from experience and relating this to
relevant areas in future projects
(learning from mistakes); anticipating
and recognising potential problems,
resolving problems before they escalate
(problem identification); understanding
commercial aspects of projects and
issues arising during projects
(commercial awareness); ensuring that
there are no loose ends, demonstrating
completeness and attention to detail
(thoroughness); demonstrating technical
skills and knowledge related to the
production function( technical expertise)
Self-efficacy: Driven by the need to ensure a

successful outcome for the project,
showing a genuine concern for working
well or for achieving a standard of
excellence (task motivation); showing
loyalty and commitment to the project
and to organization through their work
ethic and commitment (dedication);
demonstrating an ability to develop
innovative solutions which will improve
project performance and avoid problems
(initiative); demonstrating a liking of and
enthusiasm towards the job
(enthusiasm); demonstrating a degree of
self-restraint and control when dealing
with subordinate (self-discipline);
ensuring that time is spent dealing with
the high priority issues (time
management); demonstrating a drive and
ambition towards personal carer
development(ambition)
External relations: Developing and maintaining positive,

open relations with clients
representatives in a way that encourages
successful long-term relationship
(managing client relationships); effective
Appendices
marketing and presentation of team and
individual abilities (presentation skills);
understanding the broader business
environment on which their organization
operates (business acumen); taking
account of the wider business needs of
the organization and aligning project
management approaches with longer-
term strategic objectives(understanding
organizational objectives)
Coordination and planning of site works

Preparation of programmes
Scheduling subcontractor timetables
Assigning tasks and providing
instructions
Checknig drawings
Discussing quality of work
Ordering materials, plant and tools
programme
Technical understanding
Hunan resoures planning
Staff selection
Site training of staff
Managing routine operational problems
Diagnosis of defects and agreement of
remedies
Urgent purchase of materials/hiring of
plant
Managing health and safety
Selecton of appropriate construction
methods
Dealing with work variations
Reacting matters raised by others
Delegation of tasks to others
Completion of written works relating to
projects
Processing correspondence with other
parties
Maintenance of adequate filling systems
Preparation of costs and progress reports
Answering routine procedural questions
Receiving and disseminating requested
information
Holding regular meetings
Conveying minites of meetings
Availability of manager for work related
consultation
Inspection of work
Walking about site
Monitoring performance data
Requesting input and participation from
others
Listening with open mind to work
suggestions
Conveyance of appreciation
Provision of reward
Provision of performance feedback
Delegation of authority
Delegation of responsibility
Backing of subordinates
Enforcement of company policy
Following of official disciplinary
procedures
Appendices
Proivision of negative performance

feedback
Liaison with clients representative
Community service activities
Managing interpersonal conflit
Managing contractual conflict
Honesty
Ethical behaviour
Upholding of company values
Non-work related discussion
Out of work socialization
Social skills
Decision making skills
Handling problems
Recognizing opportunities
Managing change
Abaility to handle stress
Judgment
Technical knowledge
Accuracy
Communication
Responsibility acceptance
Utilization of resources available
Leadership
Communication (oral/written)
Motivation of others
Health and safety
Decsion making
Forecasting and planning
Site organization
Bugdetary control
Supervision of others
Team building
Quality control and assurance
Managing time
Materials planning and control
Setting objectives and goals
Conducting meetings
Managing conflict/crises
Recruit/select:supervisor/foreman
Delegating responsibilities
Programme maintenance (update)
Tenat welfare
Public relations
Employee training
Competitive tendering
Analysis of project risks
Programme design
Identifying personal
strengths/weaknesses
Employee training programme
Site security
Productivity maintenance and control
Negotiate: client
Costing and estimating
Competitor awareness
Organisation of communication systems
Managing job stress
Managing change
Recruit/select manual labour
Employee training: manual Labour
Appendices
Plant planning and control

Creativity
Career development and appraisal
Job analysis/specification
Sources:Dainty et al (2003); Fraser (1999): Fraser (2000) and

Egbu (1999) respectively
Appendices
Appendix 4: Research Instrument for data collection

School of Engineering and the Built Environment
Wulfruna Street
Wolverhampton
WV1, 1SB
United Kingdom
11/05/06
The Managing Director

Brook Estate Development Co. Ltd
PO Box T 135
Stadium-Accra
Dear Sir/Madam,
Project Managers’ Performance in Mass House Building

Projects in Ghana
We are pleased to invite you to participate in a doctoral research programme

seeking to develop a tool for predicting the performance of project managers in
Mass House Building Projects (MHBPs). The Government of Ghana is
sponsoring the research. The expected outcome of the research is to help
provide a comprehensive data for project managers to have a clear idea of what
managing directors/senior managers of real estate companies expect of them in
the management of MHBPs. Subsequently, those who lack the appropriate skills
would be inspired to acquire the relevant training towards best practice
improvement. It is also hoped that, project managers who already possess the
relevant skills may also appreciate the findings as it may provide them the
impetus for achieving higher levels of performance. Managing directors/senior
managers may also use the findings to establish appropriate guidelines for
interviewing and/or engaging the services of project managers who have the
appropriate skills and competencies.
Consequently, as members of GREDA who regularly employ the services of

project managers, your participation is important towards establishing the
industrial relevance of the study. We shall therefore be very grateful if you
would spare some time to complete the attached questionnaire. We assure you
that all answers provided will be treated with the strictest confidentiality.
We appreciate that the questionnaire is going to take up some of your valuable

time, however, we urge you to try and participate, as your contribution is very
important towards the success of the research. To this end, we wish to take this
opportunity to thank you in advance for your cooperation.
If you require clarification and any further information, please do not hesitate to
contact us
Yours Sincerely,
Appendices
Divine K. Ahadzie (RMMA211B)

Doctoral Research Student
Tel: +44(0) 1902323581/82
Mob: +44(0) 7821303755
E-mail: [email protected]
Or [email protected]
Appendices
QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF

PROJECT MANAGERS IN MASS HOUSE BUILDING
PROJECTS IN GHANA
There are three main parts to the questionnaire. The first part of the
questionnaire (SECTION A), seeks background information on your
classification; how long you have been in business; the type of mass
house building projects (MHBPs) you have implemented over the years.
The second part (SECTION B) is focussing on what performance criteria
you consider important for assessing the success of MHBPs. The second
part of the questionnaire (i.e. SECTIONS C & D) focuses on the
behavioural criteria you consider important for evaluating the
performance of project managers in MHBPs.
The questionnaire is to be completed by Managing Directors and/or

Senior Managers who have the responsibility of engaging and
supervising project managers. For this purpose, a project manager is the
person who has the authority and responsibility for the supervision and
management of the physical construction.
Please when responding to Sections B, C and D, try as much as possible

to answer the questions with your first impression as that will be most
useful.
Divine K. Ahadzie
Appendices

Tel: +44(0) 1902323581/82
Mob: +44(0) 7821303755
E-mail: [email protected]
Or [email protected]
Appendices
SECTION A: BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1) How long have you been a member 4) Please indicate the overall value of MHBPs
of GREDA? that you have worked on in the last 5 years
Please tick () the appropriate box
• Over 20 years • Over 20 Billion cedis (£1.2 million)
• 16-20 years • 11 Billion to 20 Billion cedis (£600,000-

£1.2M)
• 11- 15 years
• Up to 10 Billion cedis (£600,000)
• 6-10 years
• Up to 5 years
5) Which of the following type of MHBPs do you
often undertake?
2) Which of these classifications apply
to you? • Multi-storey,
• Class A • Terrace,
• Class B • Semi-detached,
• Class C • Detached
• Class D • Combination of the above
3) Please indicate how long you have

been involved in the construction of
Mass House Building Projects 6) Which of these indicate the average quantity
(MHBPs) of house-units you handle/year?
• Over 20 years • Up to 20 house-units
• 16-20 years • 20-40 house-unit
• 11- 15 years • 40-60 house-units
• 6-10 years • 60-80 house-units
• Up to 5 years • 80-100 house-units
• Over 100 house-units
7) What is your perception of the performance

outcome of PMs you have engaged in MHBPs in
recent times. Please rate them according to the
following
• Very High (over 90%)
• High (70- 90%)
• Average (50-69%)
• Low (30-49%)
• Very Low (10-29%) 414

Appendices
SECTION B: OVERALL PERFORMANCE Not very Not Average Important

Very
OUTCOME/PROJECT SUCCESS
Important Important
Important
415
Appendices
How would you rate the importance of the

following performance criteria for determining
the success of Mass House Buildings Projects
(MHBPs) in Ghana? Please circle (O) the
appropriate number.
1 2 3 4
• Overall project cost 5
• Cost of individual house-units 1 2 3 4

5
• Overall project duration
1 2 3 4
• Rate of delivery of individual house-units 5
1 2 3 4
5
• Project quality 1 2 3 4
5
• Quality of individual house-units
1 2 3 4
• Overall Customer satisfaction 5
1 2 3 4
• Customer satisfaction on individual house-
5
units
1 2 3 4
• Overall Risk containment
5
• Risk containment on individual house- 1 2 3 4
units 5
• Overall Environmental impact 1 2 3 4

5
• Environmental impact of individual house-
units 1 2 3 4
5
• Overall health and safety measures
1 2 3 4
• Health and safety measures on individual 5
house-units
1 2 3 4
• Technology transfer 5
1 2 3 4
5
1 2 3 4
5
SECTION C: CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE BEHAVOIURS
Could you please rate the importance of the

following behavioural measures for predicting
Not very Not Average
the performance of project managers in mass Important Very
house building projects in Ghana? Please circle important Important
(O) the appropriate number. Important
C Job dedication
• Perseverance in pushing artisans and/or
416
Appendices
works contractors to achieve overall 1 2 3 4

project objectives. 5
• Persistence in pushing artisans and/or
works contractors to overcome obstacles. 1 2 3 4
• Dedication to helping artisans and/or 5
works contractors to achieve all
programmes 1 2 3 4
• Ability to adapt/make the best out of 5
difficulties faced by artisans and/or works
contractors at project sites 1 2 3 4
5
• Developing a sense of conscientiousness
towards artisans/works contractors.
1 2 3 4
• Commitments towards achieving overall
5
objectives.
1 2 3 4
5
C Interpersonal Facilitation
• Effective time practices management on 1 2 3 4
all project sites. 5
• Providing timely information for artisans
and/or works contractors. 1 2 3 4
• Volunteering to help artisans and/or works 5
contractors solve personal problems
1 2 3 4
• Showing compassion and sensitivity
5
towards problems faced by artisans and/or
works contractors.
1 2 3 4
• Ease with which artisans and/or works
5
contractors are able to approach project
manager with their problems. 1 2 3 4
• Ability to arrive at effective solutions to 5
conflict while maintaining good
relationships. 1 2 3 4
• Being aggressive on artisans and/or works 5
contractors towards achieving project
objectives. 1 2 3 4
• Being honest with artisans and/or works 5
contractors on their performances.
1 2 3 4
5
T SECTION D: TASK PERFORMANCE

BEHAVIOURS
Could you please rate the importance of the
following behavioural measures for predicting
Not very Not Average
the performance of project managers in mass Important Very
house building projects in Ghana? Please circle important Important
(O) the appropriate number. Important
T Cognitive ability
c
a
1
• Ability to envisage problems on all
house-units under construction. 1 2 3 4
• Ability to provide alternative solution to 5
problems encountered on all house-units
under construction. 1 2 3 4
417
Appendices
• Ability to maintain emotional stability 5

when dealing with problems on all house-
units under construction. 1 2 3 4
• Ability to recall progress of works on all 5
house-units
1 2 3 4
5
1 2 3 4
5
T Job Knowledge
j
b
1
• Knowledge of appropriate construction
technology for repetitive works. 1 2 3 4
• Knowledge of appropriate cost saving 5
techniques for repetitive construction
works. 1 2 3 4
• Knowledge of appropriate labour 5
management techniques for repetitive
construction works. 1 2 3 4
5
• Knowledge of appropriate programme
for delivering repetitive construction
1 2 3 4
works.
5
• Knowledge of appropriate quality
management techniques for repetitive 1 2 3 4
construction works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate site layout
techniques for repetitive construction 1 2 3 4
works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate progressing
techniques for monitoring repetitive 1 2 3 4
• Knowledge of appropriate materials
management system for repetitive 1 2 3 4
• Knowledge of appropriate health and
safety issues for repetitive construction 1 2 3 4
works. 5
• Knowledge of appropriate risk
1 2 3 4
management measures for repetitive
5
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate environmental
1 2 3 4
impact assessment for repetitive 5
construction works.
• Knowledge of appropriate technology 1 2 3 4
transfer for repetitive construction 5
works.
T Task proficiency Not very
Important Very
Not Average
t
Important Important
2 Important
• Technical quality of programme for
delivering overall house-units. 1 2 3 4
5
• Functional quality of programme for
delivering overall house-units. 1 2 3 4
• Technical quality of programme for 5
delivering individual house-unit.
418
Appendices

delivering individual house –unit. 1 2 3 4
• Technical quality of cash-flow 5
programme for the construction of
1 2 3 4
5
• Functional quality of cash-flow
programme for the construction of 1 2 3 4
overall house-units. 5
• Technical quality of cash-flow
individual house-units. 5
• Functional quality of cash-flow
• Technical quality of specifications
provided for the construction of overall 1 2 3 4
house-units. 5
1 2 3 4
5
Task proficiency Not very
Important Very
Not Average
Important Important
Important
• Functional quality of specifications
provided for the construction of overall 1 2 3 4
house-units. 5
• Technical quality of specifications
1 2 3 4
provided for the construction of
5
• Functional quality of specifications
1 2 3 4
provided for individual house-units. 5
achieving overall customer/client 1 2 3 4
satisfaction. 5
achieving overall customer/client 1 2 3 4
satisfaction. 5
achieving customer/client satisfaction on 1 2 3 4
• Technical quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
programme for the construction of 5
• Functional quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
• Technical quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
• Functional quality of risk containment 1 2 3 4
individual house-unit.
• Technical quality of environmental
assessment programme for the 1 2 3 4
construction overall house-units. 5
• Functional quality of environmental 1 2 3 4
assessment programme for the
419
Appendices
construction of overall house-units. 5

• Technical quality of environmental
construction of individual house-units. 5
• Functional quality of environmental
construction of individual house-units. 5
• Technical quality of health and safety
1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of overall 5
house-units.
• Functional quality of health and safety 1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of overall 5
house-units.
• Technical quality of health and safety 1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of 5
• Functional quality of health and safety 1 2 3 4
measures for the construction of 5
1 2 3 4
5
Te Experience Not very Not Average

Important Very
important Important
Important
• Experiences in managing MHBPs. 1 2 3 4
• No. of years of practice in 5
construction.
• Experiences in achieving success in 1 2 3 4
the management of MHBPs. 5
• Experiences in managing MHBPs of
similar nature.
1 2 3 4
• Experience in any type of
5
construction project.
• Membership of appropriate 1 2 3 4
professional body. 5
Thank you very much for the effort you 1 2 3 4

have put in. 5
1 2 3 4
5
420
Appendices
On headed letter (University of Wolverhampton)
Appendix 5: Prior notification to potential respondents
The Managing Director

Sample
02/04/06
Dear Managing Director,
Invitation to participate in a Survey

Project Managers’ Performance in Mass House Building Projects in
Ghana
We are currently involved in a doctoral research nÐent

ly
e ineavP Ðector Ðchg
Appendices
Appendix 11: Histogram of quality of individual house-units
40
30
20
10
Std. Dev =.69

Mean =4.50
0 N =56.00
3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
Quality of individual house-units
Appendix 12: Histogram of rate of delivery of individual house-units
425
Appendices
30
20
10
Std. Dev =.83

Mean =4.1
0 N =56.00
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Rate of delivery of individual house units
Appendix 13: Histogram of risk containment

30
20
10
Std. Dev =.90

Mean =3.8
0 N =55.00
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Overall reisk containment
426
Appendices
Appendix 14: Guide to correlation matrix/correlation matrix
Variable Definition
number
V1 Performance outcome
V3 Perseverance in pushing works contractors to achieve overall project objectives
V4 Persistence in pushing works contractors to overcome obstacles
V5 Dedication in helping works contractors to achieve works programmes
V6 Ability to adapt/make the best out of difficulties faced by works contractors at
projects sites
V7 Developing a sense of conscientiousness toward works contractors
V8 Commitment towards overall project objectives
V9 Effective time management on all project sites.
V10 Providing timely information for works contractors.
V11 Volunteering to help works contractors solve personal problems
V12 Showing compassion and sensitivity towards problems faced by works

contractors
V13 Ease with which works contractors are able to approach project manager with
their problems
V14 Ability to arrive at effective solutions to conflicts while maintaining good
relationships
V15 Being aggressive on works contractors towards achieving project objectives
V16 Being honest with works contractors on their performances
V17 Knowledge of appropriate cost saving tecniques for repetitive construction works
V18 Ability to envisage problems on all house-units under construction

V19 Ability to provide alternative solutions to problems encountered on all house-
units
V20 Ability to maintain emotional stability when dealing with problems on all house-
units under constructuction
V21 Ability to recall progress of works on all house-units
V22
V23
427
Appendices
V24 Knowledge of appropriate laboyr management tecniques for repetitive

construction works
V25 Knowledge of appropriate programme for delivering repetitive construction

works
V26 Knowledge of appropriate quality management tecniques for repetitive works
V27 Knowledge of appropriate site layout tecniques for repetitive construction works
V28 Knowledge of appropriate progressing tecniques for monitoring repetitive

construvtion works
V29 Knowledge of appropriate materials management system for repetitive

construction works
V30 Knowledge of appropriate health and safety issues for repetitive construction
works
V31 Knowledge of appropriate risk management measures for repetitive construction

works.
V31 Knowledge of appropriate environmental impact assement for repetitive

construction works
V32 Knowledge of appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction
V33 Technical quality of programme for delivering overall house-units
V34 Functional quality of programme for delivering overall house-units
V35 Technical quality of programme for delivering individual house-unit
V36 Functional quality of programme for delivering individual house-unit
V37 Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units
V38 Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of overall house-
units
V39 Technical quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual

house-units.
V40 Functional quality of cash-flow programme for the construction of individual

house-units.
V41 Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction overall house-
units.
V42 Functional quality of specifications provided of overall house-units.
V43 Technical quality of specifications provided for the construction of individual

house-units.
V44 Functional quality of specifications provided for individual house-units.
V45 Technical quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfication
V46 Functional quality of programme for achieving overall customer satisfaction.
V47 Technical quality of programme for achieving customer satisfication on individual

house-units
V48 Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units
V49 Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of overall
house-units
V50 Technical quality of risk containment programme for the construction of

V51 Functional quality of risk containment programme for the construction of

individual of house-unit
428
Appendices
V52 Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction

of overall house-units
V53 Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
of overall house-units
V54 Technical quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
of individual house-units
V55 Functional quality of environmental assessment programme for the construction
of individual house-units
V56 Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units
V57 Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of overall
house-units
V58 Technical quality of health and safety measures for the construction of individual
house-units
V59 Functional quality of health and safety measures for the construction of
individual house-units
V60 Experience in managing MHBPs
V61 No. of years of practice in construction
V62 Experience in achieving success in the management of MHBPs
V63 Experience in managing MHBPs of similar nature
V64 Experience in any type of constructon project
V65 Membership of appropriate professional body
Note:
Correaltion matrix is on next page
Red ink means correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Blue ink means correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed)
429
Appendices
Appendix 15: Correlation matrix of regression analysis

v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 v8 v9 v10 v11 v12 v13 v14 v15 v16 v17 v18 v19 v20 v21 v22 v23 v24 v25 v26 v27 v28 v29 v30 v31 v32 v33 v34 v35 v36 v37 v38 v39 v40 v41 v42 v43 v44 v45 v46 v47 v48 v49 v50 v51 v52 v53 v54 v55 v56 v57 v58 v59 v60 v61 v62 v63 v64 v65
v1 1.00 0.46 0.27 0.64 0.52 0.59 0.49 0.39 0.55 0.44 0.38 0.38 0.17 0.23 0.42 0.52 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.37 0.47 0.55 0.56 0.55 0.67 0.53 0.59 0.62 0.63 0.58 0.61 0.64 0.51 0.48 0.64 0.37 0.42 0.48 0.51 0.61 0.45 0.46 0.51 0.54 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.54 0.57 0.52 0.49 0.42 0.44 0.48 0.55 0.49 0.57 0.60 0.58 0.10 0.29 0.18 0.23 0.50 0.30
v2 0.46 1.00 0.51 0.44 0.28 0.24 0.42 0.32 0.33 0.08 0.23 0.19 0.22 0.13 0.54 0.59 0.51 0.47 0.07 0.46 0.48 0.30 0.36 0.30 0.32 0.23 0.37 0.40 0.46 0.40 0.28 0.37 0.33 0.34 0.32 0.37 0.23 0.37 0.29 0.49 0.38 0.38 0.14 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.31 0.41 0.46 0.36 0.40 0.47 0.46 0.41 0.48 0.45 0.54 0.55 0.49 0.13 0.16 0.28 0.39 0.07 0.02
v3 0.27 0.51 1.00 0.30 0.38 0.30 0.38 0.24 0.35 0.22 0.09 0.24 0.33 0.39 0.47 0.32 0.20 0.32 0.00 0.34 0.32 0.27 0.33 0.32 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.35 0.24 0.16 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.32 0.26 0.29 0.25 0.23 0.30 0.25 0.35 0.33 0.37 0.31 0.35 0.37 0.46 0.47 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.23 0.24 0.19 0.24 0.22 0.33 0.34 0.33 0.24 -0.11 0.45 0.28 0.04 0.11
v4 0.64 0.44 0.30 1.00 0.59 0.59 0.39 0.24 0.53 0.49 0.50 0.19 0.22 0.32 0.43 0.48 0.36 0.41 0.25 0.35 0.48 0.41 0.41 0.51 0.45 0.41 0.59 0.60 0.55 0.41 0.34 0.51 0.48 0.49 0.47 0.22 0.23 0.37 0.29 0.54 0.29 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.53 0.44 0.45 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.38 0.40 0.46 0.45 0.60 0.62 0.60 0.25 0.44 0.21 0.35 0.30 0.28
v5 0.52 0.28 0.38 0.59 1.00 0.48 0.63 0.43 0.53 0.56 0.45 0.42 0.54 0.37 0.55 0.39 0.47 0.28 0.16 0.30 0.34 0.45 0.50 0.57 0.42 0.48 0.56 0.54 0.50 0.36 0.43 0.58 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.58 0.41 0.32 0.37 0.60 0.62 0.74 0.74 0.71 0.60 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.21 0.19 0.36 0.38 0.45 0.46 0.45 0.32 0.19 0.29 0.22 0.20 0.17
v6 0.59 0.24 0.30 0.59 0.48 1.00 0.40 0.25 0.42 0.27 0.10 0.07 0.14 0.34 0.32 0.27 0.19 0.30 0.36 0.26 0.24 0.44 0.53 0.42 0.45 0.36 0.33 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.48 0.35 0.27 0.38 0.13 0.21 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.35 0.33 0.48 0.46 0.46 0.40 0.41 0.34 0.35 0.40 0.29 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.26 0.24 0.40 0.28 0.32 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.12 0.24 0.22
v7 0.49 0.42 0.38 0.39 0.63 0.40 1.00 0.39 0.51 0.20 0.09 0.44 0.49 0.31 0.56 0.47 0.43 0.27 0.16 0.34 0.36 0.49 0.51 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.52 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.38 0.44 0.41 0.32 0.39 0.36 0.41 0.36 0.40 0.49 0.26 0.14 0.25 0.41 0.49 0.47 0.60 0.61 0.53 0.41 0.30 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.32 0.22 0.32 0.28 0.31 0.17 0.08 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.07
v8 0.39 0.32 0.24 0.24 0.43 0.25 0.39 1.00 0.47 0.11 0.14 0.32 0.47 0.00 0.40 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.18 0.26 0.19 0.35 0.36 0.43 0.31 0.37 0.19 0.24 0.21 0.28 0.12 0.43 0.51 0.43 0.42 0.32 0.27 0.30 0.43 0.50 0.42 0.31 0.34 0.39 0.54 0.41 0.49 0.42 0.34 0.37 0.31 0.22 0.18 0.26 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.29 0.35 0.27 -0.03 0.16 0.10 0.08 0.27
v9 0.55 0.33 0.35 0.53 0.53 0.42 0.51 0.47 1.00 0.36 0.25 0.31 0.43 0.06 0.52 0.29 0.33 0.39 0.24 0.29 0.18 0.40 0.38 0.53 0.39 0.44 0.34 0.42 0.43 0.37 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.25 0.40 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.52 0.56 0.45 0.43 0.45 0.45 0.54 0.57 0.61 0.58 0.54 0.54 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.38 0.34 0.35 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.11 0.05 0.11 0.10 0.24 0.32
v10 0.44 0.08 0.22 0.49 0.56 0.27 0.20 0.11 0.36 1.00 0.72 0.45 0.43 0.06 0.26 0.26 0.14 0.35 0.05 0.14 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.23 0.13 0.33 0.35 0.43 0.37 0.24 0.41 0.33 0.26 0.26 0.19 0.14 0.19 0.28 0.27 0.32 0.19 0.17 0.23 0.34 0.24 0.40 0.33 0.36 0.31 0.23 0.29 0.31 0.29 0.33 0.35 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.40 0.11 0.22 0.00 0.16 0.13 0.24
v11 0.38 0.23 0.09 0.50 0.45 0.10 0.09 0.14 0.25 0.72 1.00 0.52 0.39 0.00 0.29 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.16 0.34 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.00 0.26 0.36 0.41 0.34 0.26 0.39 0.45 0.37 0.38 0.31 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.25 0.43 0.13 0.09 0.03 0.14 0.16 0.37 0.24 0.24 0.18 0.11 0.24 0.45 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.45 0.48 0.27 0.37 0.20 0.33 0.16 0.10
v12 0.38 0.19 0.24 0.19 0.42 0.07 0.44 0.32 0.31 0.45 0.52 1.00 0.62 0.08 0.36 0.50 0.32 0.28 0.29 0.48 0.43 0.36 0.32 0.35 0.24 0.43 0.41 0.27 0.15 0.08 0.34 0.44 0.38 0.44 0.45 0.42 0.48 0.46 0.52 0.43 0.23 0.07 0.15 0.30 0.31 0.28 0.36 0.33 0.27 0.17 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.28 0.38 0.37 0.29 0.32 0.33 0.27 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.11 0.10
v13 0.17 0.22 0.33 0.22 0.54 0.14 0.49 0.47 0.43 0.43 0.39 0.62 1.00 0.06 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.37 0.20 0.42 0.27 0.45 0.49 0.32 0.25 0.43 0.42 0.36 0.33 0.15 0.22 0.32 0.31 0.34 0.26 0.41 0.41 0.34 0.41 0.44 0.37 0.23 0.29 0.34 0.34 0.41 0.46 0.46 0.35 0.30 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.28 0.29 0.32 0.31 0.26 0.29 0.31 0.00 0.17 0.07 0.03 0.16
v14 0.23 0.13 0.39 0.32 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.08 0.06 1.00 0.26 0.16 0.16 0.08 0.06 0.21 0.22 0.32 0.16 0.23 0.49 0.19 0.34 0.35 0.25 0.12 0.18 0.31 0.18 0.20 0.29 0.10 -0.03 0.05 0.07 0.19 0.12 0.11 0.23 0.18 0.22 0.22 0.34 0.33 0.24 0.20 0.13 -0.03 -0.09 -0.14 -0.03 -0.05 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.12 0.08 0.22 0.26 0.11 -0.05
v15 0.42 0.54 0.47 0.43 0.55 0.32 0.56 0.40 0.52 0.26 0.29 0.36 0.45 0.26 1.00 0.52 0.63 0.54 0.30 0.39 0.38 0.35 0.41 0.35 0.38 0.33 0.37 0.42 0.43 0.31 0.26 0.43 0.33 0.34 0.53 0.55 0.49 0.32 0.41 0.55 0.47 0.30 0.24 0.34 0.46 0.51 0.49 0.63 0.46 0.40 0.32 0.35 0.19 0.19 0.28 0.24 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.29 0.03 0.41 0.24 0.09 0.12
v16 0.52 0.59 0.32 0.48 0.39 0.27 0.47 0.23 0.29 0.26 0.40 0.50 0.40 0.16 0.52 1.00 0.73 0.58 0.29 0.60 0.75 0.51 0.56 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.54 0.42 0.43 0.28 0.48 0.55 0.49 0.46 0.59 0.41 0.46 0.41 0.43 0.65 0.53 0.43 0.33 0.32 0.35 0.44 0.40 0.47 0.50 0.40 0.44 0.49 0.45 0.44 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.52 0.46 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.19 0.30 -0.01
v17 0.38 0.51 0.20 0.36 0.47 0.19 0.43 0.22 0.33 0.14 0.39 0.32 0.35 0.16 0.63 0.73 1.00 0.40 0.32 0.55 0.60 0.53 0.51 0.41 0.31 0.41 0.52 0.36 0.49 0.23 0.45 0.57 0.44 0.45 0.56 0.46 0.44 0.29 0.25 0.69 0.50 0.33 0.14 0.16 0.32 0.50 0.36 0.50 0.42 0.35 0.42 0.45 0.35 0.28 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.39 0.39 0.25 0.23 0.38 0.14 0.28 -0.07
v18 0.34 0.47 0.32 0.41 0.28 0.30 0.27 0.23 0.39 0.35 0.38 0.28 0.37 0.08 0.54 0.58 0.40 1.00 0.36 0.42 0.38 0.37 0.43 0.32 0.25 0.37 0.22 0.45 0.42 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.25 0.12 0.28 0.36 0.40 0.27 0.33 0.35 0.53 0.33 0.25 0.31 0.28 0.39 0.37 0.45 0.38 0.40 0.34 0.58 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.48 0.51 0.49 0.44 0.13 0.11 0.06 0.25 0.09 -0.01
v19 0.31 0.07 0.00 0.25 0.16 0.36 0.16 0.18 0.24 0.05 0.16 0.29 0.20 0.06 0.30 0.29 0.32 0.36 1.00 0.21 0.20 0.38 0.33 0.36 0.31 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.24 0.21 0.17 0.41 0.28 0.19 0.36 0.14 0.32 0.15 0.25 0.31 0.34 0.23 0.29 0.26 0.25 0.29 0.20 0.21 0.12 0.20 0.15 0.22 0.15 0.26 0.18 0.18 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.09 0.28 0.12 -0.10 0.38 0.30
v20 0.37 0.46 0.34 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.34 0.26 0.29 0.14 0.34 0.48 0.42 0.21 0.39 0.60 0.55 0.42 0.21 1.00 0.73 0.57 0.49 0.48 0.34 0.43 0.48 0.51 0.42 0.35 0.51 0.56 0.33 0.54 0.46 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.55 0.62 0.39 0.31 0.36 0.32 0.42 0.39 0.37 0.32 0.32 0.37 0.44 0.52 0.54 0.45 0.53 0.46 0.43 0.44 0.47 0.35 0.14 0.30 0.32 0.19 -0.02
v21 0.47 0.48 0.32 0.48 0.34 0.24 0.36 0.19 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.43 0.27 0.22 0.38 0.75 0.60 0.38 0.20 0.73 1.00 0.45 0.36 0.40 0.31 0.42 0.60 0.34 0.31 0.18 0.42 0.56 0.36 0.55 0.46 0.32 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.58 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.32 0.38 0.42 0.32 0.32 0.37 0.25 0.37 0.43 0.41 0.35 0.44 0.40 0.39 0.48 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.24 0.08
v22 0.55 0.30 0.27 0.41 0.45 0.44 0.49 0.35 0.40 0.23 0.27 0.36 0.45 0.32 0.35 0.51 0.53 0.37 0.38 0.57 0.45 1.00 0.77 0.62 0.55 0.51 0.55 0.62 0.56 0.38 0.62 0.64 0.55 0.53 0.54 0.32 0.46 0.36 0.45 0.63 0.50 0.38 0.45 0.42 0.50 0.54 0.44 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.43 0.42 0.45 0.45 0.43 0.45 0.51 0.46 0.49 0.14 0.20 0.13 0.00 0.41 0.01
v23 0.56 0.36 0.33 0.41 0.50 0.53 0.51 0.36 0.38 0.20 0.22 0.32 0.49 0.16 0.41 0.56 0.51 0.43 0.33 0.49 0.36 0.77 1.00 0.60 0.62 0.67 0.50 0.65 0.62 0.47 0.62 0.65 0.63 0.52 0.55 0.36 0.47 0.35 0.39 0.57 0.57 0.46 0.49 0.48 0.57 0.58 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.61 0.52 0.42 0.39 0.47 0.52 0.47 0.53 0.46 0.51 0.17 0.07 0.27 0.15 0.33 0.03
v24 0.55 0.30 0.32 0.51 0.57 0.42 0.63 0.43 0.53 0.23 0.18 0.35 0.32 0.23 0.35 0.40 0.41 0.32 0.36 0.48 0.40 0.62 0.60 1.00 0.62 0.62 0.44 0.54 0.51 0.43 0.43 0.58 0.49 0.50 0.55 0.30 0.47 0.40 0.42 0.65 0.47 0.36 0.53 0.53 0.64 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.61 0.48 0.44 0.50 0.50 0.53 0.49 0.55 0.53 0.59 0.12 0.17 0.15 0.09 0.37 0.11
v25 0.67 0.32 0.40 0.45 0.42 0.45 0.57 0.31 0.39 0.13 0.00 0.24 0.25 0.49 0.38 0.40 0.31 0.25 0.31 0.34 0.31 0.55 0.62 0.62 1.00 0.63 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.52 0.45 0.54 0.45 0.44 0.54 0.26 0.33 0.31 0.39 0.51 0.52 0.51 0.57 0.56 0.58 0.55 0.57 0.64 0.57 0.62 0.54 0.28 0.23 0.38 0.42 0.34 0.40 0.44 0.43 -0.02 0.01 0.26 0.11 0.37 0.17
v26 0.53 0.23 0.30 0.41 0.48 0.36 0.52 0.37 0.44 0.33 0.26 0.43 0.43 0.19 0.33 0.50 0.41 0.37 0.28 0.43 0.42 0.51 0.67 0.62 0.63 1.00 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.40 0.55 0.52 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.29 0.40 0.46 0.42 0.55 0.52 0.50 0.51 0.56 0.62 0.62 0.58 0.52 0.51 0.61 0.53 0.39 0.38 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.49 0.58 0.55 0.17 0.11 0.20 0.16 0.38 0.21
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v63 0.23 0.39 0.28 0.35 0.22 0.12 0.14 0.10 0.10 0.16 0.33 0.05 0.07 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.14 0.25 -0.10 0.32 0.37 0.00 0.15 0.09 0.11 0.16 0.30 0.22 0.11 0.24 0.21 0.29 0.27 0.32 0.21 0.31 0.19 0.26 0.09 0.17 0.03 0.18 0.12 0.16 0.18 0.23 0.27 0.18 0.24 0.18 0.25 0.38 0.27 0.26 0.41 0.25 0.24 0.31 0.32 0.46 0.33 0.54 1.00 0.06 0.20
v64 0.50 0.07 0.04 0.30 0.20 0.24 0.15 0.08 0.24 0.13 0.16 0.11 0.03 0.11 0.09 0.30 0.28 0.09 0.38 0.19 0.24 0.41 0.33 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.26 0.21 0.21 0.46 0.39 0.29 0.26 0.42 0.22 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.24 0.35 0.33 0.16 0.24 0.31 0.20 0.18 0.31 0.35 0.27 0.31 0.33 0.33 0.24 0.20 0.19 0.30 0.30 -0.07 0.29 0.10 0.06 1.00 0.26
v65 0.30 0.02 0.11 0.28 0.17 0.22 0.07 0.27 0.32 0.24 0.10 0.10 0.16 -0.05 0.12 -0.01 -0.07 -0.01 0.30 -0.02 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.11 0.17 0.21 0.26 -0.01 0.03 0.12 -0.03 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.13 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.11 0.13 0.05 0.15 0.19 0.29 0.23 0.23 0.12 0.17 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.05 -0.01 0.18 0.16 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.14 0.08 0.26 0.13 0.20 0.26 1.00
430
Appendices
Appendix 16: Questionniare for validation of the potential recommended

application of a model for predicting the performance of project managers in
MHBPs in Ghana.
431
Appendices
School of Engineering and the Built Environment

Wulfruna Street
Wolverhampton
WV1, 1SB
United Kingdom
29/05/07
Dear Sir/Madam,
Project Managers’ Performance in Mass House Building

Projects in Ghana
As part of an ongoing doctoral research programme we have identified and developed a

set of variables that we believe can be used to engender managerial best practices of
project managers in MHBPs in Ghana.
The findings of our research indicate that if project managers are to engender
their managerial skills in MHBPs, they must among others have the knowledge
and skills associated with the following themes:
• Site layout techniques for repetitive construction works.

• Appropriate technology transfer for repetitive construction works.
• Dedication in helping works contractors and/or artisans achieve works
schedule.
• Effective time management practices on house-units
• Ability to provide solution to conflicts while maintaining good relationships
• Ease of approachability of the PM by works contractors and/or artisans
• Volunteering to help works contractors and/or artisans solve personal
problems
It is intended to further develop these variables into a management toolkit so that

property developers and other interested stakeholders can use it as a guide for the
recruitment and appointment of project managers who have the appropriate
competencies and skills. It is also intended that the findings could further be developed
as foundation for developing the training requirements of aspiring projects managers and
the continuing professional development of experience project managers in the
management of MHBPs.
In view of this, we would be very grateful if you could please respond to the one-page
questionnaire attached, to help establish the relevance of the findings and potential
application in Ghana. The questionnaire will take less 10 minutes to be complete. We
432
Appendices
count on your cooperation and thank you very much in advance.
Yours Sincerely,
Divine K. Ahadzie (RMMA212B)

Tel: +44(0) 1902323581/82
Not very Not Average Important

Very
433
Appendices
Important Important
Important
1. Could you please rate the importance of the
variables identified as the most critical for
engendering the performance of project managers
in MHBPs in Ghana. Please circle the appropriate
number
1 2 3 4
5
• Knowledge of appropriate Site layout
techniques
1 2 3 4
5
• Knowledge of appropriate technology
transfer 1 2 3 4
5
• Dedication of the project manager
1 2 3 4
• Ability to solve conflicts effectively 5
• Effective time management practices 1 2 3 4

5
• Ease of approachability of project managers
by works contractors and/or artisans. 1 2 3 4
5
• Regularly Volunteering to help works
contractors and/or artisans solve personal 1 2 3 4
problems 5
1 2 3 4
2. Do you agree that it is important to, further 5
develop these themes into a management
toolkit/checklist for practical application in Ghana?
Please circle the appropriate number.
1 2 3 4
5
3. Would you consider it important for the themes
identified above to be further developed as a
foundation for curriculum development, for the
training of project managers in the management of
MHBPs in Ghana. 1 2 3 4
5
4. Would you consider it important for these

themes to be further developed into a management
checklist, so that property developers can use
them as a guide for recruiting and appointing 1 2 3 4
potential project managers for MHBPs 5
5. Please indicate your willingness to use the

management toolkit/checklist if developed for
practical application, by circling the relevant
number 1 2 3 4
5
6. Please can you give your own assessment of the

intended application of the findings of the research
and suggestions for any other future application …
434
Appendices
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………
Thank you very much.
435

Ahadzie - PHD Thesis

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A MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE

PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT MANAGERS IN

MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS IN

DIVINE KWAKU AHADZIE, BSc (Hons), MSc.

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the

University of Wolverhampton for the degree of Doctor of

purpose of assessment, publication or for any other purpose. Save

for any express acknowledgements, reference and/or

bibliographies cited in the work, I confirm that the intellectual

content of the work is the result of my own efforts and no other

The right of Divine Kwaku Ahadzie to be identified as the author of

this work is asserted in accordance with ss.77 and 78 of Copyright,

Designs and Patent Act 1988. At this date copyright is owned by

My greatest acknowledgement goes to Professor David Proverbs,

My appreciation also goes to Mr William Ahadzie and Dr. Adjei-

It is also important to recognise my research colleagues, especially

I sincerely thank my loving wife, Efuah and my children Senam,

This Thesis is dedicated to all my family members, especially the

A MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT

MANAGERS IN MASS HOUSE BUILDING PROJECTS IN GHANA..I

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION.......................................1

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH.....................................1

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM..........................................5

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.......................................................5

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY................................6

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED............................8

1.6 DEFINITION OF PERFORMANCE.......................................10

1.7 MAIN CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE..........................10

1.8 DISSEMINATION OF THE FINDINGS.................................11

1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS.......................................14

CHAPTER 2: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF PERFORMANCE

MEASUREMENT IN THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

2.1 PERFORMANCE MEASURES IN THE HUMAN RESOURCE

2.1.1 Towards Defining Performance Measures.....................20

2.1.2 The Significance of Performance Measures in HRM

2.1.3 Development of Predictive Models and the Implication

for PMs Performance Measures in Developing Countries.......27

2.1.4 An Overview of Project Management Practices in

2.1.5 Towards identifying Performance Measures for PMs in

Mass House Building Projects in Developing Countries.........31

2.2 TOWARDS DEVELOPING A DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT

2.3 MEASURING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROJECT

2.3.1 Traditional-Based Approaches.......................................38

2.3.2 Personality-Based Approaches.......................................40

2.3.3 Competency-Based Approaches.....................................42

2.3.3.1 A definition for competency.....................................42

2.3.3.2 Relevance of competency-based approaches..........44

2.4 THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COMPETENCY-BASED

2.5 EMERGING STUDIES ON PMs BEHAVIOURAL

2.6 IDENTIFYING AN APPROPRIATE COMPETENCY-BASED

CHAPTER THREE: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN

RESOURCES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES................................62

3.1 TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES..................................63

3.1.1 A Review of Performance Measurement Literature for

Human Resource Development in Developing Countries........63

3.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MASS HOUSE BUILDING

PROJECTS TOWARDS IMPROVING HUMAN RESOURCE