I.

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
WHAT IS PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE? ULRICH FINSTERWALDER
• German engineer who developed the double
cantilever idea of pre-stressing construction.
• Progressed idea that pre-stressed concrete can be a
safe, economical, and elegant solution to almost any
major structural problem.
• Designed: Bendorf Bridge over the Rhine River,
Germany (1962)

ADVANTAGES
• by using high tensile steel improve the efficiency of
the materials
• works for a span greater than 35m.
• Prestressing enhance shear strength and fatigue
Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete where initial resistance of concrete
compression is given in the concrete before applying the
• Dense concrete is provided by prestressing systems
external load so that stress from external loads is counteracted
thus improving the durability
in the desired way during the service period. This initial
• Best choice for the construction of sleek and slender
compression is introduced by high-strength steel wire or
structures.
alloys (called ‘tendons’) located in the concrete section.
• Prestressing helps to reduce the dead load of the
concrete structure
How does Prestressed concrete Work?
• Prestressed concrete remains uncracked even at
In the real life, high tensile strength steel wires are inserted
service load conditions which proves the structural
into the beam section and they are stretched and anchored,
efficiency
then released. Now the steel tendon wants to gain its original
length and tensile stresses are transformed into compressive • Composite construction by using the prestressed
stress in the concrete. Now after loading there are two kinds concrete unit and cast-in-unit derives the economic
of forces on the beam, structure.
Internal prestressing force DISADVANTAGES
External forces (Dead load, Live load, etc.) • Higher material costs
• Prestressing is an added cost
WHEN WAS PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE • Formwork is more complex than for RC (flanged
INTRODUCED? sections, thin webs) – thus, precast not as ductile as
In 1929, Eugène Freyssinet (1879-1962) was a skilled RC
craftsman and a prolific bridge builder, who invented
prestressed concrete. COMPARING TO THE CONVENTIONAL
REINFORCED CONCRETE
WHO PATENTED PRE-STESSED CONCRETE? In conventional reinforced concrete, the high tensile strength
Eugène Freyssinet of steel is combined with concrete's great compressive
• French engineer considered the father of prestressed. strength to form a structural material that is strong in both
• His initial recommendations for practical use of pre- compression and tension.
stressing in 1933: (1)Use metals with very high Prestressing removes several design limitations conventional
elastic limits (2)Submit them to very strong initial concrete places on span and load and permits the building of
tensions (3)Use stiff concrete. roofs, floors, bridges, and walls with longer unsupported
• Designed and build: Luzancy Bridge (across Marne spans. This allows architects and engineers to design and
River, France)-1946; Le Veurdre Bridge (across build lighter and shallower concrete structures without
Allier River, France)-1910-1911 sacrificing strength.

Gustav Magnel APPLICATIONS OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

• Belgian professor who brought pre-stressed concrete 1. FOUNDATION:
to the English- speaking world Prestressed Concrete Piles —the prestressed concrete pile is
• Spent WW2 exploring Freyssinet’s ideas and an ideal choice for deep foundations with heavy loading on
carrying out some research on pre-stressed concrete. weak soil. At present, prestressed concrete piles are being
• Magnel had unique ability to communicate in used as sheet piles, fender piles and soldier piles. It also used
English to teach for carrying vertical loads with different soil strengths and
• He was known as an excellent teacher. His goal in found to be durable in varied environments ranging from sub-
teaching was simplify complex problems. arctic to the desert.
• Designed/build: Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1976)
Rock /soil Anchors: The use of prestressed anchors avoids the These are wires or strands that are tensioned between the end
driving of the pile all the way to the rock which is available anchorages. After this tensioning process, the concrete
at very large depth. casting is performed.
2. BRIDGES: Once the casted concrete has hardened sufficiently, the end
The spectacular contribution of prestressed concrete can be anchorages arranged are released. This releasing transfers the
seen in the construction of superstructures of bridges. It has prestress force to the concrete. The bond between the concrete
been extensively used in both rail and road bridges. The and the steel tendons facilitates this stress transfer.
technique of prestressing lends itself beautifully to the The tendons that are protruding at the ends are cut and a
construction of different types of bridges. finished look is achieved. In order to induce prestress force in
Simply Supported Bridges: They are adopted for medium and the pre-tensioning method, a large number of tendons and
short spans. The cross-sections of these beams maybe I, T, wires are used. This arrangement hence demands a large area
two T’s or Box shape. The girders can be pre- or post- of surface contact to make the bond and stress transfer
tensioned. These beams may be precast or cast-in-situ and are possible.
usually supported by neoprene or other types of bearings at Pre-tensioning is done in the factories thus suitable for precast
either end. construction works
Cantilever Bridges: This method is usually adopted for longer
span bridges. POST TENSIONING
Cable-Stayed Bridges: Extremely long spans constructed Here, the steel is prestressed only after the beam is cast, cured
using this method spans up to 300 m. and attain strength to take the prestress. Within the sheathing,
Other types of bridges like bridges with Bow String Truss, the concrete is cast. For the passage of steel cables, ducts are
Stressed Ribbon Deck, and Arch Bridges are included. formed in the concrete
3. MARINE STRUCTURES Post tensioning can be done in factories as well as on the site
A few types of marine structures where prestressed concrete
have been adopted are:
Coastal jetties.
Wharves.
Bulkheads.
Offshore platforms.
Navigation structures.
Protective fenders.
In these structures, the prestressed concrete elements may be
in the foundation, such as bearing pile, sheet pile, etc. or in
the super-structure, such as the deck, beam slab, etc.
WATER CARRYING STRUCTURE
Aqueducts: Prestressed concrete is found to be the ideal
choice for the construction of aqueducts due to its water
Casting Bed
tightness and crack-free surface. Prestressed concrete, due to
A long horizontal slab on which a number of pretensioned
its high strength, enables the construction of long-span
concrete members may be pre-stressed, formed and cast
aqueducts with high water carrying capacity.
simultaneously.
Water Tanks: Circular water tanks are also constructed by
Tendon
using prestressed concrete. They withstand higher
A high strength steel strand or bar for pre-stressing concrete
circumferential stress than R.C.C. The wall thickness of the
Abutment
prestressed concrete tanks is much less than that of R.C.C
A structure for anchoring the reinforcing tendons in the pre-
because of its high strength. With these advantages, the use
tensioning of a concrete member.
of prestressed concrete for the construction of overhead water
Jacking Force (stress/tension)
tank and reservoirs is gaining popularity.
A tensile force exerted temporarily by a jack in the
5. INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES
prestressing of a concrete member.
6. PRETENSIONED PRODUCTS
Jack
a. prestressed electric transmission poles
A hydraulic device for stretching and stressing tendons in the
b. railway sleeper
pre-stressing of a concrete member.
c. Precast pre tensioned members for prefabricated houses.
Sheath
7. NUCLEAR STRUCTURE (Power plant)
A tube for encasing tendons in a posttensioned member to
prevent their bonding to the concrete during placement.
METHODS OF PRE-STRESSING
Compressive stresses are induced in prestressed concrete
either by pre-tensioning or post-tensioning the steel
reinforcement.
PRE-TENSIONING
In the pre-tensioning method, the stress is induced by initially
tensioning the steel tendons.
 II. COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Introduction • Adaptable structures
o Modification during the life of the building
The most important and most frequently encountered o Modify services without violating the privacy of other
combination of construction materials is that of steel and occupants
concrete, with applications in multi-storey commercial o Accommodation of service facilities
buildings and factories, as well as in bridges. ▪ in the ceiling
▪ within a false floor
These essentially different materials are completely ▪ in a coffer box running along the walls
compatible and complementary to each other; they have Assembly:
almost the same thermal expansion; they have an ideal • Working platforms of steel decking
combination of strengths with the concrete efficient in • Permanent shuttering
compression and the steel in tension; concrete also gives • Reinforcement of profiled steel sheetings
corrosion protection and thermal insulation to the steel at • Speed and simplicity of construction
elevated temperatures and additionally can restrain slender • Quality-controlled products ensure greater accuracy
steel sections from local or lateral torsional buckling. In ANATOMY OF COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
multi-storey buildings, structural steelwork is typically used
together with concrete; for example, steel beams with
concrete floor slabs. The same applies to road bridges, where CONCRETE
concrete decks are normally preferred. The extent to which REINFORCEMENT
the components or parts of a building structure should
embody all steel construction, be constructed entirely in HEADED TUDSD
reinforced concrete, or be of composite construction depends
PROFILE SHEET
on the circumstances. It is a fact, however, that engineers are
increasingly designing composite and mixed building
systems of structural steel and reinforced concrete to produce STEEL BEAM
more efficient structures when compared to designs using
1. COMPOSITE SLAB
either material alone.
This engineering and construction method has been • Consist of profiled steel decking with an in-situ reinforced
widely practiced over a century ago, more dominantly concrete topping. The decking or profile steel sheeting not
involving the steel-concrete connection. Concrete-encased
steel sections were initially developed as composites with the
purpose of overcoming the effects of fire while ensuring
COMPOSITE COLUMN
stability against axial and bending forces.
COMPOSITE SLAB
Applications
Composite construction is extensively used in
only acts as permanent formwork to the concrete but also
bridges, multistorey buildings, warehouses, marine
structures, and more. Many applications in the mentioned provides a sufficient shear bond with the concrete so that
structures are categorized as beams & girders, floor systems, when the concrete has gained strength, the two materials act
and column systems. together compositely. Span between 3 m and 4.5 m unto
ASPECTS FOR USING COMPOSITE STRUCTURES supporting beams or walls.

Architectural: PROPPING is a system of structural members used

• Longer spans temporarily to support loads during construction.
• Thinner slabs
• More slender column • If the slab is unpropped during construction the decking
• More generous opportunities for design alone resists the self-weight and also the wet concrete and
construction loads. Subsequent loads are applied to the
Economical: composite section.
• Reduction of height reduces the total of the building --> • If the slab is propped, all of the loads have to be resisted by
saving area of cladding the composite section.
• Longer spans with the same height--> column-free rooms • Composite slab are usually designed as simply supported
• Additional storeys with the same total height of building members in the normal condition.
• Quicker time of erection:
▪ Saving costs, earlier completion of the building PROFILED STEEL DECKING
▪ Lower financing costs • Depths ranging from 45mm to over 200 mm
▪ Ready for use earlier thus increasing rental income • Yield strength range from 235 N/mm2 to at least 460
Functionality: N/mm2
• Fire protection by using principles of reinforced concrete in • 8 mm and 1.5 mm thick
which the concrete protects the steel
Service and building flexibility:
 The various shapes provide an interlock between steel and • Lighter construction than a traditional concrete
concrete: building.
• Less material handling at site.
• Frictional • Has better ductility and hence superior lateral load
• Mechanical behavior; better earthquake resistor.
• End anchorage • Ability to cover large column free areas in buildings
and longer span for bridges/flyovers.
Decking may also be used to stabilize the beams against lateral
torsional buckling during construction. Stabilize the building Disadvantages of Composite Construction
as a whole by acting as a diaphragm to transfer wind loads to • Provide misleading messages about quality if poorly
the walls and columns. Temporary construction load usually constructed or misinterpreted.
governs the choice of decking profile. • Lead to simplistic policy conclusions.
• Can be misused, if the construction process is not
2. COMPOSITE COLUMNS transparent and lacks sound statistical or conceptual
principles.
A steel-
• Selection of metrics and weights can be challenged
concrete composite
by other stakeholders.
column is a
Summary:
compression
The two complementary materials, structural steel and
member,
reinforced concrete, are introduced and it is shown how
comprising either a
composite action is achieved in the case of composite slabs,
concrete-encased
beams and columns. The use of composite construction for
hot-rolled steel
buildings and bridges is outlined and illustrated by several
section or a
typical examples; its main advantages are also illustrated by
concrete-filled
comparison with structures of steel and concrete used
tubular section of hot-rolled steel.
independently. Attention is drawn to the effect of this form of
construction on other more general problems such as: fire
The presence of the concrete is allowed for in three ways:
resistance rating, speed of construction, flexibility and final
• Protection from fire fittin
• It is assumed to resist a small axial load
• To reduce the effective slenderness of the steel member,
which increases its resistance to axial load.

The ductility performance of circular type of columns is

significantly better than rectangular types. There is no
requirement to provide additional reinforcing steel for
composite concrete-filled tubular sections. Corrosion
protection is provided by concrete to steel sections in encased
columns.

3. COMPOSITE BEAM
Composite beams are normally hot rolled or fabricated
steel sections that act compositely with the slab. The
composite interaction is achieved by the attachment of shear
connectors to the top flange of the beam. This connector
generally take the form of headed studs.
There are two main forms of deck: shallow and deep. The
figure above illustrates a typical shallow deck (50–100 mm)
and below is a deep deck (225 mm).
Conventional and innovative composite beams

Advantages of Composite Construction

• The concrete acts together with the steel to create a
stiffer, lighter, less expensive structure.
• Speed and simplicity of construction- faster to erect,
nearly 25% faster than traditional construction
 III. CABLE AND TENSILE STRUCTURE
CABLE TENSILE

Cables are made of a series of small strands twisted A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying
or bound together to form a much larger cable. Steel only tension and no compression or bending. The term tensile
cables are either spiral strand, where circular rods are should not be confused with tensegrity, which is a structural
twisted together and "glued" using a polymer, or form with both tension and compression elements. Tensile
locked coil strand, where individual interlocking structures are the most common type of thin-shell structure.
steel strands form the cable. Most tensile structures are supported by some form of
compression or bending elements, such as masts,
A cable is a flexible structural component that offers compression rings or beams.
no resistance when compressed or bent in a curved
shape. Technically we can say cable has zero A tensile membrane structure is most often used
bending rigidity. as a roof, as they can economically and attractively span large
distances.

Mast Support
Compression Ring Support

A cable is the main component of cable supported Tensioned Fabric Structure

bridge or suspended roof structures that are classified - a structure where the exterior shell is a fabric material spread
as follows: over a framework. The fabric is maintained in tension in all
directions to provide stability.
1. Suspension Type Cables Tensile Structures
the main forces in a suspension bridge of any type are -tension roofs or canopies are those in which every part of the
tension in the cables and compression in the pillars. This structure is loaded only in tension, with no requirement to
not only adds strength but improves reliability. resist compression or bending forces.
2. Stayed Type Cables
the towers are the primary load-bearing structures
which transmit the bridge loads to the ground.

BUILDING EXAMPLES:

BEDRICH SCHNIRCH
Location: Banska Brystica,
Slovacia, 1826
First suspended metal roof
prototype

TOWER BRIDGE
Location: London, 1894
Architect: Horace Jones
Structural Engineer: John Wolfe
Barry

SHABOLOVKA TOWER
Location: Moscow, 1922
Architect: Vladimic Shukhov
 Sidney Myer Music Bowl- constructed in 1958. It is located
TYPES OF TENSILE STRUCTURE in Melbourne. The bowl's canopy consists of a thin membrane
A two-dimensional tension fabric membrane can take planar made out of half an inch weather- proofed plywood sheeted
tensile forces, but it cannot take significant forces on both sides with aluminum attached to a cobwebbed frame
perpendicular to this plane. Therefore, in addition to being of steel cables and supported by 21.3 meters (70 ft) masts
pre-stressed, tension fabric must take a certain three- pivoted to the earth. Longitudinal cables hold up the roof and
dimensional shape, in order to remain stable. These shapes transverse cables hold it down.
were discovered by Otto and Berger during their investigation
of natural forms, such as soap bubbles. There are two types
of general shapes: anticlastic and synclastic shapes.
AR. FREI OTTO
Anticlastic Shapes
A German architect and structural
Are created by having the radii of the principal
engineer, he was well known for his
curvatures on opposite sides of the tension fabric surface. As
pioneering innovations in lightweight and
a result, when loaded at a particular point, tension will
tensile structures.
increase on one curve of the membrane and leave the opposite
curve. Thereby, preserving equilibrium and keeping the
structure stable. In order to keep anticlastic shapes, some kind
of structural frame or support is necessary in the form of
cables or steel beams. Some examples of anticlastic shapes
are saddle, cone and wave forms.
Synclastic Shapes
synclastic shapes are characterized by having the
radii of the principal curvatures on the same side of the fabric.
In order to counteract external forces, pressure from the
within is necessary. This is why synclastic shapes are
associated with air-inflated structures. The difference of
pressure created by air pumped into the building is able to
1972 Munich Olympic Stadium- is a striking example of
counteract the external forces, in the form of wind or snow.
how otto gracefully applied the many lessons he learned in
tensile structures. Otto used the idea of Antonio Gaudi for
TYPES OF FABRIC MEMBRANES
the roof of the Olympic stadium in Munich.
1. PVC
- less expensive 15-to-20-year life span easy to erect. WHY USE TENSIONED MEMBRANE STRUCTURE?
2. Silicon Glass
- higher tensile strength brittle, subject to damage from • Flexible Design Aesthetics
flexing 30+ year life span. tensile fabric structures provide unlimited designs of
3. Teflon/PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) distinctive elegant forms that can be realized because of the
-similar to silicon glass, less brittle. unique flexible characteristics of membrane.
• Outstanding Translucency
in daylight, fabric membrane translucency offers soft
ENGR. VLADIMIR SHUKHOV diffused, naturally lit spaces reducing the interior lighting
A Russian engineer was one of the costs while at night, artificial lighting creates an ambient
first to develop practical calculations exterior luminescence.
of stresses and deformations of • Excellent Durability
tensile structures, shells and with several different membranes in the market place such as
membranes. Shukhov designed eight PTFE fiberglass, ETFE film, PVC AND EPTFE, the
tensile structures and thin- shell structures exhibition durability and longevity of tensile membrane structures have
pavilions for the Nizhny Novgorod Fair of 1896
been proven and built-in climates ranging from the frigid artic within a building and ultimately reducing electrical energy
to the scorching desert heat. costs.
• Lightweight Nature • Variety Of Membranes
the lightweight nature of membrane is a cost-effective whether it’s a permanent durable structure that needs to last
solution that requires less structural steel to support the roof longer than 30 years, an insulated membrane system for
compared to conventional building materials, enabling long thermal performance or a deployable flexible application,
spans of column-free space. there are a variety of tensile membranes to choose from to
• Shipment meet specific performances for your next building project.
• Low Maintenance • Sustainable Building Material
tension fabric structures are somewhat unique in that they by using translucent tensile fabric membranes like PTFE,
require minimal maintenance when compared to an PVC, insulated tensile membrane or transparent ETFE films,
equivalent-sized conventional building. daylight is maximized in building interiors, thus reducing the
• Cost Benefits costs for electric lighting.
most tensile membrane structures have high sun reflectivity
and low absorption of sunlight, resulting in less energy used

IV. MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

HISTORY

Building with textiles is a tradition which goes back

thousands of years. From yurts made out of animal skins
through to the roman shade structures installed at the Vladimir Shukhov
Colosseum. • The first development of practical calculations of
Biologically based woven cotton and canvas stresses and deformations of tensile structures, shells
materials which were used to create the first fabric structures and membranes
have been replaced by some of the world’s most technical • He designed eight tensile structures and thin-shell
man-made fabrics to achieve lasting permanent fabric structures exhibition pavilions for the nizhny
architecture. novgorod fair of 1896, covering the area of 27,000
Modern coated fabrics have similar square meters.
aesthetic properties but offer significant performance • Thus, became a leading specialist of metallic
advantages (1) Increase strength, (2) ease of cleaning, (3) structures, including hyperboloid structures, thin-
Printability, (4) Solar Shading, (5) Acoustic characteristics. shell structures, and tensile structures, leaving
Modern coated fabrics will also resist the countless examples of his work throughout Russia.
absorption of atmospheric moisture resulting in
• The world’s first tensile steel shell by Vladimir
much longer lifespans and better dimensional stability
Shukhov (during construction), Nizhny Novgorod,
Historically inspired by some of the first man-made 1895
shelters—such as the black tents first developed using camel
leather by the nomads of the Sahara Desert, Saudi Arabia, and Horst Berger
Iran, as well as the structures used by Native American
• was a structural engineer and designer known for his
tribes work with lightweight tensile architecture.

MEMBRANE
1960s - german architect Frei Otto pushed the boundaries of
membrane technology and opened people’s eyes to what can - a thin pliable sheet of material forming a
be created with tensile fabric barrier or lining.
- From the word Membrana, the Latin origin
of membrane simply means skin, thin layer. Of
course in architecture this word is used for the skin
 of a building which we are creating out of foils, and
coated fabrics.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
- Membrane Structures are lightweight
constructions full of beauty and elegance.
- the art of spanning enormous distances
with minimal material thickness
- Structures with a thin, flexible surface
(membrane) that carries loads primarily through
tensile stresses

If the simple cable net is multiplied by parallel cable shafts in

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
both directions, then the anticlastic curved rope net arises.
- Work under tensile stress This structure is an approximation to the form of curved
- Ease of prefabrication membrane structures and clarifies their principal load bearing
- Ability to cover large spans behaviour.
- Malleability
Tension - State of stress in which a
material is being pulled apart
Tensile Structure - Arrangement of
elements that carries only tension Tension Stress - force that
attempts to
pull apart or stretch a material
The single load of a brick causes a kink
of the rope at the suspension point

COMPONENTS OF MEMBRANE STRUCTURES

1. Membrane/Fabric
a. Structurally Coated Fabric
b. Mesh Cloth
2. Support Systems
Upward directed loads transform the rope into an upward-
a. Mast
facing rope accordingly
b. Arch
c. Point
d. Frame
e. Saddle

MATERIALS FOR MEMBRANE STRUCTURES

Materials are constantly in
development as sustainability and
performance issues become more and more important
Both rope systems superimposed, create the simplest cable 1. Membrane/Fabric
net that can carry downwards as well as upward directed a. Structural Coated Fabric
loads - Consists of woven based cloth made up of
threads that run the length of the roll and
fill threads across width.
 b. Mesh Cloth 3. Arch Supported
- Made up of coated cloth with
spacing between
thread bundles
- Primarily used as shading or light-diffusing
fabrics

4. Frame Supported

CRITERIA TO SELECT A MATERIAL

1. Tensile Strength
2. Tear Strength
3. Adhesion Strength
4. Flame Resistance
5. Finished Weight 5. Simple Saddle
6. Base Fabric Weight
7. Available Top Coatings
8. Resistance to Cold/Heat
cracking
9. Translucency
10. Dead Load
11. Structural Properties
12. Life Expectancy
13. Cost

SUPPORT SYSTEMS
1. Mast Supported
FORM OF MEMBRANE STRUCTURES

2. Point Supported

Form - visible shape or configuration of something

Membrane structures follow 2 principles: (1) Anticlastic
Curvature, and (2) Synclastic Curvature.
Anticlastic Curvature - Centers of curvatures are located on
opposing sides of the surface
Synclastic Curvature - Centers of curvature are on the same
side of the surface
FORMS OF MEMBRANE STRUCTURE 2. Stretched Nets
1. Hypar (Hyperbolic paraboloid)
- Saddle-like
- Essentially, 2 parabolas that sit reflected and rotated
along a common axis
- Anticlastic
- Derive stability from form and not mass
- True Hypar: Quadrilateral tensioned at 4 points
2. Conic
- Umbrella/tent-like
- Membranes are tensioned between a ring at the pinnacle
and the lower perimeter columns Structures in which an internal force is carried by a
grid of wires and transferred to individual materials such as
- Loads are spread horizontally around full fabric and
sheets of glass or wood.
vertically from apex to base
3. Pneumatic structures
- anticlastic
3. Barrel Vault
- Barrel form
- Created with an inner steel, aluminum, or timber
structure tensioning the membrane in place to create
curves
- anticlastic
4. Inflatable
In this structure, air pressure supports the protective
- Balloon-like membrane. The fabric is stiffened by a network of cables, and
- Created where constant air pressures form the fabric the assembly is supported by a rigid ring at the edge.
into shape Compressors or fans keep the air pressure within this bubble
- Synclastic slightly higher than normal atmospheric pressure. To prevent
internal air pressure loss, air locks are required at entrances.
- Basic Components:
a. Fabric Membrane,
b. Pressurization,
c. Egress, and
d. Lighting

TYPES OF MEMBRANE STRUCTURES

APPLICATIONS
1. Structures with Membrane Tension
- Roofs and facades, free-standing buildings,
building envelopes, skylights, indoor ceilings and/or
accent enclosures
- Ideal: infrastructure, culture, sports and
entertainment, commerce, office, living and
private use
- Sports facilities, traffic space facilities,
buildings that contribute to the development of the
industry, education, medical
facilities, residences
PROPERTIES/ADVANTAGES
• Environmentally friendly
The membrane is maintained in place by cables, • High reflective surface
allowing stretching voltages to be distributed through its own • High Light transmittance rate
shape. They are frequently utilized as a roof because they are • (translucent or even transparent)
appealing, allow for plenty of natural light, are cost-effective,
• Multilayer construction
and can span long distances.
• Lightweight
 • Self-cleaning EQUILIBRIUM SHAPE - the configuration that a tensioned
• Structurally optimized and highly efficient fabric surface assumes when boundary condition, pre-stress
• Unique visual character level, and pre-stress distribution are defined.
FABRIC CLAMP - device for clamping the edge of a fabric
• Long lasting and weather resistant
panel, usually a bar or channel shape and made of aluminum
• Column-free and light-flooded space or steel.
• Short construction time and fast assembly FORM FINDING- the process of determining the equilibrium
• Reduced construction and maintenance costs shape of a fabric structure.
• Design customization KEDER - brand name for the solid PVC cord used at a “rope
• Significantly reduce volume of materials edge”. Rope edges provide strength and a surface to evenly
required distribute fabric tension forces.
• Temporary installations LAP SEAM - seam created when the two pieces being joined
are overlapped by the width of the seam.
DISADVANTAGES MAST - the principal upright in a tension structure.
WARP YARN- the long straight yarns in the long direction
• Poor rigidity of a piece of a fabric.
• Any loss of tension is dangerous for stability WAFT YARNS- the shorter yarns of a fabric, which usually
• Thermal resistance is poor run at the right angles to the wrap yarns. They are also called
as filled yarns.
• Poor insulation

TECHNICAL TERMS

BASE FABRIC - the uncoated fabric, also known as greige

goods.
BIAS – oriented at 45 degrees to the warp and fill directions
of the fabric.
BIAXIAL- taken along two concurrent orthogonal directions,
usually principal direction.
BUTT SEAM- seam created when two pieces of fabric being
joined together are butted together with a strip twice the width
of the seam.
CATENARY CABLE POCKET- edge treatment in which the
fabric is folded over on itself to form a pocket in which a
catenary cable can be installed.
CATENARY CABLE FITTING – device attached to the end
of a cable to allow a connection to another member. Fitting
are swaged.
CATENARY- the curve theoretically formed by a perfectly
flexible, uniformly dense fabric.
CATENARY CABLE FITTING- steel cables that run
through the pockets on the perimeter of a tension fabric
structure. The shape of the cable follows that of the pocket,
which is typically curved with a ratio of 1:10. The length of
the cable is determined by the project engineer supplying the
fabric patterning. The thickness of the cable is determined by
the engineer who calculates the reaction loads at the cable
ends.
COATING- a material applied to a fabric for waterproofing
and protection of the fabric yarns.
COATING ADHESION- strength of the bond between the
substrate of a fabric and the coating.
COMPENSATION- the operation of shop fabricating fabric
structure of pieces of the structure smaller in the unstressed
condition than the actual installed size, to account for the
stretch at pre-stress level.
ELONGATION - the change in length of a material sample;
normally this is associated with some load or force acting on
the sample. In fabric, this elongation. Does not normally refer
to true strain of the fiber elements as in the classical sense;
but rather, normally refers to the apparent’ strain resulting
from a straightening out of the crimped yarns in the fabric
matrix.
 V. SHELL STRUCTURE
• In building construction, shell structure is a • Barrel shell carries load longitudinally as a
thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit beam and transversely as an arch
applied forces by compressive, tensile, and
shear stresses that act in the plane of the
surface.
• Shell structures are also called plate
structures.
• The term “shell” refers to the structures
which possesses strength and rigidity due to
its thin, natural and curved form
• More complex forms of concrete shells have
been made, including hyperbolic
paraboloids, or saddle shapes, and
intersecting parabolic vaults less than 0.5 in.
(1.25 cm) thick. 2. FOLDED PLATE
• Shell construction began in the 1920s.
• A type of concrete shell structure that is made up
• Pioneering thin-shell designers include Felix
of thin flat slabs
Candela and Pier Luigi Nervi.
• Folded plate structures are assemblies of flat
plates or slabs inclined in different directions and
2 FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF joined along their longitudinal edges
CONCRETE SHELL STRUCTURES
• Folded plates tend to flatten out under gravity
• Shape load, which may be prevented by walls or frames at
• Thickness end supports
FORMS OF CURVATURE SHELLS
1. Single Curvature Shells are curved on one linear
axis and are a part of a cylinder or cone in the form
of barrel vaults and conoid shells.
2. Double Curvature Shells are either part of a
sphere, or a hyperboloid of revolution.

3. SHORT SHELL
• A cylindrical shell that has a considerably large
radius in comparison with its length
• Carries load in two ways: (1) As an arch carrying
load to the lower elements (2) As a curved beam to the
Classification of Doubly Curved:
arches
Synclastic – have a similar curvature in the same direction
(domes)Anticlastic – have curvature in the opposite • An edge beam may be provided at the springing
direction level of the shell for additional support

TYPES OF SHELL STRUCTURES:

1. BARREL VAULT

• Barrel vault is also called the “tunnel vault”

or “roman vault because of its heavy use in
ancient Rome
• Constructed with a rounded arched ceiling
that gives the appearance of a tunnel
4. DOMES (SURFACES OF
REVOLUTION)
 • A space structure covering a more or less square • A special kind of warped ruled surface which, as
or circular area a curved shell roof, can be used as an alternative to a
• Support element of domes include columns, barrel vault
circular or regular polygon-shaped wall • The basic principle is that one edge of the shell is
curved while the opposite edge is kept straight

Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shell

• Is a doubly ruled surface
• It can be defined by two families of intersecting
straight lines, which form in a plan projection a
rhombic grid
• Resembles the shape of a saddle formed by the
combination of concave and convex surfaces

5. FOLDED PLATE DOMES

• It is a type of concrete shell structure that consists
of plane slabs and plates
• Folded plate dome surfaces are easier to construct
since they are flat

8. COMBINATIONS
• It is possible to construct different and safer shell
6. TRANSLATION SHELL structure by combining portion of the basic shell
structure
A dome set on 4 arches
• Intersection shells, barrel shell and folded plate,
• All vertical slices have the same radius barrel shell and short shell, barrel shells and domes of
• The vertical sections are all identical revolution, and barrel shells and conoids are all
• It is generated by a vertical curve sliding along concrete shell combinations
another vertical curve. The curves can be circles,
ellipses, or parabolas.
•

Dome + Barrel Vault

7. WARPED SURFACES
Have great advantages for shell structures because they
may be formed from straight form boards even though
they are surfaces of double curvature. MOST SUITABLE MATERIAL: Concrete
2 Types of Warped Surfaces:
Conoid Shell APPLICATIONS OF SHELL STRUCTURE
 • The shell structure is commonly used in seismic DISADVANTAGES OF SHELL STRUCTURE
zones where structures undergo seismic loads. The • SHUTTERING/ FORMWORK PROBLEM-
reason of using the shell structures in the earthquake- Shell structures take huge span, so it needs proper
prone areas is that it has high strength with respect to execution and formwork to determine the
its selfweight. curvature in a right way so the load will be
• Shell Structures are generally used to cover the properly distributed.
larger area of the building where the interior of the • GREAT ACCURACY IN FORMWORK IS
building has no columns and walls to support the flat NEEDED- It’s all sustained with the curvature so
slabs. how it is formed is important. If there’s some
• Shell Structure has a very interesting and disbalance to the equilibrium, the structure will
attractive look which is used to beautify the buildings. not be that much stable.
• SKILLED LABOR AND SUPERVISION IS
ADVANTAGES OF SHELL STRUCTURE REQUIRED- To achieve accuracy
• LIMITATIONS TO FLOOR- Due to its geometry
• VERY LIGHT FORM OF CONSTRUCTION -
and structural design capacity, it is only for single
Due to less thickness of material.
floor buildings.
• CAN COVER LARGE AREA -To span 30 m
• SEALING PROBLEMS- Since concrete is a
shell thickness required is 60 m.
porous substance, seepage can occur. Rainwater
• REDUCE DEAD LOAD -Dead load can be will seep through the roof and spill into the
reduced by economizing foundation and building’s interior if it is not handled properly.
supporting system.
• AESTHETICALLY LOOKS GOOD OVER HIGH LABOR COST- This type of structure has unique
OTHER FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION- architectural design which is difficult to construct and
Compared to typical buildings with straight lines require skilled labor. Due to less availability of labors and
and rectilinear shapes, each shell structure speaks difficulty in construction, labor cost increases
beauty and uniqueness.
• ECONOMICAL -Uses less amount of material.

VI. PRE-ENGINEERED BUILDING

HISTORY: • Henry Bessemer’s invention of a method to burn

carbon and silicon from the pig iron to create steel,
• By the 1800s, communities were starting to led to durable structures that could be
develop firefighting units to help address the manufactured and then transported to a site for
problem, but one major step that mill owners took assembly
in protecting their interests was using metal in the
• For much of the 19th century, these one-story
construction of their buildings.
buildings were used for warehouses and farm
• In fact, the first recorded use of metal in a building structures.
was by the DitheringTon Flax Mill in 1796, who • In 1901, due to the popularity of the Model T,
used cast-iron columns and framing to stave off consumers demanded a storage place that would
the disastrous results of what had become protect their new cars.
infamous cotton mill fires.
• An American company, The Butler Brothers,
• Ditherington Flax Mill is the first iron-framed stepped up to meet the need.
building in the world and described as the
• Before 1909, the Butlers had built preengineered
“grandfather of skycrapers” despite its fivestorey
farming structures, but they quickly retooled to
height.
create the first car ports, which were arched
What does this have It do with Pre-Engineered Structures? frames over which corrugated sheets of metal
were fixed.
• Innovations in metallurgy, including the creation • The phenomenon had spread beyond carports so
of rolled iron beams, which were used, for that businesses such as the Austin Company were
example, to construct the Cooper Union Building offering a catalog of 10 standard preengineered
in New York. building designs that could be shipped to a
construction site within a few weeks
 • It was the 1940s and World War II that made pre- • Pre-engineered structures have the benefit of
engineered structures a ubiquitous part of the requiring less steel to support a given weight,
American landscape. resulting in a lighter frame. Purlins, eave struts,
• The same design principles that created easily and girts of various sizes with z or c forms make
movable and just as easily assembled metal up the majority of the secondary structural frame.
Sheeting And Insulation
Quonset huts and airplane hangars for the military
insinuated their way into mainstream construction • Studs, ridge caps, bottom plates, headers, and top
plates are only a few of the pieces that make up
following the war.
walls and roof panels. In addition, they shield the
• Today, pre-engineered buildings make up more structure from leaks, air infiltration, and wind
than 70% of commercial construction and almost uplift. This is another instance when sheeting or
95% of industrial buildings. cladding is relevant. To give the pre-engineered
• The Council on Tall Buildings recognized Broad building an attractive appearance, the steel sheets
Group for the 30-story hotel built in China in just are typically galvanized and colored.
15 days out of pre-assembled components. Crane System
• It is now time to realize when the assembling
PRE-ENGINEERED BUILDINGS DEFINITION: process is complete. There are several different
types of cranes in use, including jib cranes,
• A Pre-Engineered Building is a metal building
overhung or underslung crane systems, monorail
that consists of light gauge metal standing seam
cranes, overhead cranes with pendant or cabin
roof panels on steel purlins spanning between controls, and wall-mounted cranes. The decision
rigid frames with light gauge metal wall cladding. will be based on the operational requirement.
It is a relatively flexible structure versus a Mezzanine System
conventional steel framed building. In other • Another element presents in pre-engineered steel
words, it has a much greater vertical and structures that use steel decks supported by joists
horizontal deflection. built onto major beams is mezzanines.
Accessories
• Pre-engineered building concept is widely used in
• Pre-engineered steel building components may
many of the industrialized countries. It consists of
not be crucial to the structure, but they are crucial
a complete steel-framed building system, with to the structure's use and aesthetic appeal. It
components pre-designed to fit together in a vast completes the appearance as a whole. Crane
variety of combinations to meet the unique runway beams, catwalks, fascia, parapets,
requirements of specific end uses. canopies, and roof extensions are some of these
PRE-FABRICATED accessories

• Also called a prefab building, means that DIFFERENT MEMBERS IN THE ASSEMBLY OF THE
the entire building, house or part of it is first PRE-ENGINEERED BUILDINGS:
constructed in a factory. These are typically used
1. Eave Strut - A secondary steel framing member
as a skeleton for a pre-engineered building but can
used at eaves and high side peak. It is located at
also come ready to build and use, as is.
the intersection of roof and the exterior wall, so
• In construction and civil engineering, the
that act as both the first purlin and the last girt.
most common forms of prefabrication are the use
of pre-fabricated and prefabricated steel sections. 2. Roof Panel - Simply a roofing system. tHe section
In a type of building that often replicates specific of material, usually sheet metal; it is made up from
parts or structures, for example making big ships
alloys of various metal like steel, iron, copper,
and factories. The framework required for
Zink and aluminum.
moulding concrete components on-site and that
can be difficult to construct. 3. Roof Purlin - A horizontal structural member in a
roof. Purlin support the loads from the roof deck
PEMB'S COMPONENTS
or sheeting and are supported by the principal
Primary Frames
rafters and/or building walls, steel beams etc.
• The fundamental frame of pre-engineered steel
structures is composed of strong steel columns 4. Rigid Frame Rafter and Rigid Frame Column -
and rafters that are fastened together with fittings The load-resisting skeleton constructed with
like flanges. straight or curved members interconnected by
most rigid connections, which resist movements
Secondary Frames induced at the joints of members.
 5. Ridge Line - The intersection of twoo roof planes, BASIC BUILDING PARAMETERS.
or the highest horizontal edge of a single roof
Building Length:
surface, forming the highest horizontal line of the
roof. Whenever possible maintain equal bay lengths
throughout the building. When this is not possible
6. End Wall - The wall at each end of the building.
make all interior bays equal and make the end
7. Wall Panel - Enhance the walls appearance. - A bays equal but shorter than the interior bays.
single piece of material, usually flat and cut into a Building Width:
rectangular shape, that serves as the visible and
exposed covering for a wall. Whenever possible make building width a
multiple of 3m. This is because roof purlins are
8. Side Wall - A wall that forms the side and the spaced at 1.5m on centers and 3m is equal to two
external supporting wall of a building or structure. purlin spacings one on each side of the ridge.

9. Downspout - A vertical pipe attachment that TYPICAL PRE-ENGINEERED BUILDING

moves water out of the gutters and away from the ASSEMBLY:
building to empty safety into a separate drainage
system. • The “Rigid Frame” assembly is the most common
frame used in pre-engineered buildings.
10. Gutter - Collects rainwater run-off from the roof, • Basically, the rigid frame consists ofa structural
discharging. It is usually to rainwater downpipes steel (hot-rolled) moment-resisting column and
which convey it to the drainage. beam assembly that carries the cold-formed roof
purlins (usually “Z” shaped) and wall girts (usually
11. Ridge Panel - Designed for harsh wind that hits “C” shaped).
the ridge of the roof. - Ridge caps are used to allow
air to flow through the attic, while protecting our
• In addition, diagonal rod bracing is required in the
walls to resist horizontal loading on the
homes from leaks.
building(i.e., wind loads and/or seismic). Rod
12. Cable Bracing (at roof & wall) - Located in the bracing is also provided within the roof framing to
roof and wall of a building between frame resist "racking", or twisting of the building.
members. Most efficient and way to transfer ADVANTAGES
longitudinal load to the foundation in smaller low-
rise building. • Seismic and Weather Resistance
The superstructure made of steel is light in weight, flexible
TERMINOLOGIES: and can withstand extreme weather conditions including
wind, water, and earthquakes.
• Base Plate – a plate attached to the base
of a column which rests on the foundation or other • Scope of Future Expansion
support, usually secured by anchor bolts. Peb structure can be easily expanded in length by adding
• Butt Plate – the end plate of a structural additional bays. Expansion in width and height is also
member usually used to rest against a like plate of possible by pre-designing for future expansion.
another member informing a connection.
• Flexibility in Design
Sometimes called a split plate or bolted end plate.
The steel structures are designed in software and are
• Bay – the space between frame centre fabricated with machines; thus, desired shapes can be
lines or primary supporting members in the customized whenever required.
longitudinal direction of the building.
• Quality Control
• Brace Rods – rods or cables used in roof
As building components are designed and manufactured
and walls to transfer loads such as wind loads, and
completely in a factory under the supervision of a quality
seismic and crane thrusts to the foundation.
control engineer, hence the quality is assured.
• Clear Height - This is the distance
between the Finished Floor Level to the bottom of • Low Maintenance
knee joint. Modern metal finishes and coatings will help the steel
panels to resist corrosion, chemical attacks, etch., and also
• Roof Slope (x/10) - This is the angle of
the steel surfaces can be easily repaired if damaged.
the roof with respect to the horizontal. The most
common roof slopes are 0.5/10 and1/10. Any • Warranty of Peb
practical roof slope is possible. The manufacturers of peb used to provide a warranty period
of 20 years.
• Cost-Effective • Less Manpower
• Due to the saving in design, manufacturing, and on- • Most of the work in peb construction is done in the
site erection cost. Materials and manpower are industries thus the requirement of manpower at the
minimized in the overall cost of construction is site is comparatively less
reduced.
DISADVANTAGES
• Larger Span
• Rusting/Corrosion Sensitive
• Peb buildings can be given up to 90m clear spans
which is an advantage of peb with column-free • If the quality of steel used or paint used for coating
space. steel parts in not of good, or not properly maintained
in the steel frames then it can damage the structure
• Erection Time
and thus reduces the life of the structure.
• The connections of all the components used in a peb
• Insulation Cost
are standard and thus the erection time is
comparatively faster than the conventional • As insulating the building to an agreeable
buildings. benchmark will furthermore add to your
construction costs
• Reduced Construction Time
• Low Fire Resistance
• Components are comparatively fast designed in
software. Foundations and anchor bolts are cast • During a fire, this type of building becomes more
parallelly and time consumption is minimized due to susceptible to damage due to its conductivity
fast assembling and bolting.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRIMARY FRAMING SYSTEM.

ADVANTAGES OF PEB BUILDINGS OVER CONVENTIONAL STEEL BUILDINGS

 VII. GEODESIC STRUCTURE
WHAT IS GEODESIC?
1. relating to or denoting the shortest possible line between two points on a sphere or other curved surface.

GEODESIC DOME/STRUCTURE
- Geodesic dome is a thin shelled arrangements made out of triangles (a network of struts) connected together to
form a true sphere.
- The triangles are architecturally firm and distribute the stress throughout the dome, allowing the structure to bear
heavy loads for their size.
- Space frame is the three-dimensional framework that makes the dome stabled.
- The triangles are put as hexagons and pentagons (works best because of lack of corners to concentrate stress) to
eventually form the dome.

U.S. EXHIBITION DOME AT

EXPO 67 IN MONTREAL CASA MAÑANA INC

HUNGARY (LAKE BALATON) – THE U.S. EXHIBITION DOME AT

GLOBE OBSERVATORY EXPO 67 IN MONTREAL
HISTORY
• Experiments in 1913 geodesic planetarium dome at the Carl Zeiss plant in Jena, Germany
• The year 1919, Walter Bauersfield who is from Germany has decided to base a moveable projectors within a still
dome.
• The first model ever made was more that half a sphere but Walter Bauersfeld has fixed the issue of how to make
a really huge sphere by approximating it.
• After 30 years, an American architect R. Buckminster Fuller has invented a similar idea but the difference is
that he designed it to be affordable and efficient that can be made fast. He was the one who exploited, patented, and
developed the idea of geodesic dome.
• The geodesic dome is the strongest (omnitriangulated surface), lightest and most cost-effective building that was
ever made because its ability to cover space without any interior supports “such a columns” that usually cover up space in
an interior. Not only is it cost effective but it is also easy to construct.
RICHARD BUCKMINSTER “BUCKY” FULLER
(July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983)
- was an American systems theorist, architect, engineer, author, designer,
inventor, and futurist
- Fuller published more than 30 books, inventing and popularizing terms such as
“Spaceship Earth”, ephemeralization, and synergetic.
- He also developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, the best
known of which is the geodesic dome. Carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later
named by scientists for their resemblance to geodesic spheres.

STRUCTURE
• Domes are the most efficient structure known to man, they use less
material, lighter and stronger than any other types of building bar none.
• They are much stronger than any conventional buildings
• Domes can be built very quickly and economically.
• The nature of the spherical design provide strength because all the points
of the structure share the stress evenly as opposed to the right angles of typical box
structures.
• Domes become super strong when they are fixed to the ground by slabs,
crawl space, or even full basement.
• Geodesics domes are the only man-made structure that gets proportionally
stronger as it increases in size.

Eco-Friendly
• Extremely “green” in terms of cost, building materials and future maintenance.
• The sphere has the greatest volume given a certain surface area, it stands to reason that it also is the most economic
to construct in terms of size and available budget.
• The environmental benefits of domes would also play as part, as its proven to have lesser footprint and negative
impact than that of a rectangular home.
• In addition, domes are easier to retrofit for energy engineering such as: radiant heat, solar energy, water collection
systems, compost toilets, and many other alternative utilities.

Weather Resistance
• Domes are naturally hurricane resistant. High wind can pass smoothly over a dome because it has no corners and flat
surfaces to cause turbulence.
• Domes are aerodynamic, eliminates roof and truss structures and are made of high-performance green materials designed
to withstand considerable wind loads from severe storms like tornados, hurricanes and typhoons.
• Due to their highly structural integrity, they perform extremely well in such natural disasters as earthquakes, floods and
severe wind storms.

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
Planning the construction
• Designing the dome is the first step to know the size and amount of triangles needed from the calculation to form the dome.
• Struts: these are the framework for the dome which are made up of rods.
• Material selection should be as made as different materials create different kinds of domes.
• Finalizing the structures
• The calculations differ by class of the dome, like 2V, 3V, 4V, etc.
Strut Preparation
• Cutting the struts as per calculations
• Flattening the edges
• Drilling holes for joints
• Bending the flattened edges
• Sealing and painting the struts

(show video- https://youyu.be/-2S2Jx4b1WQ )

Dome Assembly Method

• The assembly should be planned according to the class and complexity of the dome.
• It also depend on what arrangement will the triangles be, for example pentagon, hexagon

Show video – https://youtu.be/4kArvROGtF8

Materials Used
• Most common material use to build a geodesic dome is steel as they connect the network of the beams/struts together.
• The triangular panels of the dome can be covered with either plastic, wood, or drywall.

What is GEODESIC DOME FREQUENCY?

• Dome Frequency is denoted by the letter "v".
• The short answer for dome frequency is, the higher the "v", or frequency, the more triangles there are in the geodesic dome.
A higher frequency dome with more triangles will be stronger and more spherical than a lower frequency dome. And the
higher frequency dome will be more complicated to build, as it will have more struts.

1 v Dome 2 v Dome 3 v Dome

4 v Dome 5 v Dome 6 v Dome

 ICOSAHEDRON
Almost all Geodesic Domes are based on the Icosahedron. The Icosahedron is a
geometric solid that has 20 sides, called "faces". Each "face" of the Icosahedron is
made from an equilateral triangle.
TESSELLATION

• Tessellation" means that you are breaking up a flat surface into smaller "tiles" with no gaps or overlaps.
• The tessellation of the triangular face of an Icosahedron into smaller triangles increases the Geodesic Dome Frequency.
• Tessellation" Lets You Build a Larger Dome with Shorter Struts, and Makes the Dome More Spherical.

1 FREQUENCY GEODESIC DOME

2 FREQUENCY GEODESIC DOME

3 FREQUENCY GEODESIC DOME

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
• Geodesic domes are stable and easy to • Unusable space inside of a
construct. geodesic dome
• The distribution of weight, throughout the • Custom doors and windows are needed.
structure makes it stable during earthquakes
and similar hazards.

• Have an aerodynamic shape that protects them • Drainage and fire escapes can be an issue as
against strong wind or storms. they need to meet code requirements.

• Since the geodesic dome is spherical in shape • Needs very skilled labors.
it has less surface area, reducing the interior
temperature and heat gain, and also enables
uniform air flow.