Prestressed Concrete: Index

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
INDEX
SL NO TOPICS PG NO
1. INTRODUCTION 3
2. HISTORY OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 3-4
3. HOW PRESTRESSED CONCRETE WORKS 4
4. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 4
5. WHY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 5
6. FORMS 5
7. 3 MAINS TYPES OF INTERNAL PRESTRESSED 5-7

CONCRETE WITH ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
8. BOND AND UNBONDED POST TENSIONED CONCRETE 7-8
9. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8
10. MANUFACTURES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE IN INDIA 9
11. EQUIPMENTS 9
12. CASE STUDY 10-12
13. REFERENCES 12
Introduction
● Prestressed concrete is a form of
reinforcement concrete that builds in
compressive stresses during
construction to oppose those found
when in use.
● It is a combination of steel and
concrete that takes advantages of the
strength of each material.
● Prestressed concrete is a structural
material that allows for
predetermined, engineering stresses
to be placed in members to
counteract the stresses that occur
when they are subject to loading. It
combines the high strength
compressive properties of concrete with the high tensile strength of steel.
● In ordinary reinforced concrete, stresses are carried by the steel reinforcement, whereas
prestressed concrete supports the load by induced stresses throughout the entire structural
element. This makes it more resistant to shock and vibration than ordinary concrete, and
able to form long, thin structures with much smaller sectional areas to support equivalent
loads.
● Prestressed concrete was patented by San Franciscan engineer P.H Jackson in 1886,
although it did not emerge as an accepted building material until 50 years later when a
shortage of steel, coupled with technological advancements, made prestressed concrete
the building material of choice during European post-war reconstruction.
● It is now commonly used for floor beams, piles and railway sleepers, as well as structures
such as bridges, water tanks, roofs and runways. Generally, prestressed concrete is not
necessary for columns and walls, however, it can be used economically for tall columns
and high retaining walls with high bending stresses.
● As a general rule, traditional reinforced concrete is the most economic method for a span
of up to 6 m. Prestressed concrete is more economical when spans are over 9 m. Between
6 and 9 m, the two options must be considered according to the particular requirements as
to which is the most suitable option.
History of prestressed concrete

● The concept of prestressed concrete
appeared in 1888 when PH Jackson was
granted the first patent in the United States
for prestressed concrete design. Jackson’s
idea was perfect, but the technology of high
strength steel that exhibited low relaxation characteristic was not yet available
● It was not until Eugene Freyssinet defined the need for these materials that prestressed
concrete could be used as a structural building material. Unfortunately although
Freyssinet, lacked the teaching qualities necessary to communicate his ideas to other
engineers
● It would take Gustave Magnel to write the first book of design in prestressed concrete
●
How Pre-Stressed Concrete works

So by now, I have had our concept. We have
learned why and when we should use prestressed
concrete. So, how does it work? In real life, high
tensile strength steel wires are inserted into the
beam section and they are stretched and anchored,
then released. Now the steel tendon wants to gain
its original length and tensile stresses are
transformed into a compressive stress in the
concrete. Now after loading there are two kinds of
forces on the beam,
1. Internal prestressing force

2. External forces (Dead load, Live load etc.)
Principle :
Using high tensile strength steel alloys producing permanent pre-compression in areas subjected
to tension.
A portion of tension stress is counteracted thereby reducing the cross sectional area of the steel
reinforcement.
Method :
a. Pretensioning
b. Post tensioning
Pretensioning : Placing concrete around reinforcement tendons that have been stressed to the
desired degree
Post tensioning : Reinforcement tendons are stretched by jacks whilst keeping them inserted in
voids left pre-hand during curing of concrete.
These spaces are then pumped full of grout to bond steel tightly to the concrete
Why prestressed Concrete ?

● Concrete remains uncracked
● Reduction of steel corrosions
● Increases durability
● Good for pressure vessels
● High span to depth ratio (ex: 45 : 1 vs 28:1)
● Less dead load
● More economical
Forms
● Wires : Prestressing wire is a single units made of steel
● Strands : two, three or seven wires are wound to form a prestressed strand
● Tendon : A group of strands or wires are wound to form prestressing tendons.
● Cables : A group of tendons form a prestressing cable
● Bars : A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar The diameter of a bar is much larger
than that of a wire
3 Mains types of Internal Prestressed concrete

1. Pretension concrete: Prestressing steel is tension stressed prior to the placement of the
concrete and unloaded after concrete has hardened to required strength.
2. Bonded post tensioned concrete : unstressed prestressed steel is placed within the
concrete and then tension stressed after concrete has harden to required strength
3. Unbonded post tensioned concrete : Differs from bonded post tensioning by providing
the pre-stressed steel permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete.
Prestressed pretensioned concrete

● Prestressed pre tensioned concrete is when
the steel reinforcement is stressed prior to
concrete being placed around the steel
● Pre tensioned concrete is cast around already
tensioned tendons
● This method produces a good bond between
the tendon and concrete, which both protects
the tendons from corrosions and allows for
direct transfer of tension
● The curved concrete adheres and bonds to the bars and when the tension is released it is
transferred to the concrete as compression by static friction
● However it requires stout anchoring points between which the tendons is to stretched and
the tendons and usually in a straight line
● Thus , most pretensioned concrete elements are prefabricated concrete elements are
prefabricated in a factory and must be transported to the construction site, which limits
their size
● Pre tensioned elements may be balcony elements. Lintels, floor slabs , beams or
foundation piles
Concerns with pre tension

● Usually uses a mould which is able to resist the forces within the tendons. Which are
more forces within the tendons Which are more expensive than regular moulds
● Concrete sample should be taken for every new mix so that strength obtained may be
determined before cutting the tendons releasing the stresses onto the concrete
● Since pre tension may only be set once calculations for camber must be correct. So
prestress takes a large amount of preplanning . Must consider self weight deflections and
live load deflections
● Since it may only tightened once and cannot be retightened and designer must also
account for creep of concrete, elastic shortening of concrete , shrinkage of concrete,
relaxation of steel , slip at the anchorage, and friction losses due to intended and
unintended (wobble) curvature in the member in order to have lasting quality of the
structure.
Advantages of pretension
● Tension causes by the steel is spread throughout the length of the concrete since it is
bonded within the concrete along the
length of the member
Post tensioning
● It is a method of reinforcement
(strengthening ) concrete or other material
with higher strength steel strands called
tendons
● Post tensioning allows construction that would otherwise be impossible due to either site
constraints or architecture requirements
● Requires specialized knowledge and expertise to fabricate , assemble and install
● After adequate curing of concrete, reinforcing tendons (placed in side the voids of the
structure) are tensioned / stretched by jacks on the sides and grouts filled with appropriate
mix
Applications
● Structural members beams, bridges deck panels. Roofs slabs , concrete silos etc
Benefits
● Concrete is very strong in compression but weak in tension
● This deflection will cause the bottom of the beam to elongate slightly and cause cracking
● Steel reinforcement bars (rebars) are typically embedded in the concrete as tensile
reinforcement to limit the crack widths
● Rebar is what is called “passive” reinforcement however: it does not carry any forces
until the concrete has already deflected enough to crack
● Post tensioning tendons, on the other hand are considered “active” reinforcing
● Because it is prestressed, the steel is effectively as reinforcement even though the
concrete may not be cracked
● Post tensioned structures can be designed to have minimal deflection and cracking, even
under full load
● It reduces or eliminates shrinkage cracking therefore no joints, no fewer joints are needed
● It allows slabs and other structural members to be thinner
● It allows us to build slabs on expertise or soft soils
● It lets us design longer spans in elevated members, like floors or beams
● Material savings : Thinner concrete members sizes: reduction in concrete is
approximately 20%
● Quicker construction
● Increase performance : improved seismic behaviour and reduced deflections and
vibrations
● Reduced lifetime costs : reduced building height also results in energy savings, especially
for office buildings
Bonded post tensioned concrete

Process :
● Concrete is casted around a curved duct ( usually corrugated), to allow room for the
tendon to be inserted
● After the concrete has hardened the tendons are pulled in tension and then wedged
● The duct is the injected with grout
Advantages
● Tendons are less likely to de stress in accidents
● Tendons can be easily ‘weaved’ allowing more efficient designs
● Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete
● No issues with maintaining the anchor
Unbonded post tension

● In post tensioning the steel in the concrete is stretched after the curing process
● Unlike bonded, un bonded provides tendons freedom of movement by coating each
tendon with grease and covering it with a plastic sheathing
● Tension on the concrete is achieved by the cables acting against the steel anchors that are
buried in the perimeters of the concrete
Advantages
● Post stress grouting is eliminated
● Ability to de stress the tendons
● Economical
● Replaceable
● Simple stressing equipment
Difference between post tensioning and pre tensioning

Post tensioning
● Can be performed at the project site as well as at precast yards There is relatively less
loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage as at the time of prestressing concrete has
already been cured
● Corrosion of steel is less as compared to pretensioning
● There is more flexibility in design. The prestressed tendons can be configured to almost
any shape. As per requirement the tendons may be bonded or unbounded
● They are more prone to anchorage failure as the compressive forces are transferred at the
beam ends. Hence compressive stresses are concentrated
Pre tensioning
● Difficult to perform at site. Only sone in precast yards
● There is greater loss of prestress due to shrinkage of concrete
● Concrete and steel tendons are in direct contact. So any moisture that slips through cracks
in concrete will cause corrosion in steel
● Tendons can only be straight or circular
● Since the compressive forces are transferred over a certain length of bond they are less
prone to anchorage failure
So to generalize post tensioning is usually better than pre tensioning. However this may not
always be the case. Either method has its applications
.
Manufacturer of prestressed concrete in india
● IHP (Indian Hume Pipes ) introduced the
● Prestressed concrete monoblock sleepers for railways in 1970
● Prestressed concrete pipe (PSC)
● Prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP)
● The Freyssinet Prestressed Concrete Company Ltd (FPCC) established in 1954 is the
first company to introduce state of the art Prestressing Technology in India
Equipments used :
● Air powered grout pump : pump
cement grout only, no sand , 32 Gallon
and allows for grout to be pumped
during mixing or mixed without
pumping
● Colloidal grout plant: the heavy duty
high volume colloidal drought is
favoured for precision post tension
grouting. The unit features a high
speed shear mixer that thoroughly wets each particle and discharges the mxes material
into a 13 cubic foot capacity agitating holding tank A direct coupled progressing cavity
pump delivers slurries at a rate of upto 20 gpm and pressures of up to 261 psi. The unit
easily mixes and pumps slurries of portland cement fly ash, Bentonite, and lime flour. All
controls are conveniently located on the operated platform for easy one man control
● Hydraulic Jacks : Used for testing and prestressing anchor bolts. Available with upto 5 -
⅛” centre hole. Unit comes with a ram , pump, gauge, hoses, jack stand, hex nut and
knocker wrench. Calibrations are available upon request
● Hydraulic Torque Wrench : The hydraulic torque wrench is used for tensioning anchors
in tight fitting locations where it would be difficult to use a hydraulic jack. The wrenches
are lightweight and can achieve a maximum of 8000 ft lbs. Torque Tensioning charts
williams products can be found here.
● Long fitting Tool adapters : for driving hex nuts and setting tools typically with our
Spin Lock anchor systems. Works with torque wrench or impact guns Available with 1”
or 1- ½ “ square drive
Case studies :
Cline Avenue Bridge, Gary, Indiana

● The cline Avenue Bridge (SR 915)
is a predominantly cast in place
post tensioned structure located in
Gary Indiana . The bridge mainline
is over 6000 LF, has two adjacent
segments nearly 35 feet wide each
and contains four connecting
ramps. An inspection and analysis
team was assembled to perform a
thorough investigation of the
bridge The team concentrated on
the existing post tensioning system
and interior and exterior concrete cracks. The engineer reached VSL to assist with the
inspection of the tendons
● VSL approached the Cline Avenue project with a guideline that outlines a statically sound
method of sampling the tendons. A statistically sample pool ( which consisted of the
mainline structure and the ramps) was defined by referencing the American National
Standard Institute’s ( ANSI) guidelines “Sampling procedures and tables for inspection
by attributes as published by the american society for Quality Control (1993)
● The probable void locations throughout the structure’s mainline segments and ramps
were initially identified by VSL to appropriately distribute the sampling population. Such
areas consisted of high points. Area approaching and leaving the high points and couplers
● Using non destructive ground Penetrating Radars (GPR) and field layout drawings, VSL
located existing post tensioning tendons. Once the layout was performed specific tendons
throughout the bridge and ramp structures were sampled by drilling into the duct and
exposing the tendons for visual inspection. The use of a borescope allowed for detailed
visual inspection of the tendon and also captured video footage.
85th Street Bridge , Valley Centre Kansas

● The 85 th Street North Bridge is a seven span post tensioned haunched slab bridge with a
typical span of 26 m for the middle bridge accommodates two lanes of traffic reading
over the Wichita Valley Centre Floodway. VSL post tensioning system utilized for this
project include 5 - 19 longitudinal tendons as well as 6 - 4 transverse tendons
● Post tensioned haunched slab bridges are noted for ease of construction. Once the
geometry of the bridge falsework has been obtained prefabricated spacer frames are set
into place. The spacer frames are set into
place. The spacers' framers serve as
templates for profiling the longitudinal post
tensioning tendons and aids in the
placement of the remaining conventional
reinforcement. Transverse tendons maintain
mid depth placement along the geometry of
the haunched slab and provide the minimum
pre compression over the length of the
structure.
● Dead loads are balanced by the use of
longitudinal post tensioning, reducing the
sustained loading and associated creep.
Corrosion resistance is increased due to the
encapsulation of the post tensioning
reinforcement. Through the use of
transverse post tensioning, added
compression improves the longevity of the structure by adding resistance to de-icing
methods such as salt and magnesium chlorides.
Colorado Convention centre , Expansion Denver, Colorado

● The Colorado convention centre expansion
project is a 1.4 million square foot
expansion of the existing facility.This was a
multi level project which included a 1000
car attached parking garage
● The garage above the street was
constructed using precast tees and columns
with cast in place topping slab. In order to
maintain regular spacing for the columns in
the precast section of the garage and still
maintain an unobstructed path for the road
and light rail, large post tensioned transfer
girders were required to support several columns above.The transfer girders allowed for
the placements of columns required for the precast design despite the restricted column
locations at the street level
● Post tensioning the transfer girders resulted in smaller dimensions than a conventional
reinforced concrete design, an important factor given the girders are over 7 feet high and
high up to 7 feet wide and a larger sections would not fit within the space constraint of
the building The girders could not be stressed until after the precast garage was fully
erected and the topping slab poured on the truck docK Temporary columns were placed
under the girders to support the load until stressing
● The effective post tensioning force required for the beams ranged from 2176 to 5457
kips. A multi strand bonded system was installed
REFERENCES
● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestressed_concrete
● https://www.concrete.org/topicsinconcrete/topicdetail/prestressed%20concrete?search=pr
estressed%20concrete
● https://theconstructor.org/concrete/prestressed-concrete/353/
● http://www.learncivilengineering.com/wp-content/themes/thesis/images/construction-eng
ineering/prestressed-concrete.pdf
● https://constructionor.com/prestressed-concrete/
PRECAST CONCRETE
ANJALI VARDANI - BA19ARC001 RUSHALI JAIN - BA19ARC037
ATUL PRABHAKAR - BA19ARC015 SAL S S - BA19ARC038
ABHINAV ANAND - BA19ARC022 DIKSHA - BA19ARC039
NACHIKET N. - BA19ARC026 PRANAV UBALE - BA19ARC040
HIMANSHU J - BA19ARC027 RUSHAB MAHORE-BA19ARC041
INDEX
CONTENT PAGE NO.

Introduction 3
Properties of Precast Concrete Construction 3
Functions of Precast Concrete Construction 3
Advantages of precast construction 5
Disadvantages of precasting 5
How and where precasting is used 5
Site vs. factory precasting 6
Connecting precast concrete elements 6
Types of connections 7
Types of precast systems 7
Precast Concrete Construction Procedure 9
Elements in precast concrete building systems 9
Precast concrete construction considerations 10
Case studies 11
Conclusion 13
Reference 14
INTRODUCTION
Precast concrete is an alternative to cast-in-situ concrete. While cast-in-situ concrete is cast in its
actual location, precast concrete is cast at another location, either at the building site or in a
factory, and is then lifted to its final resting place and fixed securely. This means that unlike
cast-in-situ construction, which is monolithic or continuous, precast concrete buildings are made
of separate pieces that are bolted or connected together.
PROPERTIES OF PRECAST CONCRETE

CONSTRUCTION
Following are the few Properties of Precast Concrete Construction Process:
● Enables faster programmed times - not affected by weather or labour shortages.

● Improves buildability - early enclosure of dry envelope enables follow-on trades to start
sooner.
● Produces a high standard of workmanship in factory conditions - reduces potential for
accidents, addresses on-site skill shortage.
● Has a high quality finish that can be left exposed - concrete's thermal properties can be
exploited in low-energy buildings.
FUNCTIONS OF PRECAST CONCRETE

CONSTRUCTION
Primary Functions
● Keep water out

● Prevent air leakage
● Control light
● Control radiation of heat
● Control conduction of heat
● Control sound
Secondary Functions
● Resist wind forces

● Control water vapor
● Adjust to movement
● Thermal & moisture expansion/contraction
● Structural movements
● Resist fire
● Weather gracefully
● Easy to install
Architectural precast concrete provides architects with an exciting medium when designing
facades for a wide range of buildings, from healthcare facilities to shopping malls, commercial
office buildings to sports stadiums. Precast concrete provides
● Complete thermal protection

● Continuous air/vapour barrier
● Effective rain screens
● Superior lifespan
● Reduced construction schedule and on-site labour
● High quality control standards
● Numerous finish options and colours
APPLICATIONS
Precast concrete is usually used for structural systems due to its strength, durability, and
affordability. Precast concrete is used in the following ways:
● To make beams, columns, floor slabs, foundations, and other structural members for
buildings.
● To make wall or cladding panels for buildings.
● To make precast pre-stressed elements for buildings.
● To make components for infrastructure projects: elements such as bridge spans, or metro
line viaducts are often precast in a casting yard.
● To make products such as precast water tanks, septic tanks, drainage chambers, railway
sleepers, floor beams, boundary walls and water pipes.
● As it can be moulded into any shape, it can also be used to create one-off unusual forms
such as boats, sculptures and so on.
ADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

Precasting is great for producing large numbers of identical components. Let's say we are
building an affordable housing project with 3,000 identical apartments. We could then use
precasting to produce wall slabs and floor slabs for all the apartments, and then lift them into
place and connect them.
● The construction is done on the ground rather than at a height
● It can be done inside a climate-controlled structure, eliminating problems of rain, dust,
cold, or heat
● Specialised formwork (moulds) can be built for doing many repetitions of the same
component
● Specialised equipment can be used to make, move, and pour the liquid concrete
Curing of the concrete can be done in a controlled environment
This means that the quality of precast components can be very high.
Since the components can be made beforehand, construction can be very quick. In cast-in-situ
construction, engineers have to build each set of components after the previous set has finished,
which does take time, as concrete generally takes 28 days to reach its full strength.
DISADVANTAGES OF PRECASTING
There are a few main disadvantages of precast concrete construction:
● Since each piece is made separately, the structural frame or system is not monolithic or
continuous like regular concrete construction. The joints between pieces create structural
discontinuity. The forces of the building will pass through these joints, so they have to be
designed to transfer these forces safely and properly. Note that precast concrete can be
used for non-structural members too.
● Again, as the building is made of discrete components, the joints between adjacent
members have to be sealed with special sealants to make them waterproof
● Each precast component is usually large and heavy. This means that cranes are required
to lift them in position; these cranes are required to operate over the entire building
volume. Since there will only be a few cranes at site, the time taken by the cranes to pick
up a piece and shift it to its final position becomes critical in determining the building
schedule.
HOW AND WHERE PRECASTING IS USED

Reinforced concrete is a material usually used for structural systems due to its strength,
dudabrability, and afforility. Precast concrete is used in the following ways:
● to make beams, columns, floor slabs, foundations, and other structural members for
buildings
● to make wall or cladding panels for buildings
● to make precast pre-stressed elements for buildings (see below)
● to make components for infrastructure projects: elements such as bridge spans, or metro
line viaducts are often precast in a casting yard
● to make products for sale: precast water tanks, septic tanks, drainage chambers, railway
sleepers, floor beams, boundary walls, water pipes are all available
● Since it can be moulded into any shape, it can also be used to create one-off unusual
forms such as boats, sculptures and suchlike..
SITE VS. FACTORY PRECASTING

Precasting can be done at a casting yard, in or near the site, or in a factory. A key aspect of
determining whether to use site or factory precasting are the transport costs. Factory work offers
superior quality for obvious reasons, so if there is a factory close to the site, it makes sense to use
it.
If a precasting yard is to be created, space must be laid out for the following activities:
● storing the raw materials, such as cement, aggregate, sand, admixtures, water,
reinforcement bars, and steel or plywood sheets for formwork
● a formwork making and maintenance yard
● a concrete mixing plant
● a steel reinforcement yard to make rebar cages to be placed inside the concrete
● a casting area
● a curing area
● a stacking area for finished components
For infrastructure projects, a casting yard is created on a piece of open land in the city. It is
important that this be located near a major highway, as the precast elements can be very large or
heavy, and cannot be taken through narrow roads.
CONNECTING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS
Precast concrete components can be connected in a number of ways:
1. They can be bolted together. In order to do this, steel connectors are embedded in the concrete
at the time of casting. This must be done with great precision.
2. They can be grouted or concreted together. In this method, loops of steel reinforcement are left
protruding out of the precast concrete members. Two members are placed in position, and
reinforcement is threaded between the loops. Fresh concrete is then poured around this
reinforcement, in a space left for this purpose.
TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
1. Beam to Column Connections

2. Column to floor connection
3. Panel to Panel Connections
TYPES OF PRECAST SYSTEMS

There are four major types of precast systems which are classified based on load-bearing
structure:
1. Large Panel Systems

Large Panel System refers to “multi storey-structures”.
In this type of structure, both large walls and floor
concrete panels are connected in horizontal and vertical
directions. These panels form a box-like structure, with
the capacity to withstand gravity loads. There are mainly
three arrangements of the large panel system,
(a) Cross-wall system – The main walls that resists gravity and later loads are placed in the short
direction of the building.
(b) Longitudinal-wall system – The walls resisting gravity and lateral loads are placed in the
longitudinal direction.
(c) Two-way system – The walls are placed in both the direction.
For apartments and hotel construction projects, this kind of system is used.
2. Frame System
In this type of structure, precast frames can be either linear
elements or spatial beam-column sub assemblages. Linear
elements are more preferred compared to beam-column
sub-assemblages because forming, handling and erecting of
spatial elements is difficult. The use of linear elements means
placing the connecting faces at the beam-column junction.
Frame systems are being used for the construction of car parks,
stadia, and offices.
3. Slab-Column System with Shear Wall

In this system, the slab-column structure sustains the lateral load
effect but resists gravity loads. Below are the types in a sub-column
system with a shear wall
(a) Lift-slab system with walls – The load-bearing structure consists
of precast reinforced concrete columns and slabs which are
assembled with special joints.
(b) Pre-stressed slab-column – Two pre-stressed columns are placed
in orthogonal directions to achieve continuity.
4. Modular System
In this system entire unit is cast in a factory and installed at the site
which is useful for smaller single units. This is suitable for toilet
blocks and individual rooms which guarantees waterproofing at junctions.
PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

● Constructing a foundation for the building
● Erecting at least two vertical columns which can bear the load and reinforcing bars for
the columns extending downward
● Constructing a precast floor slab for the building in such way that, the floor slab is
divided into modules and these modules would be supported on two-column forms,
and also at least two column holes in each module, and slab reinforcing steel
extending through column holes in at least two directions
● After the installation of precast concrete beams, precast concrete floors are erected.
Precast construction mainly includes those buildings where the majority of structural
components are standardized and produced in plants in a location away from the building and
then transported to the site of assembly.
ELEMENTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE BUILDING

SYSTEMS
Precast concrete members are manufactured in factory under controlled conditions to keep
standard dimensions and tolerances. Structural elements used in the construction of precast
concrete buildings include:
1. Precast concrete wall

(Panels),
2. Precast Slabs,
3. Precast Beam and Girders,
4. Precast Columns
5. Precast Stairs
PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
CONSIDERATIONS
1. Erection Sequence
Precast concrete members shall be erected according to preplanned sequence. The erection plan
is commonly prepared drawings If it is important for structural stability and for access to
connections at specific location. The erection sequence shall avoid multiple handling of
elements. Finally, a trial erection operation should be considered to identify any unforeseen
erection difficulties.
2. Erection Safety
Safety during the handling and erection of precast concrete elements is substantially important.
Therefore, all machines and equipment employed precast concrete element handling and erection
need to be maintained to a high standard, load tested, and be suited to the intended utilization.
3. Erection Tolerances
Generally, the precast unit should be erected in accordance with the tolerances provided by
applicable codes, unless other tolerances are used in the design and specifications.
4. Rigging
A rigging system for handling and erecting precast elements requires careful and thorough
preplanning. It may be necessary to equalize loads between lifting points on certain precast
elements, such as beams or flat slabs. Lifting accessories may be in the form of slings/cables,
hooks or shackles. The selection of such components should take into consideration the forces
due to all operations involved in the handling and erection of the precast units. Headroom
availability and maneuverability during erection may also have an impact on the type of rigging
system selected.
5. Temporary bracing
Precast concrete elements must be adequately braced and supported during all phases of erection
to ensure proper alignment and structural integrity until permanent structural connections are
completed.
6. Leveling shims
Leveling shims should be formed from a suitably durable material and should have adequate
strength to carry the full imposed loads. Leveling shims carry the full construction load of the
precast element and must provide adequate support to prevent movement until the element is
incorporated in the main structure.
7. Propping
All temporary propping requirements must be shown on the erection drawings. The design of
temporary propping systems should be in accordance applicable codes. Temporary propping
should provide full support for all construction loads.
CASE STUDIES
❖Parcel 8, Precinct 9, Putrajaya
Function of Building :
Apartment
Construction Period : 15 months
(10 months for the erection of
precast concrete structure)
Owner :Putrajaya Holding Sdn.
Bhd.
Architect : Z
MD Architect.
Consulting Engineer : Case
Consultants Sdn. Bhd.
Jentrikon Perunding Sdn. Bhd.
Contractor : Setia Putrajaya
Sdn. Bhd.
Manufacturer : Setia Precast
Sdn. Bhd.
IBS system Z : Precast concrete walls and plank slabs
● The complex consists of two apartment blocks, namely, Block A and Block B, with 17
and 16 floors respectively.
● There are a total of 658 units for the two blocks, and 19,000 precast panels were used for
their construction. The rate of erection was approximately four units per day.
● Cast in-situ slabs were used for the floor system, and this minimised leakage,
enhanced restraint at the wall ends and produced monolithic slabs to give good
diaphragm action. No beams and columns were used in this system.
❖Bangi, Selangor
Function of Building :Quarters for

Training Institute Construction Period
:March 1999- August 1999 Owner :
Judicial and Legal Training Institute
Client :Public Works Department
(PWD) Manufacturer :Norwest
Holding Sdn. Bhd. IBS system :
Precast concrete walls and plank slabs
● The complex consists of

four-storey and five-storey building
blocks.
● In the case of the five-storey
block, the first storey was built using
cast in-situ concrete beams and columns with the upper four storey was built with precast
concrete wall system.
● For the four-storey blocks, all four storeys were constructed using precast slabs and walls.
● The precast concrete system consists of precast concrete precast walls and planks.The
wall comprised load-bearing double walls of 170mm thick and non-structural solid walls
of 125mm thick.
● The floor system for the first and fourth storeys consisted of 50mm-thick precast half
slabs, combined with 100mm-thick cast in-situ concrete to give total slab thickness of
150mm.
● The floor slabs sat on double walls with the specified bearing length. The project, started
in March 1999, was completed in August 1999.
CONCLUSION
Precast construction requires a restructuring of the entire conventional construction process to

enable interaction between the design phase and production planning in order to improve and
speed up the construction. One of the key premises for achieving that objective is to design
buildings with a regular configuration in plan and elevation.If you choose precast concrete,
you’re going to need to hire a precast concrete manufacturer. To maximize the benefits of precast
concrete, you need a manufacturer that will have the capacity to produce the materials you need
to get the job done and meet your specifications. Without a reputable manufacturer, some of the
benefits of precast concrete construction are lost.
REFERENCE
● http://www.understandconstruction.com/precast-concrete-construction.html
● https://theconstructor.org/concrete/precast-concrete-floor-wall-frame-construction/273/
● https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Precast_concrete
● https://www.constrofacilitator.com/precast-concrete-construction-advantages/
● https://theconstructor.org/building/methods-precast-concrete-constructions/26523/
● Ct3 (slideshare.net)
RCC ROOF SLAB
ANJALI VARDANI - BA19ARC001 RUSHALI JAIN - BA19ARC037
ATUL PRABHAKAR - BA19ARC015 SAL S S - BA19ARC038
ABHINAV ANAND - BA19ARC022 DIKSHA - BA19ARC039
NACHIKET N. - BA19ARC026 PRANAV UBALE - BA19ARC040
HIMANSHU J - BA19ARC027 RUSHAB MAHORE-BA19ARC041
INDEX
SL NO TOPICS PG NO
1. INTRODUCTION 3
2. DESIGN OF VARIOUS TYPES OF SLABS AND THEIR 3-4

REINFORCEMENT
3. RCC SLAB CONSTRUCTION 4-5
4. MATERIALS USED FOR FORMWORK 5
5. SPAN - EFFECTIVE DEPTH RATIO 5
6. SOLID SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTION 6
7. FLAT SLABS 6-9
8. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RCC SLABS 10
9. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8
10. MANUFACTURES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE IN INDIA 9
11. REFERENCES 10
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced Cement Concrete Slab
● A Reinforced Concrete Slab is one of the most important components in a building. It is a

structural element of modern buildings. Slabs are supported on Columns and Beams.
● RCC Slabs whose thickness
ranges from 10 to 50 centimetres are
most often used for the construction
of floors and ceilings.
● Thin concrete slabs are also
used for exterior paving purposes.
● Reinforced concrete slabs are
used in floors, roofs and walls of
buildings and as the deck of bridges.
The floor system of structure can
take many forms such as in situ solid
slab, ribbed slab or precast units.
Slabs may span in one direction or in
two directions and they must be
supported on monolithic concrete
beams, steel beams, walls or directly
by the structure’s columns.
Design of various types of slabs and their reinforcement

For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In
all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:
● Corrugated, usually where the concrete is

poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves
strength and prevents the slab bending under its own
weight. The corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side.
● A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
● A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
Reinforcement design
● A one way slab has structural strength in the

shortest direction.
○ One way slab is supported on two opposite
sides thus structural action is only in one
direction. Total load is carried in the
direction perpendicular to the supporting
beam
○ If a slab is supported on all the four sides
but the ratio of longer span to shorten span
is greater than, then the slab will be
considered as one way slab
● A two way slab has structural strength in two

directions.
○ Two way slabs are the slabs that are
supported on four sides and the ratio of
longer span to shorter span is less than
○ In two way slabs, loads will be carried in
bith the directions. So main reinforcement is
provided in both directions for two way
slabs
These slabs could be cantilevered or Simply Supported Slabs.
RCC Slab Construction

● In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations
or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building.
● In high rises buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, precast concrete slabs are slung between
the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.
● While making structural drawings of the reinforced concrete slab, the slabs are
abbreviated to “r.c.slab” or simply “r.c.”.
● A concrete slab can be cast in two ways: It could either be prefabricated or cast in situ.
● Prefabricated concrete slabs are cast in a factory and then transported to the site ready to
be lowered into place between steel or concrete beams.
● They may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed. Care
should be taken to see that the supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions to avoid
trouble with the fitting of slabs over the supporting structure.
● In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork. Formwork is a
box-like setup in which concrete is poured for the construction of slabs.
● For reinforced concrete slabs, reinforcing steel bars are placed within the formwork and
then the concrete is poured.
● Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used to hold the reinforcing steel bars away
from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops
the reinforcement.
● Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist
only of sidewalls pushed into the ground whereas for a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped
like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.
Materials used for the formwork

● The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On
commercial building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save labour.
● On low-budget sites, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are
very common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left there permanently.
● In some cases formwork is not necessary – for instance, a ground slab surrounded by brick
or block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore acts as the
base.
Span – Effective Depth ratios

● Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the ceiling, floor finishes and other
architectural details. To avoid this, limits are set on the span-depth ratios.
● These limits are exactly the same as those for beams. As a slab is usually a slender
member the restriction on the span-depth ratio becomes more important and this can often control
the depth of slab required in terms of the span – effective depth ratio is given by,
Minimum effective depth = span/(basic ratio x modification factor)

The modification factor is based on the area of tension steel in the shorter span when a slab is
singly reinforced at midspan, the modification factors for the areas of tensions and compression
steel are as given in the figure 2 and 4 of the code.
Solid Slab spanning in two directions

● When a slab is supported on all four of its sides, it effectively spans in both directions,
and it is sometimes more economical to design the slab on this basis. The moment of bending in
each direction will depend on the ratio of the two spans and the conditions of restraint at each
support.
● If the slab is square and the restraint is similar along the four sides, then the load will
span equally in both directions. If the slab is rectangular, then more than one-half of the load will
be carried in the shorter direction and lesser load will be imposed on the longer direction.
● If one span is much longer than the other, a large portion of the load will be carried in the
shorter direction and the slab may as well be designed as spanning in only one direction.
● Moments in each direction of span are generally calculated using coefficients which are
tabulated in the code.
● The slab is reinforced with the bars in both directions parallel to the spans with the steel
for the shorter span placed farthest from the natural acis to five the greater effective depth.
● The span-effective depths are based on the shorter span and the percentage of the
reinforcement in that direction.
Flat slabs:
● Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab
supported directly by concrete columns
without the use of beams. Flat slab is defined
as one sided or two-sided support system with
sheer load of the slab being concentrated on
the supporting columns and a square slab
called ‘drop panels’. Drop panels play a
significant role here as they augment the
overall capacity and sturdiness of the flooring
system beneath the vertical loads thereby
boosting cost effectiveness of the
construction. Usually the height of drop
panels is about two times the height of slab.
● Flat Slabs are considered suitable for most of the construction and for asymmetrical column
layouts like floors with curved shapes and ramps etc. The advantages of applying flat slabs are many
like depth solution, flat soffit and flexibility in design layout. Even though building flat slabs can be
an expensive affair but gives immense freedom to architects and engineers the luxury of designing.
Benefit of using flat slabs are manifold not only in terms of prospective design and layout efficacy
but is also helpful for total construction process especially for easing off installation procedures and
saving on construction time. If possible, try to do away with drop panels as much as possible and try
to make the best use of thickness of flat slabs. The reason is to permit the benefits of flat soffits for
the floor surface to be maintained, ensure drop panels are cast as part of the column.
● To utilize the slab thickness to optimum level, the essential aspects that should be kept
in mind are:
1. Procedure related to design
2. Presence or absence of holes
3. Significance of deflections
4. Previous layout application experience
5. Flat slab with column heads
6. Flat slab with both drop panels and column heads
Uses of Column Heads
● It increase shear strength of slab

● It reduce the moment in the slab by reducing the clear or effective span
Uses of Drop Panels
● It increase shear strength of slab

● It increase negative moment capacity of slab
● It stiffen the slab and hence reduce deflection
Advantages of Flat Slabs
● It is recognized that Flat Slabs without drop panels can be built at a very fast pace as the
framework of structure is simplified and diminished.
● Also, speedy turn-around can be achieved using an arrangement using early striking and
flying systems.
● Flat slab construction can deeply reduce floor-to –floor height especially in the absence of a
false ceiling as flat slab construction does act as a limiting factor on the placement of
horizontal services and partitions.
● This can prove gainful in case of lower building height, decreased cladding expense and
pre-fabricated services.
● In case the client plans changes in the interior and wants to use the accommodation to suit the
need, flat slab construction is the perfect choice as it offers that flexibility to the owner.
● This flexibility is possible due to the use of square lattice and absence of beam that makes
channelling of services and allocation of partitions difficult.
Thickness of flat slab

Thickness of flat slab is another very attractive benefit because thin slab provides the advantage of
increased floor to ceiling height and lower cladding cost for the owner. However, there is profound
lower limit to thickness of slab because extra reinforcements are needed to tackle design issues.
Besides this, added margin must be provided to facilitate architectural alterations at later stages.
Types of Flat Slab Design
Multitudes of process and methods are involved in designing flat slabs and evaluating these slabs in
flexures. Some of these methods are as following:
● The empirical method

● The sub-frame method
● The yield line method
● Finite –element analysis
For smaller frames, empirical methods are used but sub-frame method is used in case of more
irregular frames. The designs are conceptualized by employing appropriate software but the fact is
using sub-frame methods for very complicated design can be very expensive. The most cost effective
and homogenous installation of reinforcements can be achieved by applying the yield line method.
A thorough visualization in terms of complete examination of separate cracking and deflection is
required since this procedure utilises only collapse mechanism. Structures having floors with
irregular supports, large openings or bears heavy loads, application of finite- element analysis is
supposed to be very advantageous. Great thought is put into choosing material properties or installing
loads on the structures. Deflections and cracked width can also be calculated using Finite- element
analysis. Areas That Require Attention in Design of Flat Slab
1. Deflections-Usually at the center of each panel deflections are maximum. Foreseeing deflections
can be very tricky and will engage some form of elastic appraisal. While designing structure layout
and during implementation using sub frame method, one way to evaluate mid-panel deflection is to
use at least two parallel column strips.
2. Proprietary punching sheer reinforcement systems- In case of thin flat slab construction
punching sheer reinforcements are indispensable.
3. Optimization of Main reinforcement- In certain design procedures, especially in yield line

output is better optimized than in other design methods.
Benefits of Using Flat Slab Construction Method

● Flexibility in room layout
● Saving in building height
● Shorter construction time
● Ease of installation of M&E services
● Use of prefabricated welded mesh
● Buildable score
Flexibility in Room Layout
Flat slabs allows Architect to introduce partition walls anywhere required, this allows owner to
change the size of room layout. Use of flat slab allows choice of omitting false ceiling and finish
soffit of slab with skim coating.
Saving in Building Height
● Lower storey height will reduce

building weight due to lower partitions
and cladding to façade
● Approximately saves 10% in vertical
members
● Reduced foundation load
Shorter Construction Time
Use of flat slabs requires less time for

construction by the use of big table formwork.
Single Soffit Level
Ease of Installation of Flat Slabs
All M & E services can be mounted directly on

the underside of the slab instead of bending
them to avoid the beams.
Use of Prefabricated Welded Mesh

Use of prefabricated welded mesh minimizes the installation time of flat slabs. These mesh are
available in standard size and provide better quality control in construction of flat slab.
Buildable Score
This allows standardized structural members and prefabricated sections to be integrated into the
design for ease of construction. This process makes the structure more buildable, reduces the number
of site workers and increase the productivity at site, thus
providing more tendency to achieve a higher Buildable
score.
Advantages Of RCC Slabs

● Easy to construct , the raw material are easily
available in almost all place
● Fire resistance
● Provides permanent durable roofing capable of
multi stories construction
● Very versatile and can be cast in amy form
● Being a conventional option, the skill level for casing RCC is commonly available
● Requires very low maintenance
Limitations Of Rcc Slabs

● A typical 120 mm slab weighs 300 kg/m2
● This has to be designed for a live load of at least 150 kg ?m2 this makes the self weight of the
slab 50 % of the design load resulting in 50% structural efficiency
● The concrete in the tension zone does not take stress and thus it is expensive to provide the
same in the tension zone by adding reinforcements
● The embodied energy of a convenient RCC slab is high because of its two main energy
intensive constituents cement and steel
References
● https://www.slideshare.net/MatNik1/reinforced-slab
● https://www.decorchamp.com/architecture-designs/rcc-roof-slab-ultimate-guide-find
-rcc-roof-slab-construction-cost/3766
● https://www.quantity-takeoff.com/types-of-rcc-slabs.htm
● https://www.civilprojectsonline.com/building-construction/various-types-of-rcc-slab
s-design-of-rcc-structures/
FALSE FLOORING
● Introduction
● Purpose of False Flooring
● Components of False flooring
● Types of False Flooring
● Advantages and Disadvantages
● Applications
● Factors considered when choosing raised access floors
● False flooring Brands

● Application
● Installation
● Maintenance
● Details
● Acoustics and Fire resistance
● References
Introduction
➢ A raised floor (also raised flooring, access floor(ing), or raised-access computer

floor) provides an elevated structural floor above a solid substrate (often a
concrete slab) to create a hidden void for the passage of mechanical and
electrical services.
➢ Raised floors are widely used in modern office buildings, and in specialized
areas such as command centers, Information technology data centers and
computer rooms, where there is a requirement to route mechanical services and
cables, wiring, and electrical supply.
➢ Such flooring can be installed at varying heights from 2 inches (51 mm) to
heights above 4 feet (1.2 m) to suit services that may be accommodated
beneath.
➢ Additional structural support and lighting are often provided when a floor is
raised enough for a person to crawl or even walk beneath.
Purpose
➢ The main purpose to use raised floor in building is : Create a voided floor space
in which the services such as electrical, optical, telecommunication,
heating/ventilation and mechanical can be routed.
➢ To create an invisible void for the passage of mechanical and electrical services
➢ Height of the false floor can be determined by services that may be

accommodated beneath the floor
➢ Helps in improving the aesthetics by covering the undulation

Components in False Flooring
➢ Floor Panels - Raised Floor Panels are typically 2 feet by 2 feet and are normally
composed of a cement or wood core clad in steel or aluminum.
➢ Floor Finish - The panels are compatible with many flooring finishes such as vinyl,
linoleum, laminate, rubber, carpet and stone or ceramic tiles.
➢ Pedestals - Raised floor pedestals are affixed to the subfloor through either
mechanical fixings or adhesives. Since the pedestals are adjustable, the gap between
the elevated floor and the subfloor can be between 3 and 48 inches. To ensure that the
panel is fixed and supported stably, the pedestals must also contain the following
parts:
Locking Device (Corner Lock)
Head Plate
Hexagon Nut
Stem (Threaded Rod)
Components in False Flooring

➢ Base Plate with tapped hole for earth connection
➢ Cap/Gasket - It ensures stability of the coupling between the structure and the
panel, increasing the continuity of support.
➢ Stringer Bars - It provides the horizontal connection between the columns in
order to obtain the required modularity, improving the stability and the
distribution of loads on the structure.
➢ Anchors - Used to fix the pedestal base to the subfloor surface
➢ Subfloor Sealant (Seal) - PVA Sealant, Epoxy Sealant or Floor Paint, Raised
Floor Pedestal Adhesive
Pedestal bases
Pedestals are the pillar of the false floor and pedestal base acts as a support system
to the entire floor, steel plates with solid folds to balance the structure are fixed to a
base pipe of different heights. When steel is folded it gains additional strength,
which is what we do to our pedestal bases to make them last longer.
TYPES OF PEDESTAL BASE
● Pedestal base design is not same for all structures and it is specially designed
for finished floor level.
● The specification for each height depends on the pipe fittings, i.e., outer
diameter (OD) and inner diameter (ID).
● The thickness of bottom plates is also different for different sizes.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
The specifications are as follows:

● Up to a height of 600 mm, 22mm OD pipe with
Base plate – 100mm x 100mm x 2mm.
● For a height of 800 mm, 25 OD pipe is recommended with
Base plate of 100 mm x 100mm x 2mm Base.
● Anything from 1 Meter – 1200 mm requires 32 mm OD. 125 mm
base dimensions to 150 mm
ACCESS FLOOR FULL STEEL STRUCTURE
PEDESTAL HEAD:
Steel square plate of 76 mm size and 3 mm thickness
TRIPLE THREADING SYSTEM:

Head and base totally threaded rod bolted between them with two
security nuts to prevent movement and warranty the levelling
PEDESTAL BASE:
Circular steel plate of 90 mm size and 3 mm thickness
STRINGER:
Raised access floor stringer with rubber acoustic insulation, its bolted to
pedestal head
Floor Finishes
CARPET TILES
● When it comes to office floor tiles, carpet tiles are one of the most used option.
● They give a homely, soft flooring finish with colourful patterns.
● Everything from plain colours to twisting designs of vines, and geometric
patterns are all available
MARBLE/GRANITE/STONE
● Stone finish is a long time classic in raised floors.

● Marble floor bare tiles come in a variety of naturally occurring textures and add
a flair of solid finish to your office space.
● Granite is especially known for its sturdiness and endurance, making it a
common choice!
Floor Finishes
ANTI-STATIC VINYL
● Office spaces are laden with wiring and computation servers and other
machines.
● This makes office spaces highly flammable and susceptible to zinc whiskers.
● To prevent any accidental static charges setting off a huge fire, we create
anti-static vinyl plated floor panelling.
HIGH-PRESSURE LAMINATE
● Laminates made under very high pressure provide exceptional durability.

● For this reason, we use highly pressurized laminates in the construction of our
access floors.
● Moreover, laminates can be made in any design and pattern catering to your
aesthetic needs.
Floor Finishes
WOOD FINISHES
● The classy look is accomplished by engineered wood flooring.

● Wooden floors have charm of their own. Very quiet, sturdy, as well as
aesthetically appealing.
● Wood finish is a sure-shot option to raise the energy conservation of your office!
Types of False Flooring

(Based on floor panel system)
(Based on floor panel system)
(Based on Understructure System)
(Based on Understructure System)
15
GROUP 1 / SECTION A / IIIRD YEAR/ VTH SEM
VISVESVARAYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY/NAGPUR
ADVANTAGES
First Build benefits
● Reduce slab-to-slab height

● Reduce labour costs
● Reduce materials: cabling, wiring, ducting, structural materials
● Streamline construction schedule
Long- term benefits
● High flexibility in floor plan configuration of equipments/workstations

● Easily accommodate technology advances
● Reduction in energy costs
High Performance Environment
● Data, voice, electrical on demand

● Conceals of data cables, trays and wirings, thereby giving a neat and
uncluttered appearance
● Helps in easy movement and in avoiding the dangers of hanging or expanding
power connections
17
ADVANTAGES
Green building
● Improved indoor air quality

● Reduced energy consumption
● Reduced first-build and long-term waste
Aesthetics
● Gives the floor a clear and tidy look

● Color, logos and decorative patterns can be customized
● Helps in easy movement and in avoiding the dangers of hanging or expanding
power connections
Ideal markets for false floor
● Offices, call centres, internet data centres, retail, air traffic control, hospitals,
institutions, and many more places benefit from access/ false flooring
18
DISADVANTAGES
● For constructing such raised tile floor, you need specially trained contractor
who must have knowledge of using the tools for construction.
● Tiles are liable to break or get chipped
● Durability of tiles are not too long
● The raised floor greatly increases the difficulty of assuring or determining a

seismic rating for a data center.
● Supporting equipment above the floor on a grid greatly compromises the ability
to anchor equipment.
● In some potential data center locations the loss of headroom resulting from a
raised floor is not acceptable.
19
DISADVANTAGES
● The raised floor is an area which is not convenient to clean. Dust, grit, and
various items normally accumulate under the raised floor and are typically
abandoned there since the difficulty and accident risk associated with cleaning
this area are considered to be serious obstacles
● A tile left open poses a severe and unexpected risk to operators and visitors
moving on it.
● In data centers with 4 foot (1.2 meters) or higher raised floors the risk of death
resulting from a fall into an open tile location increases greatly.
● The raised floor represents a significant cost. The typical cost of raised floor
including engineering, material cost, fabrication, installation, and inspection
20
FACTORS CONSIDERED WHILE CHOOSING RAISED

ACCESS FLOORS
● Materials and applications. The access floor can be divided into many types
according to the raw materials, covering laminate flooring, hardwood floor, bamboo floor,
ceramic floor, all-steel access floor, concrete access floor, aluminum access floor, calcium
sulphate floor, etc.
● Color. The floor color is a very important factor to consider, there are a host of colors to
choose from, you need to select a right one based on the overall decoration style of the
building
● Price. The raised access floor price on the market differs much. The famous brand would
be more expensive than the common one
● After-sale service. You need to pay attention to the service of the floor seller, good
raised floor supplier will help you to choose the right floor product and complete the floor
installation, maintenance and more, to save your money and time greatly.
21
22
Top Companies
1. Tate Access Floor
2. Haworth Access Floor
3. ASM ACCESS FLOOR

4. Polygroup Raised Floor
5. CBI Raised Floor
23
INDOOR RAISED ACCESS FLOORING SYSTEMS- BY GAMAFLOR

STRUCTURE SYSTEM
Conceived as a unitary whole solution, the Gamaflor frame structure consists of steel pedestals and
steel stringers combined with each other as system ensuring the highest stability performance in the
event of lateral movement or even earthquakes.
Its adjustable height possibility (75 to 1900 mm) allows the panels to be installed level regardless the
possible unevenness in elevation of the floor slab. It has 2 heads of 3 mm steel, assembled to an 18
mm metric threaded rod with double steel nut anchor bolts that guarantees stability and level of the
system over time.
Structure is complemented with acoustic insulated steel stringers used to connect access floor and
pedestal together (clipped or screwed), thus providing lateral stability to the system and floor supports.
FULL STEEL SYSTEM
Designed to be considered as a
functioning unit, Full Steel System consists of tiles of 600 x 600 mm., manufactured with 2 electro
welded steel sheets and cement core infilled. The top panel is highly configurable offering a wide
range of pavement finish options. The tiles are supported in steel pedestal with an adjustable final
height option of 75 to 1900 mm.
This System has a significant high resistance features to load and fire retard balance as well as dynamic
and static load performance. The inert composition (steel cement panel) rate this system as one with
0% humidity absorption classification obtaining the lowest thermal conductivity level versus other
traditional raised floor panels. Structural integrity makes this system compact and stable.
Panel dimension: 600 x 600 mm.

Thickness option: 34 mm.
Top: smooth steel sheet.
Bottom: Thermoforming steel tray.
Top coating: Epoxy protection painting.
25
PAC SYSTEM
Designed to be considered as a functioning unit, PAC system consists of tiles of panel dimension option
of 600 x 600 mm. or 750 x 750 mm., with high density chipboard core, PVC perimetral edge band and
bottom panel galvanized steel sheet of 0,5 mm. reinforcement. The top panel is highly configurable
offering a wide range of pavement finish options. The tiles are supported in steel pedestal with an
adjustable final height option of 75 to 1900 mm.
and static load performance. Structural integrity makes this system compact and stable. The GamaFlor
PAC panel composition can be configured according to different core nominal thickness averages of 30,
35 and 40 mm. respectively in compliance with the load resistance rates required.
Panel dimension option: 600 x 600 mm / 750 x 750 mm.
Core Thickness option: 30 - 35 or 40 mm.
Core Density: 720 kg/m³ ± 10% according to intl. standards.
Edge band Thickness: 1,5 mm.
Bottom: Galvanized Steel sheet Z - 275 0,5 mm Thickness.
26
BANK SYSTEM
Designed to be considered as a functioning unit, BANK system consists of tiles of 600 x 600 mm., with
high density chipboard core, PVC perimetral edge band and bottom panel galvanized steel tray
encased of 0,5mm. The top panel is highly configurable offering a wide range of pavement finish
options. The tiles are supported in steel pedestal with an adjustable height option of 75 to 1900 mm.
and static load performance. Structural integrity makes this system compact and stable. The Gamaflor
BANK panel composition can be configured according to different core nominal thickness averages of 30,
35 and 40 mm respectively in compliance with the load resistance rates required.
Panel dimension: 600 x 600 mm.
Core Thickness option: 30 - 35 or 40 mm.
Core Density: 720kg/m³ ± 10% according to intl. Standards.
Edge band Thickness: 1,5 mm.
Bottom: Galvanized Steel sheet tray 0,5 mm Thickness.
27
SYSTEM ACCESSORIES
Electrical outlets
As all electrical installations are fed under the raised flooring, electrical connections
can be placed exactly where you want them by the installation of electrical outlets.
Bridging profiles
For structural reasons bridging is required where pedestals cannot be installed. In such
cases we offer special bridging profiles which are easy to install and yet improve
dynamic and static load-bearing capacities.
Expansion joints
Expansion joint profiles are used to absorb horizontal deflections and vertical weighing
down constructively and invisibly
28
SYSTEM ACCESSORIES
Air ventilation outlets
Air ventilation outlets allow the room to be air conditioned and ventilated without
creating draughts. A number of different systems are available: -
Open system
Ventilation comes directly from the cavity, which is designed as a pressure floor,
through the corresponding air ventilation outlets into the room. -
Closed system
In a closed system, the air is fed through pipes or through cavity barriers with fixed
connections to the air ventilation outlets.
C-profile frames
For technical service rooms, we always recommend the use of stable switch room
frames, as these provide the required lateral and vertical load-bearing capabilities. The
combination of two C profiles with variable heights (CL and CM) provides sufficient
stability for switch gear or server racks. Raised floor panels are not installed under the
cabinets, so that cables can be connected more easily to the electrical components.
Cold air is supplied through the opening in the floor, regulating the operating
temperature of the components.
29
SYSTEM ACCESSORIES
Intermediate floor for cables

Where there is a lot of cabling, additional installation elements will be required. An
intermediate floor should be installed to carry cables. It consists of a star-shaped
carrier plate with welded threaded bolts into which a steel sheet cassette is hooked
and screwed tight. Intermediate floors also enhance the horizontal stability of the
system.
You can choose from two options:
- intermediate floors which can be walked on
- intermediate floors which cannot be walked on
Facings
Staircases, platforms, etc. need to be finished with a front cladding (facing). Where
features such as free-standing borders are required, the top edges of the facing will be
protected with a stair edging profile. Angles screwed to the subfloor and bracings
installed in the upper area of the facing ensure a stable structure.
30
SYSTEM ACCESSORIES
Cavity barriers
Three different types of cavity barriers can be installed to meet different requirements.
- Ventilation barriers made from coated chipboard panels
- Fire protection barriers made from porous concrete (min. 115 mm)
- Soundproofing barriers made from porous concrete (min. 100 mm)
31
APPLICATIONS
Office spaces
Typical Areas of Use:
● Governmental, Institutional and State buildings.
● Corporate offices, International headquarters with its own corporate identity.
● Speculative multi-tenant and retail office buildings.
● Financial and insurance buildings. From branch offices to centralized large
spaces.
● Special design projects.
Educational
● Classrooms
● Libraries
● IT facilities
● Learning spaces
● Conference rooms
Office spaces
Educational
32
APPLICATIONS
Culture
● Theatres
● Opera & Music halls
● Museums
● Lecture halls & Libraries
● Conventions and Conferences centers.
Passenger
Transport Terminals
● Airports.
● Control Tower.
● Emergency rooms.
● Technical halls.
● Luggage areas.
● Commercial areas.
● Maritime & Seaport areas.
● Railway stations.
● Operational control rooms.
Culture
Passenger Transport Terminals
33
APPLICATIONS
Historic Building Restoration
● Museums.
● Historic buildings.
● Old warehouse spaces.
● Remodeled offices.
Leisure
● Hotels & Resorts.
● Casinos.
● Cinemas.
● Television & Radio Studios.
● Stage and Studio Rooms.
Historic Building Restoration
Leisure
34
APPLICATIONS
Technical facilities
● IT Control centers.
● Communications rooms.
● Emergency rooms.
● Laboratory & clean rooms.
● Electrical rooms & substations.
● Energy Plants EPC Buildings.
● Data processing centers.
● Training and research rooms.
Technical facilities
35
Physical Attributes
36
Installation
The installation of the access floor begins with the field area. There are certain steps that should be
followed which are listed below in sequential order.
STEP 1 – VERIFY FIELD DIMENSIONS VS. DRAWINGS AND CHECK SUBFLOOR FOR GRADE
VARIATIONS
Check the room dimensions with approved

drawings. Set up the laser to verify that the subfloor is within specifications. The laser will give a
constant level line to use as a reference
STEP 2 – CHECK STARTING POINT
Find the starting point in the room as shown on the drawings. This point is usually determined by the
Architect, Engineer, or General Contractor
STEP 3 - ESTABLISH CONTROL LINES FROM STARTING POINT
Once the starting point is established, use chalk to lay out two perpendicular control lines from the
starting point (see Figure #3, control lines ‘A’ and ‘B’). These will be the control lines for installing the
access floor. They may be laid out with a tape measure (using the Dimension Table in Figure #3 to verify
perpendicularity) or with a laser that can shoot a right angle.
37
Installation
STEP 4 – SPREAD PEDESTALS
Beginning 10 feet from the starting point, draw chalk lines perpendicular to each control line – at 10 foot
intervals. This will create a grid, with lines 10 feet on center (see Figure #3). Each point of intersection in
the grid will serve as a pedestal shot point
STEP 5 – LEVEL PEDESTALS IN PROPER POSITION
Using a laser, shoot in a pedestal assembly

to the proper elevation at every chalk line intersection. Once the pedestals at the intersections are
adjusted to the proper elevation, the 10-foot leveling bar will be used to position and set the height of
the other pedestals (see Figure #5).
STEP 6 - ATTACH PEDESTALS TO THE SUBFLOOR WITH ADHESIVE
Glue each pedestal base that has been set in place and leveled. Using a spatula type device, tilt the base
plate without changing its location and apply adhesive to the bottom of the base plate (see Figure #4)
38
Installation
STEP 7 - CREATE THE ‘L’ SECTION
In order to create a square access floor, you will first need to create a section of access floor that is
shaped like an “L” (see Figure #8)
• Creating the long leg of the ‘L’ section Begin laying in panels at the starting point – lay five rows of
panels along the longer wall, making sure that the pedestals nearest to the wall stay on the control
lines
39
Installation
STEP 8 - CREATE THE SHORT LEG OF THE ‘L’ SECTION AND FILL IN THE ‘L’
Lay five rows of panels along the short wall,

perpendicular to the long wall (see Figure #8). Follow the previous step (7) for laying panels and be sure
to stay on the control lines. After laying the complete ‘L’ section, check (and recheck) to be sure it is
square!
STEP 9 - INSTALLING PANELS AROUND LARGE OBSTRUCTIONS
The objective here is to wrap a continuous rectangular frame around the obstruction that will be square
with the floor that you’ve already installed. After a continuous frame is constructed, you will install the
cut panels around the obstruction. The frame will be installed in four sections (see Figure #12).
40
MAINTENANCE
● Periodic Inspection
● The amount of maintenance depend on function and the type and volume of
traffic across the floor.
● Check the substructure
● Quick repairs
● The remedy may be as fast and simple as changing standard panels in high
traffic areas with others
● Should a panel show any sign of instability, investigate and rectify.
● Effects of cut outs on panels strength

● Panels with holes and shape it is cut into reduces strength.
● The situation is complicated by the fact that the cut panel may or may not have
to be load bearing on a permanent or on a transient basis.
● Holes are cut in panels normally for cable entry or ventilation.
● Cable entries are normally under machines and vents are more commonly in
exposed positions.
41
RAISED FLOOR CLEANING AND CARE GUIDE

Proper maintenance of raised floors should include both structural and environmental
care. All raised floors require preventative maintenance to insure safe operating
conditions for equipment and personnel. Listed below are the requirements for proper
access floor care:
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS:
● Have floor inspected yearly by a qualified Access Floor Technician.

● Rotate panels at least four times a year in heavy traffic areas.
● Adjust grid systems two times a year to correct structural problems.
● Install additional support pedestals prior to the addition of new equipment or
when installing cutouts. (CALL FOR SERVICE)
● Replace any missing components as needed, such as edge trim, grounding clips,
stringers, gaskets, foam rubber.
● Replace warped and/or delaminated panels immediately when found.
● Repair untrimmed cutouts immediately.
42
RAISED FLOOR CLEANING AND CARE GUIDE
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS:
● Dust mop daily with the Dustlifter System.

● Have surface professionally cleaned by an authorized Access Floor Technician
with cleaning chemicals tested according to NEMA guidelines at least two times
a year.
● Clean in the interim with NEMA approved cleaning chemicals with a damp
lint-free rayon mop as required.
● Vacuum understructure and subfloor at least two times a year.
● Clean perforated panels twice yearly.
● Spot clean ink stains or scuffs as needed.
● Remove surface wax immediately from laminate surface - NEVER WAX
ACCESS FLOOR!
● Vacuum carpet panels three times a week with a vacuum equipped with a static
dissipating rod.
● Clean carpeted access floor at least twice yearly by extraction.
● Modify cleaning frequencies to reflect traffic and soiling conditions, detection of
airborne particles, and company appearance standards.
● Install mats at entry points to prevent dirt and debris from entering the access
floor environment.
43
44
45
DETAILS
Heavy stringer
Light stringer
Spacer
Open section stringers made with galvanised steel clip on system with PVC
washers
46
47
ACOUSTICS AND FIRE RESISTANCE
PERFORATED PANEL
● FIXING SYSTEM Supported directly on the structure of access floor
● FINISHES : Epoxi anticorrosion paint in grey 600mm x 600mm 17% 450kg
● SPECIFICATIONS: Floor perforated panel of 600mm x 600mm and epoxi paint finish,
with 1.296 holes of 7,8mm diameter each. Height can be adjusted from 30mm to 40mm
● DIMENSIONS: 600 x 600 mm
● OPENING PERCENTAGE: 17 %
● CONCENTRATED LOAD : 450 kg
● FIRE CLASSIFICATION: A1 (EN13501-1:2002)
48
REFERENCES
https://www.accessfloorstore.com/news/54--raised-access-floor-selection-guidetips-how-to-ch
oose-right-or-best-floor-tiles
https://accessfloorpolygroup.com/wp-content/pdf/raised-floor/brochure/brochure-raised-floor
-polygroup-2019-a3-ing.pdf
https://www.accessfloorsystems.com/skin/frontend/blank/default/manuals/installation_manua
l.pdf
https://www.accessfloorsystems.com/index.php/contacts/index/quickselector/?___store=defaul
t
https://accessfloors.in/
https://www.cbi-europe.it/en/catalogo/pavimenti+tecnici+sopraelevati/1/1/index.aspx#557
Accessfloorpolygroup.com
https://www.haworth.com/na/en/products.html
49

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PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

2. HISTORY OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 3-4

3. HOW PRESTRESSED CONCRETE WORKS 4

4. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 4

5. WHY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 5

7. 3 MAINS TYPES OF INTERNAL PRESTRESSED 5-7

8. BOND AND UNBONDED POST TENSIONED CONCRETE 7-8

9. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8

10. MANUFACTURES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE IN INDIA 9

12. CASE STUDY 10-12

History of prestressed concrete

How Pre-Stressed Concrete works

1. Internal prestressing force

Why prestressed Concrete ?

3 Mains types of Internal Prestressed concrete

Prestressed pretensioned concrete

Concerns with pre tension

Bonded post tensioned concrete

Unbonded post tension

Difference between post tensioning and pre tensioning

Cline Avenue Bridge, Gary, Indiana

85th Street Bridge , Valley Centre Kansas

Colorado Convention centre , Expansion Denver, Colorado

CONTENT PAGE NO.

Properties of Precast Concrete Construction 3

Functions of Precast Concrete Construction 3

Advantages of precast construction 5

How and where precasting is used 5

Site vs. factory precasting 6

Connecting precast concrete elements 6

Types of precast systems 7

Precast Concrete Construction Procedure 9

Elements in precast concrete building systems 9

Precast concrete construction considerations 10

PROPERTIES OF PRECAST CONCRETE

Following are the few Properties of Precast Concrete Construction Process:

● Enables faster programmed times - not affected by weather or labour shortages.

FUNCTIONS OF PRECAST CONCRETE

● Keep water out

● Resist wind forces

● Complete thermal protection

ADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

HOW AND WHERE PRECASTING IS USED

SITE VS. FACTORY PRECASTING

1. Beam to Column Connections

TYPES OF PRECAST SYSTEMS

1. Large Panel Systems

3. Slab-Column System with Shear Wall

PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

ELEMENTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE BUILDING

1. Precast concrete wall

Function of Building :​Quarters for

● The complex consists of

Precast construction requires a restructuring of the entire conventional construction process to

2. DESIGN OF VARIOUS TYPES OF SLABS AND THEIR 3-4

3. RCC SLAB CONSTRUCTION 4-5

4. MATERIALS USED FOR FORMWORK 5

5. SPAN - EFFECTIVE DEPTH RATIO 5

6. SOLID SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTION 6

Function of Building :Quarters for