energies

Article
The Role of Clean Hydrogen Value Chain in a Successful
Energy Transition of Japan
Mohsen Salimi 1 , Morteza Hosseinpour 1, * and Tohid N.Borhani 2, *

1 Renewable Energy Research Department, Niroo Research Institute (NRI), Tehran 1416854514, Iran
2 Center for Engineering Innovation and Research, School of Engineering, Computing and Mathematical
Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
* Correspondence: [email protected] (M.H.); [email protected] (T.N.B.)

Abstract: The clean hydrogen in the prioritized value chain platform could provide energy incentives
and reduce environmental impacts. In the current study, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats (SWOT) analysis has been successfully applied to the clean hydrogen value chain in different
sectors to determine Japan’s clean hydrogen value chain’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats as a case study. Japan was chosen as a case study since we believe that it is the only
pioneer country in that chain with a national strategy, investments, and current projects, which make
it unique in this way. The analyses include evaluations of clean energy development, power supply
chains, regional energy planning, and renewable energy development, including the internal and
external elements that may influence the growth of the hydrogen economy in Japan. The ability of
Japan to produce and use large quantities of clean hydrogen at a price that is competitive with fossil
fuels is critical to the country’s future success. The implementation of an efficient carbon tax and
carbon pricing is also necessary for cost parity. There will be an increasing demand for global policy
coordination and inter-industry cooperation. The results obtained from this research will be a suitable
model for other countries to be aware of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in this
field in order to make proper decisions according to their infrastructures, potentials, economies, and
socio-political states in that field.
Citation: Salimi, M.;
Hosseinpour, M.; N.Borhani, T. The
Role of Clean Hydrogen Value Chain
Keywords: energy transition; hydrogen economy; SWOT analysis; value chain; strategies; Japan
in a Successful Energy Transition of
Japan. Energies 2022, 15, 6064.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15166064
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Donato Morea
Since the Paris Agreement’s ratification in 2015, 195 signatory nations have committed
Received: 27 July 2022 to addressing climate change and establishing a global temperature limit through INDCs
Accepted: 16 August 2022 with medium- and long-term (2030) objectives [1]. To reach 1.5 ◦ C by 2050, IRENA has allo-
Published: 21 August 2022 cated contribution to emissions 8.4 GtCO2 to transport, 2.3 GtCO2 to buildings, 13 GtCO2
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral to power and heat plants, 11 GtCO2 to industry, and 2.2 GtCO2 mitigation to other sectors
with regard to jurisdictional claims in of the global economy [2].
published maps and institutional affil- The energy transition is a trend that will see the world’s energy infrastructure trans-
iations. form from fossil fuel-based to zero-carbon between 2050 and 2100. The necessity to control
climate change by reducing energy-related CO2 emissions is its primary goal. The energy
sector’s decarbonization demands an immediate global effort. While the world’s energy
transition is beginning, further action is required to cut carbon emissions and mitigate the
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. consequences of climate change [3]. The transition is a long-term opportunity to invest that
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. will fundamentally reshape the energy sector within the next 30 years and well beyond [4].
This article is an open access article
The critical issue is that, to reach climate ambitions, investment throughout the whole value
distributed under the terms and
chain will be required, including all the sectors of the global economy [5]. For this purpose,
conditions of the Creative Commons
speeding the adoption of climate change mitigation policies, particularly renewable energy
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
carriers such as hydrogen, may provide a solution owing to hydrogen’s applicability as an
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
energy storage source. In general, there are three types of hydrogen: gray hydrogen, which
4.0/).

Energies 2022, 15, 6064. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15166064 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 6064 2 of 19

is obtained from fossil fuels and the produced CO2 is not captured during the process; blue
hydrogen, which is obtained from fossil fuels and the produced CO2 is captured during
the process; and green hydrogen, which is obtain from renewable energies [6]. Hence, the
importance of green hydrogen becomes clear when there is no superior alternative for
decarbonization, particularly for energy-intensive industries.
Hydrogen and hydrogen carriers have specific characteristics; for instance, they
are adaptable, sustainable, and safe energy carriers that can be employed as fuel for
electricity generation or as feedstock in the industry [7]. Hydrogen can be generated
using renewable energy without emissions or carbon-abated fossil energy. It may be
stored and delivered in liquid or gaseous form with a high energy density [8]. It may
be burned or utilized to create heat and power using fuel cells [9]. While hydrogen is
now extensively employed in several industries, its potential has not been fully realized
to aid in the transition to sustainable energy [10]. To further eliminate hurdles and cut
expenses, ambitious, targeted, and near-term action is required [11]. Green hydrogen
is an environmentally friendly alternative that may be utilized for a range of reasons
(energy storage, industrial processes, and vehicle propulsion, for example) without
emitting pollutants [12].
However, infrastructure and network upgrades are needed to make hydrogen as
common and widely available as natural gas is today [13]. Additionally, hydrogen’s
ability to flow through pipelines roughly three times quicker than methane would make
it a cost-effective alternative for large-scale transportation of hydrogen [14]. To make
hydrogen available when and where needed, it must first be produced and then stored
and distributed along the value chain. Hydrogen’s low density necessitates enormous
storage quantities at high pressures and temperatures [8]. For both transportation and
storage infrastructures, high-capacity solutions are typically required, which can be
considered a hurdle [12].
Today, almost all hydrogen production in the world is gray hydrogen, including
48% from natural gas refining, 30% from oil refining by-products, 18% from coal gasifi-
cation, and the remaining 4% from water electrolysis [15]. Depending on the feedstock
in the fossil fuel-based process, 9–12 tons of CO2 are emitted per ton of produced hydro-
gen [13]. By substituting hydrogen derived from zero-carbon energy sources instead
of hydrogen derived from fossil fuels, the carbon footprint of the energy-intensive
industries’ sector may be drastically reduced [16]. Carbon-free hydrogen applications
in energy systems, whether in the transportation, industry, construction, or power
sectors, are diverse [17]. Hydrogen as a fuel may be utilized to power automobiles
and electrical appliances via fuel cells and ICEs. The high density of hydrogen in
a liquid state allows it to provide the driving force for spacecraft. It can generate
combined heat and power (CHP) on a small scale in residential fuel cells as a prime
mover [18,19].
As with natural gas, hydrogen can be compressed or liquefied to be transported. For
some countries, such as Japan as an island country, this is the only option to purchase
significant quantities of this emission-free energy carrier. Furthermore, excess renewable
power may be utilised to produce hydrogen for energy storage [20]. This hydrogen can
be mixed in a limited content with natural gas in a grid or converted to hydrogen carriers
such as methane, methanol, or ammonia for storage [21]. Hydrogen produced via water
electrolysis with renewable energy sources or from fossil fuels with a carbon capture unit
becomes a fuel that stimulates economic growth and helps decarbonize energy systems [22].
The hydrogen value chain (see Figure 1) can serve as the foundation for a clean energy
system and is promising as a safe and sustainable energy carrier.
 the present challenges. Following that, measures for encouraging its growth were offered
by using strengths, reducing weaknesses, making use of opportunities, and circumvent-
ing threats [25,26]. The SWOT analysis approach may be used to determine the examined
item’s strengths (aspects to leverage and expand upon), weaknesses (areas to receive aid
and assistance), opportunities (areas that can be used for benefits), and threats (elements
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 that could impede the object’s development). Internal variables dictate strengths 3 of and
19
weaknesses, but external forces describe opportunities and dangers [27].

Figure 1. Value chain of clean hydrogen for the successful energy transition.
Figure 1. Value chain of clean hydrogen for the successful energy transition.
To better understand the hydrogen economy, we need a complete understanding
2. the
of Hydrogen Value Chain
clean hydrogen production value chain. Hydrogen can be based on fossil fuel or
completely renewable.
The hydrogen valueEach
chaincountry
can bemakes a decision
considered about it according
as a combination to its assets
of production, trans-
and experiences. As far as the authors’ knowledge, this kind of analysis
portation and storage, and end user sectors. In the case of a hydrogen value chain, Japan has not been
studied in thecountry
is a pioneer hydrogenin value chain. In
a hydrogen the present
national study,
strategy anda SWOT analysis with
R&D funding, was designed
successful
to analyse the
hydrogen strategies
projects on the forground
a successful energy
[11]. The datatransition
of analysisto were
clean gathered
hydrogen.and A SWOT
summa-
analysis
rized fromis extensively used inpolicy
Japan’s hydrogen strategic
andplanning [23,24] because
national strategy based onit provides an essential
the guidelines, reports,
foundation for understanding the state of the item being investigated and
papers, documents, and statistics. Japan has expressed interest in developing a hydrogen developing plans
to address the present challenges. Following that, measures for encouraging
economy in its broader climate and energy policy [28]. Long-term Japanese policy plans its growth
were
aim tooffered by using strengths,
commercialize reducing
clean hydrogen weaknesses,
production usingmaking use
a mix of of opportunities,
fossil and
fuel from overseas,
circumventing threats [25,26]. The SWOT analysis approach may be
CCS (blue hydrogen), and affordable renewable sources (green hydrogen). Japan also used to determine theis
examined item’s strengths (aspects to leverage and expand upon), weaknesses
the undisputed leader in fuel cell research, accounting for over 40% of all patents; it aspires (areas to
receive aid world’s
to be the and assistance), opportunities
first “hydrogen (areas
society” by that can behydrogen
utilizing used for benefits),
throughout andthethreats
econ-
(elements that could impede the object’s development). Internal variables
omy’s sectors [29]. Only one country (Japan) had a national hydrogen policy as of 2017. dictate strengths
and weaknesses, but external forces describe opportunities and dangers [27].

2.2.1. HydrogenValue
Hydrogen Production
Chain
The hydrogen valuebefore,
As was mentioned hydrogen
chain can can be generated
be considered from fossil
as a combination of fuels (gray and
production, blue
trans-
hydrogen) and renewable energy (green hydrogen), which are reviewed in this section.
portation and storage, and end user sectors. In the case of a hydrogen value chain, Japan
is a pioneer country in a hydrogen national strategy and R&D funding, with successful
hydrogen projects on the ground [11]. The data of analysis were gathered and summarized
from Japan’s hydrogen policy and national strategy based on the guidelines, reports, pa-
pers, documents, and statistics. Japan has expressed interest in developing a hydrogen
economy in its broader climate and energy policy [28]. Long-term Japanese policy plans
aim to commercialize clean hydrogen production using a mix of fossil fuel from overseas,
CCS (blue hydrogen), and affordable renewable sources (green hydrogen). Japan also is the
undisputed leader in fuel cell research, accounting for over 40% of all patents; it aspires to
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 4 of 19

be the world’s first “hydrogen society” by utilizing hydrogen throughout the economy’s
sectors [29]. Only one country (Japan) had a national hydrogen policy as of 2017.

2.1. Hydrogen Production

As was mentioned before, hydrogen can be generated from fossil fuels (gray and blue
hydrogen) and renewable energy (green hydrogen), which are reviewed in this section.

2.1.1. Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels (Gray and Blue Hydrogen)

Nature does not produce vast amounts of hydrogen gas; therefore, it must be synthe-
sized, mainly through the reforming and steam reforming of natural gas, oil, and coal. In
the short term, hydrogen is supplied as a by-product for purification and fossil fuel steam
reforming [30]. Although usually natural gas is used for steam reforming and production
of hydrogen, steam reforming is also applicable to liquid fuels such as oil. In this process,
a hydrocarbon feedstock reacts with high-temperature steam at a pressure of 3–35 bar
while being accompanied by a catalyst to create hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a small
quantity of carbon dioxide. Afterwards, hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced by
reacting carbon monoxide and steam with a catalyst [31]. Finally, carbon dioxide and other
impurities must be captured to keep the hydrogen pure.
Hydrogen may be produced by coal gasification at high temperatures and pressures,
resulting in a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide [32]. As a result of adding the
excess steam, the synthetic gas generates extra hydrogen and CO2 . While CO2 needs to
be sequestrated, hydrogen is captured through the separation system. Energy AGL and
Kawasaki Heavy Industries announced plans to build a coal-fired power station in Latrobe
Valley, Victoria, Australia, in April of 2018. The pilot tested the feasibility of converting
brown coal to hydrogen and then liquefying it for transport to Japan. If successful, the two
companies will target commercialization on a large scale by 2030. The first shipment of
liquefied hydrogen from Victoria’s port was sent to Kobe in Japan in 2022 [33].

2.1.2. Hydrogen from Renewable Power (Green Hydrogen)

Renewable power to hydrogen (PtH) is the process of generating hydrogen and
derivatives from electricity [8]. The first step is electrolysis, splitting water into hydrogen
and oxygen by electricity [4]. Hydrogen may then be converted to ammonia, methanol, or
diesel [7]. In the case of Japan’s strategy, PtH has been explored as a solution for renewable
electricity transportation and storage in the long term from a source (e.g., Australia) to
Japan. Another advantage of PtH is the prospect of decarbonizing the whole energy system
through sector coupling [34]. Additionally, hydrogen may be introduced into natural
gas pipes at particular levels. Methane may be created using a methanation process that
incorporates hydrogen and CO. As with natural gas, synthetic methane has the same
chemical structure and is compatible with the current infrastructure to be utilized in the
same manner. Since synthetic methane requires carbon dioxide as an input (CO2 + 4H2 ↔
CH4 + 2H2 O), the life cycle of syngas is essentially zero carbon (although the combustion
of synthetic methane eventually releases CO2 ). Moreover, hydrogen can be converted into
methanol (CO2 + 3H2 ↔ CH3 OH + H2 O) or ammonia (N2 + 3H2 ↔ 2NH3 ). Both synthetic
methanol and ammonia have a large storage capacity and can widely be used in other
chemical fields. PtH provides opportunities for the coupling sectors, where renewables
may supply heavy industry and transportation, which are challenging to be electrified.
There is a promising chance for Japan to import electricity produced from renewable
energy sources, which are converted to hydrogen. While the government’s strategy does
not address renewable international supply chains, a pilot project by Kawasaki Heavy
Industries Ltd. was initiated in 2017. With the support of companies such as Mitsubishi and
Statoil, Kawasaki partnered with Hydrogen Nel, a Norwegian manufacturer of hydrogen
plants. The companies are undertaking a feasibility study for another demonstration project
in Norway that would produce hydrogen from electricity and be transported to Japan via
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 5 of 19

liquid hydrogen tankers. Along with renewable PtH, Norway is investigating the prospect
of hydrogen production using natural gas reforming [35].

2.2. Transportation and Storage

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19
Given Japan’s limited capability for producing carbon-free hydrogen, improved trans-
portation and long-term storage are essential research goals. Thus, the cost of hydrogen
supply chains (overseas transportation and internal distribution) is a critical driver of a
ahydrogen
hydrogensupply’s
supply’seconomic
economicfeasibility.
feasibility. Compression,
Compression, liquefaction,
liquefaction, hydrogenation,
hydrogenation, or or
conversion
conversion to other gases such as ammonia and synthetic methane are all
to other gases such as ammonia and synthetic methane are all methods
methods for for
increasing
increasing thethe density
density of of hydrogen
hydrogen for for transportation
transportation and and most
most end-use
end-use applications,
applications, as as
presented
presented in Figure 2 [34]. Conversion of hydrogen to other gases is significant as
in Figure 2 [34]. Conversion of hydrogen to other gases is significant as itit can
can
increase the efficiency
increase the efficiencyin inlong-distance
long-distancetransportation
transportationand and increase
increase thethe storage
storage timetime
for for
the
the otherwise
otherwise readily
readily dispersed
dispersed gas.gas.It Itmust
mustbebementioned
mentionedthat thatthe
the properties
properties of of an
an energy
energy
carrier
carrier should
should be be taken
taken intointo consideration
consideration while while making
making aa choice.
choice. InIn some
some instances,
instances, pilots
pilots
for
for long-distance transportation have used substances such as liquid hydrogen andand
long-distance transportation have used substances such as liquid hydrogen organicor-
ganic hydrides such as methylcyclohexane. Although liquid hydrogen
hydrides such as methylcyclohexane. Although liquid hydrogen is ideally suited for cases is ideally suited for
cases where high purity hydrogen is required, such as fuel cell vehicle
where high purity hydrogen is required, such as fuel cell vehicle fuel, the necessary refriger- fuel, the necessary
refrigeration
ation temperaturetemperature to store hydrogen
to store hydrogen in a liquid in form
a liquid form
poses poses numerous
numerous engineering engineering
problems.
problems.
For hydride Forcarriers,
hydridespecific
carriers, specific hydrogenation
hydrogenation and dehydrogenation
and dehydrogenation facilities
facilities are required,are
required,
lowering thelowering
purity theof thepurity
end-useof the end-usebut
hydrogen hydrogen
making the buthydride
makingmixture
the hydride
easiermixture
to carry
easier to carry
and store [36]. and store [36].
Hydrogen mayHydrogen may also beinto
also be transformed transformed
ammoniainto and ammonia
synthetic and syn-
methane,
thetic methane, which have established markets and infrastructure.
which have established markets and infrastructure. However, further study is necessary to However, further
study is necessary
mitigate the harmful to mitigate the harmful
gases produced gases produced
by ammonia by ammonia combustion.
combustion.

Figure 2.
Figure Hydrogen carriers
2. Hydrogen carriers based
based on
on energy
energy density
density and
and synthesis
synthesis cost
cost (adapted
(adapted from
from [35]).
[35]).

In terms of internal distribution, there are compact and liquid hydrogen supply
In terms of internal distribution, there are compact and liquid hydrogen supply net-
networks for specific industrial uses. For hydrogen to play a role in energy transport across
works for specific industrial uses. For hydrogen to play a role in energy transport across
Japan, there is a need for scale and innovation in methanation technology and an increase in
Japan, there is a need for scale and innovation in methanation technology and an increase
domestic pipeline networks. The research community now assumes that each energy carrier
in domestic pipeline networks. The research community now assumes that each energy
technology has its competencies and that further R&D is required for a better comparison.
carrier technology has its competencies and that further R&D is required for a better com-
Thus, the Japanese government’s strategy intends to express the technical advantages
parison. Thus, the Japanese government’s strategy intends to express the technical ad-
and disadvantages of different energy carrier technologies and introduce pilot projects
vantages and disadvantages of different energy carrier technologies and introduce pilot
carried out at home and abroad, such as liquefied hydrogen (LH2 ), liquid organic hydrides
projects carried out at home and abroad, such as liquefied hydrogen (LH2), liquid organic
(particularly methylcyclohexane (MCH), SPERA hydrogen with Brunei [37], Chiyoda MCH
hydrides
refuelling (particularly methylcyclohexane
stations), ammonia (production of (MCH), SPERA
carbon-free hydrogen
ammonia, supply with Brunei
chain [37],
with Saudi
Chiyoda MCHsuccess
Arabia, early refuelling stations), NO
in reducing ammonia (production of carbon-free ammonia, supply
x emissions), compressed hydrogen, and pipelines
chain with Saudi Arabia,
and transportation [38]. early success in reducing NOx emissions), compressed hydrogen,
and pipelines and transportation [38].
December 2019 marked the world’s first transoceanic methylcyclohexane transporta-
tion, form Brunei to Japan [39]. Kawasaki Industries introduced the world’s first custom-
ized hydrogen tanker for liquid hydrogen shipments from Australia to Japan (see Figure
3) [33]. In the summer of 2020, the first shipment of “blue ammonia” arrived in Japan from
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 6 of 19

December 2019 marked the world’s first transoceanic methylcyclohexane transporta-

tion, form Brunei to Japan [39]. Kawasaki Industries introduced the world’s first customized
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
hydrogen tanker for liquid hydrogen shipments from Australia to Japan (see Figure 3)6 [33]. of 19

In the summer of 2020, the first shipment of “blue ammonia” arrived in Japan from Saudi
Arabia. This blue ammonia was utilized to generate electricity [40]. Japan has bought crude
oil from Saudi
bought crude Arabia
oil fromforSaudi
a longArabia
periodfor
of atime,
longand the two
period sidesand
of time, are discussing expanding
the two sides are dis-
their trade
cussing connection
expanding to include
their blue ammonia
trade connection as well.
to include blue ammonia as well.

Figure3.3.Liquefied
Figure Liquefiedgreen
greenhydrogen
hydrogenshipping
shippingby
bySuiso
SuisoFrontier
Frontierfrom
fromaaport
portin
inVictoria,
Victoria,Australia,
Australia,to
to
Kobe, Japan.
Kobe, Japan.

2.3.
2.3.End-Use
End-UseSectors
Sectors
The
Theresidential
residentialcombined
combined heatheat and
andpower
power(CHP)
(CHP) and andthethetransport
transportsector
sectorcurrently
currently
demonstrate
demonstrate the the highest
highest market
market maturity
maturity among
among end-use
end-use sectors
sectors of
of hydrogen
hydrogen [6]. [6]. Resi-
Resi-
dential
dential CHPs
CHPswerewereintroduced
introducedinto intothe
theJapanese
Japanesemarket
marketin in2009,
2009,and
andtheir
theirconsumption
consumption
subsidies
subsidieswerewerephased
phasedout [41].
out [41].Although
Although subsidies
subsidiesalsoalso
lad lad
to fuel cell vehicles’
to fuel (FCVs)
cell vehicles’ and
(FCVs)
fuel cell buses’ development, a low number of hydrogen fuel stations, backed
and fuel cell buses’ development, a low number of hydrogen fuel stations, backed by strin- by stringent
regulations and high
gent regulations and manufacturing
high manufacturing costs,costs,
restricts the spread
restricts of fuel
the spread ofcell
fuelvehicles [42].
cell vehicles
These are the areas where Japan is now showing technological supremacy
[42]. These are the areas where Japan is now showing technological supremacy and are and are promi-
nent parts of
prominent the hydrogen
parts economy
of the hydrogen that can
economy gain
that canpublic acceptance
gain public in the in
acceptance short
the term;
short
however, they are insufficient to fully achieve Japan’s hydrogen economy’s
term; however, they are insufficient to fully achieve Japan’s hydrogen economy’s poten- potential. In
the future decades, power generation may be the primary driver of additional
tial. In the future decades, power generation may be the primary driver of additional hy- hydrogen ca-
pacity,
drogenconsuming up to 64% of
capacity, consuming upyearly
to 64%hydrogen
of yearlyuse [43]. Large-scale
hydrogen hydrogen generation
use [43]. Large-scale hydrogen
technology is currently under investigation and the government
generation technology is currently under investigation and the government of Japan hasofset targets
Japan has
for reducing hydrogen fuel prices to USD 0.17/kWh by 2030 and USD
set targets for reducing hydrogen fuel prices to USD 0.17/kWh by 2030 and USD 0.12/kWh 0.12/kWh by 2050,
making
by 2050,itmaking
cost competitive with natural
it cost competitive withgas. Until 2050,
natural hydrogen
gas. Until 2050, may provide
hydrogen may upprovide
to 28%
of
upprimary
to 28% of energy.
primaryIt should
energy.be emphasized
It should that these that
be emphasized numbers
these were calculated
numbers without
were calculated
consideration for economic or political aspects that may influence the market direction and
without consideration for economic or political aspects that may influence the market di-
that the technological prediction for 2010 was extended from the primary base. Diverse
rection and that the technological prediction for 2010 was extended from the primary base.
end-use plans must be backed up by a robust policy substructure and financial assistance,
Diverse end-use plans must be backed up by a robust policy substructure and financial
while technological success is defined by achieving the mentioned degree of market pen-
assistance, while technological success is defined by achieving the mentioned degree of
etration [35]. It is predicted that hydrogen demand share in the residential, commercial,
market penetration [35]. It is predicted that hydrogen demand share in the residential,
transportation, industry, and power generation sectors of Japan will be 8%, 10%, 4%, 15%,
commercial, transportation, industry, and power generation sectors of Japan will be 8%,
and 64%, respectively, by 2050 [35].
10%, 4%, 15%, and 64%, respectively, by 2050 [35].
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

2.3.1. Transport: Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCV)

Energies 2022, 15, 6064 7 of 19
Toyota and Honda manufactured the most commercial passenger vehicles in the Jap-
anese transportation sector, with Toyota accounting for the largest share [42]. FCVs are
similar to gasoline–electric
2.3.1. Transport: hybrid(FCV)
Fuel Cell Vehicles vehicles in that they use gasoline engines to power elec-
tric motors. The distinction
Toyota and Honda manufacturedis that a fuelthecell stack
most replaces the
commercial internalvehicles
passenger combustion in theengine.
The FCV operates
Japanese on hydrogen
transportation fuel,Toyota
sector, with whichaccounting
can be purchased at hydrogen
for the largest share [42]. fuelFCVs
stations in
the same way gasoline fuel is purchased. Despite the significant
are similar to gasoline–electric hybrid vehicles in that they use gasoline engines to power differences that make
them a cleaner
electric motors.alternative
The distinctionto gasoline
is that a cars in the
fuel cell stacktransport
replacesfleet, FCVs have
the internal no emission
combustion
engine. The FCV operates on hydrogen fuel, which can be purchased
from exhaust pipes. They are, however, comparable in this respect to battery-powered at hydrogen fuel
stations in the same way gasoline fuel is purchased. Despite the significant
electric vehicles (BEVs), but still do not have problems related to battery recovery and its differences
that make themissues.
environmental a cleaner alternative to gasoline cars in the transport fleet, FCVs have no
emission from exhaust pipes. They are, however, comparable in this respect to battery-
FCVs have twice the driving range of BEVs and much faster tank filling times. Hy-
powered electric vehicles (BEVs), but still do not have problems related to battery recovery
drogen
and its has an energyissues.
environmental density approximately three times that of Toyota batteries when
storedFCVs
at thehave
hightwice
pressure employed
the driving range in of
Toyota
BEVs Mirai
and muchtanksfaster
[42]. While the technological
tank filling times.
complexity
Hydrogen has of FCVs increases
an energy densitytheir cost, manufacturers
approximately three times can that still enhance
of Toyota theirwhen
batteries future per-
formance. Thehigh
stored at the FCV cruising
pressure range isinlikely
employed Toyota toMirai
increase
tankswith
[42].an increasing
While hydrogen pres-
the technological
complexity
sure stored inoftheFCVs
tankincreases their cost,
[36]. Therefore, manufacturers
their cruising range cancan
stillbeenhance
close totheir future
gasoline vehicles
performance.
without hurtingTheusability
FCV cruising
with range
adequateis likely to increase
research and with an increasing
development. hydrogen
Toyota introduced
pressure
the stored in
Mirai model at the
the tank
end of[36]. Therefore,
2014. According theirto cruising range can
the brochure, thebecar
close
hastoa gasoline
cruising range
vehicles without hurting usability with adequate research and development. Toyota
of 650 km, which dropped to 500 km under actual testing by the US EPA. In March 2016,
introduced the Mirai model at the end of 2014. According to the brochure, the car has a
Honda introduced the Clarity, with a nominal cruise range of 750 km, which reached 590
cruising range of 650 km, which dropped to 500 km under actual testing by the US EPA.
kmIn March EPA
under 2016, testing
Honda [18]. Compared
introduced to a BEV,
the Clarity, withJapan’s
a nominal popular
cruise2018
rangeNissan
of 750 Leaf
km, takes
up to 1 reached
which h to charge
590 km80%under
of itsEPAbattery at fast-charging
testing [18]. Compared stations.
to a BEV, It takes
Japan’s 7.5popular
h at home to
reach
2018 the fullLeaf
Nissan range of the
takes up to2701 hkm claimed
to charge 80% in of
theitsbrochure.
battery at With approximately
fast-charging stations. 3Itmin of
takes 7.5 h refuelling
immediate at home to timereachandthe full rangerange,
a longer of the 270
FCVs kmoffer
claimed in thedriving
a closer brochure. With
experience to
approximately
conventional 3 min ofthan
vehicles immediate refuelling
BEVs offer. On thetimeplus
and side,
a longer range,
their fuelFCVs
cells offer a closer as off-
can operate
driving
grid experience
generators to conventional
in the vehicles than
event of a blackout. FigureBEVs offer. On
4 shows thethe plusof
trend side,
FCVs’theircumulative
fuel
cells can operate as off-grid generators in the event of a blackout. Figure 4 shows the
sales in different countries.
trend of FCVs’ cumulative sales in different countries.

Figure 4. Global and cumulative annual sales of FCVs from 2014 to 2019 [18].
Figure 4. Global and cumulative annual sales of FCVs from 2014 to 2019 [18].
By 2030, the international council on clean transportation (ICCT) estimates that
heavy electric
By 2030, thevehicles’ and hydrogen
international council onfuel cell transportation
clean vehicles’ overhead costs
(ICCT) (ownership,
estimates that heavy
electric vehicles’ and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles’ overhead costs (ownership, [44].
operation, and fuel) can be 25–30% and at least 5–10% lower than diesel vehicles operation,
Heavy-duty transportation is essential for decarbonization, and automakers who offer
and fuel) can be 25–30% and at least 5–10% lower than diesel vehicles [44]. Heavy-duty
various low-carbon solutions are endorsed. Although heavy vehicles include only one-
transportation is essential for decarbonization, and automakers who offer various low-
tenth of all vehicles, they account for 40% of carbon emissions, which is still growing.
carbon
As wesolutions
look at thearelist
endorsed.
of emergingAlthough heavy vehicles include
technologies—natural onlybatteries,
gas, electric one-tenthand
of all ve-
hicles, they accountissues
fuel cells—many for 40%
needof to
carbon emissions,
be considered which
from is still growing.
a long-term business Asplanning
we look at the
list
perspective [45]. Electric battery trucks are low-carbon solutions in which renewable issues
of emerging technologies—natural gas, electric batteries, and fuel cells—many
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of

Energies 2022, 15, 6064

need to be considered from a long-term business planning perspective [45]. Electric b
8 of 19
tery trucks are low-carbon solutions in which renewable energy or core energy is a maj
contributor. Fuel cell vehicles can operate as portable power generators for emergen
shutdowns.
energy or core The power
energy supply
is a major capacity of
contributor. fuel
Fuel cellcell busescan
vehicles and vehicles
operate for disaster rel
as portable
facilities in Japan for a hospital are two buses (455 kWh/unit)
power generators for emergency shutdowns. The power supply capacity of fuel and eight
cellFCVs (1
kWh/unit),
buses respectively
and vehicles [35]. relief facilities in Japan for a hospital are two buses
for disaster
(455 kWh/unit) and eight FCVs (120 kWh/unit), respectively [35].
2.3.2. Cogeneration Systems
2.3.2. Cogeneration Systems
The use of fuel cells as the main drivers for generating electricity and heat is call
The use of fuel cells as the main drivers for generating electricity and heat is called
cogeneration,
cogeneration, where
where electricity
electricity is used
is used to meettoelectrical
meet electrical needs
needs and heatand heatforisheating
is used used for heati
applications so that total cogeneration efficiency can be up to 90%. Today,
applications so that total cogeneration efficiency can be up to 90%. Today, many commer- many comme
cially
cially launched
launched projects
projects are developing
are developing fuel
fuel cell cell cogeneration
cogeneration programs. programs.
Japan is aJapan
major is a maj
leader
leader inin small-scale
small-scale cogeneration
cogeneration facilities
facilities [16]. Figure
[16]. Figure 5 shows5the
shows the schematic
schematic diagram ofdiagram
CCHP
CCHP systems
systemsbased on the
based on polymer electrolyte
the polymer membrane
electrolyte fuel cellsfuel
membrane (PEMFC).
cells (PEMFC).

Figure
Figure A flowchart
5. 5. of a of
A flowchart tri-generation systemsystem
a tri-generation based on a fuelon
based cell (adapted
a fuel from [16]).from [16]).
cell (adapted

The polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and the solid oxide fuel
The polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and the solid oxide fuel c
cell (SOFC) are two commercially advanced options, which usually work with natural
(SOFC)
gas with aare two commercially
primary advanced options,
application in cogeneration systems.which usually
Fuel cell unitswork
for thewith
home natural g
with a primary application in cogeneration systems. Fuel
were introduced under the Enefarm trademark by several prominent Japanese energy cell units for the home we
introduced
providers andunder the Enefarm
manufacturers in 2009trademark
[46]. It is aby several prominent
cogeneration Japanese
system offered energy provi
in PEMFC
and
ers SOFC types. The PEMFC
and manufacturers model
in 2009 [46].covers
It is a90% of the sales.system
cogeneration It is not intended
offered to
in PEMFC an
supply a home’s full electrical needs, but rather a portion of it and
SOFC types. The PEMFC model covers 90% of the sales. It is not intended to supply its complete hot water
needs,
home’s with its electrical
full 700 W andneeds,
1000 Wbut power-generating
rather a portion capacity.
of it andThe its
government
completecurrently
hot water need
provides sliding-scale subsidies based on the type of fuel cell, price, and variables such
with its 700 W and 1000 W power-generating capacity. The government currently pr
as the fuel type or building retrofit. With more subsidies, cost competition increases,
vides sliding-scale
performance improvessubsidies based onmanufacturers,
among equipment the type of fuel and cell, price, and
customers variables such as t
are encouraged
fuel type or building retrofit. With more subsidies, cost
to buy and install cheaper systems [16]. Higher subsidies are given to SOFCs competition increases,
that perfo
mance improves
perform among but
better technically equipment manufacturers,
have a smaller and due
share of sales customers arecosts.
to higher encouraged
The to b
and install
initial cheaper
investment systems
in a single [16]. or
PEMFC Higher
SOFC subsidies are given
system is 2.5–3.5 timestogreater
SOFCs thattypical
than perform bett
electric and heating
technically but have systems [16]. share
a smaller Still, consumers
of sales due without
to highersubsidies
costs. can
Thereturn
initialtheir
investment
investment in 12 to 13 years with possible yearly savings of around
a single PEMFC or SOFC system is 2.5–3.5 times greater than typical electric JPY 50,000 in energy
and heati
costs [35].
systems [16]. Still, consumers without subsidies can return their investment in 12 to
years with possible yearly savings of around JPY 50,000 in energy costs [35].
If the costs continue to decline by 12% annually, reaching the target price by the en
of this decade seems plausible. It also demands a growth rate higher than the past 9 yea
which is quite a challenge for an objective such as this. A total of 53 million units are e
pected to be in use in Japan by 2050, representing nearly 10% of the country’s homes [3
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 9 of 19

If the costs continue to decline by 12% annually, reaching the target price by the end of
this decade seems plausible. It also demands a growth rate higher than the past 9 years,
which is quite a challenge for an objective such as this. A total of 53 million units are
expected to be in use in Japan by 2050, representing nearly 10% of the country’s homes [35].
Already, prices have dropped by more than 40% for SOFCs and almost 70% for PEMFCs
since their launch. MEYI hopes to achieve the millions of fuel cell installations, however it
will be required further cost reductions. The size and cost of domestic CHP systems have
been reduced, making them more practical.
The recent advancements include reducing the amount of platinum used by the PEMFC by
10–30%, equipment size by 40–60%, and the repair and maintenance frequency from once every
5 years to more than 10 years. By replacing 10% of Japan’s heating systems with fuel cells, the
International Energy Agency forecasts that Japan’s total residential energy consumption would
be reduced by 3% and carbon emissions would decrease by 4%. The Enefarm brand on the
market has more than 50% power generation efficiency and 87% cogeneration efficiency [35].

2.3.3. Power Generation

As part of efforts to achieve the 2050 carbon target, Japan aims to increase the use of
ammonia as fuel. Ammonia is expected to be used primarily as a fuel in coal-fired power
plants. To successfully meet the demand for ammonia and develop a supply chain, the
advancement of power generation technologies based on the direct combustion of ammonia
remains crucial as Japan plans to eliminate half of its coal-based power generation capacity
by 2030 [47]. Both pure hydrogen and a combination of natural gas or coal can be used to pro-
duce electricity through burning. Natural gas-fired power plants are generally compatible
with hydrogen; therefore, these opportunities are being examined in Japan and elsewhere.
Turbines that mix up to 50% of hydrogen have already been commercialized in the inte-
grated gasification combined cycle (IGCC). Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems (MHPS) and
Kawasaki Heavy Industries investigated direct and co-combustion technologies [48].
Although it is free of CO2 emission, hydrogen combustion emits nitrogen oxide (NOx ).
The combustion of natural gas can be twice as polluting when the reaction is too fast, leading
to unstable combustion and high flame temperatures. Techniques such as injecting water
to temper the flame and diluting the fuel with inert gases are being examined to tackle the
problem [35]. As water injection conserves fuel, Kawasaki created an alternative technique
dubbed “micromix” that delivers hydrogen in small quantities and burns in micro-flames.
Micromix may be utilized to burn pure hydrogen while reducing NOx emissions. Electricity
generation from hydrogen combustion, due to its scalability, is expected to be more cost
effective than fixed fuel cells. Hydrogen power plants can be developed more quickly
than fixed fuel cells. Conversely, generating electricity in a small-scale distributed power
generator has less of an advantage. To operate as a large-scale power plant, a sufficient
volume of hydrogen fuel is also required to be supplied [35].
Mitsubishi Japan is developing a gas turbine with ammonia fuel. Mitsubishi Power, a
wholly owned subsidiary of Japan’s Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, plans to commercialize a
gas turbine system [49]. The turbine combines selective catalytic reduction with a newly
developed combustion technology to prevent nitrogen oxides’ pollution from direct ammo-
nia combustion. The company is working to divert demand for electricity generation at
industrial plants and small power plants on remote islands to clean energy forms.
Mitsubishi Power is expected to establish larger units to produce ammonia-burning
gas turbines. The company is also developing technology to convert fuels from natural
gas to hydrogen in combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) systems while investigating the
feasibility of using ammonia as a fuel. It is also developing a system for splitting ammonia
into hydrogen and nitrogen using waste heat in which hydrogen will be used to perform
CCGT. The project, once commercialized, will be the world’s first gas turbine on this scale,
powered entirely by ammonia to generate electricity. Japanese laboratories and engineering
companies (such as IHI and Toyota Energy Solutions) have tested and developed small gas
turbines with an ammonia fuel capacity of 50–2000 kW [48] (see Figure 6).
Energies 15, 6064
2022,2022,
Energies 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1010of
of 19
19

Figure
Figure 6. Fully
6. Fully ammonia,
ammonia, 4040
MWMW(H-25
(H-25series)
series)gas
gasturbine
turbinedeveloped
developedby
byMitsubishi
Mitsubishi [49].
[49].

2.3.4. Industry
2.3.4. Industry
Almost
Almost allallofofthe
thehydrogen
hydrogen consumed
consumed by byJapanese
Japaneseindustry
industry is now
is now produced
produced as aas by-a
by-product
product ofofan anindustrial
industrialprocess.
process.Hydrogen
Hydrogen produced
produced as as a by-product
a by-product of of
oiloil refining
refining is
is recycled
recycled in the same feed plant to desulfurize desulfurize the oil. Recently,
Recently, as as demand
demand for for better
better
grades
grades of of
petrochemicals
petrochemicals increased,
increased,refineries
refineriesininJapan
Japanandandother
otherareas
areas of of the world began
began
purchasing
purchasing hydrogen
hydrogenfrom fromother
other facilities
facilities to tosatisfy
satisfydemand.
demand. At At
thethe moment,
moment, Japan’s
Japan’s pri-
primary hydrogen provider
mary hydrogen provider is is the
the caustic
caustic sodasoda sector,
sector, which
which supplies
supplies high-purity
high-purity hydrogen
hydrogen
to to
gasoline
gasoline stations
stations andandother
otherfacilities.
facilities.It would
It would notnot
bebea sustainable
a sustainable source
sourceof of
hydrogen
hydrogen in
theinfuture.
the future. Additionally,
Additionally, steelsteel making
making generates
generates hydrogen
hydrogen by-products,
by-products, some some of which
of which are
are(e.g.,
sold sold the
(e.g., the Kitakyushu
Kitakyushu HydrogenHydrogen Demonstration
Demonstration ProjectProject
[50]).[50]).
The
The quantity
quantity andand qualityofofhydrogen
quality hydrogenproduced
producedas asaaby-product
by-product may vary depending depending
onon the
the feedtype
feed typeandandproduction
production process.
process. IfIflow-quality
low-quality hydrogen
hydrogen requires
requiresadditional
additionalre-
fining, this
refining, this can
canincrease
increasecosts,costs,while
while supply
supply inconsistencies
inconsistencies complicate
complicate purchases. In con-
purchases. In
trast totoFrance,
contrast France,whichwhichpickedpickedindustrial
industrialhydrogen
hydrogenasasthe theinitial step
initial steptoward
toward establishing
establishing a
green hydrogen market, Japan has no decarbonization target
a green hydrogen market, Japan has no decarbonization target for industrial hydrogen. for industrial hydrogen. Ac-
cording totothe
According theFrench
French strategy,
strategy, 10% 10%of industrial hydrogen
of industrial hydrogen will bewillachieved by electrolysis
be achieved by elec-
with zero
trolysis withemissions
zero emissionsby 2023by and 20–40%
2023 and by 2028 [35].
20–40% Japan,
by 2028 as with
[35]. Japan, France,
as withis expanding
France, is
electrolysis-based
expanding hydrogen generation;
electrolysis-based the primary the
hydrogen generation; distinction
primary is distinction
the high costisofthe renew-
high
able
cost of energy.
renewable While bidding-based
energy. pricing is becoming
While bidding-based pricing ismore prevalent,
becoming moremany projects
prevalent, manyare
still priced
projects using
are still pricedthe using
FiT system.
the FiTInsystem.
addition Into the hightocost
addition the of
high electricity, the intermit-
cost of electricity, the
tency of renewable
intermittency of renewableenergyenergy
lowerslowers
the electrolysis capacity
the electrolysis and, thus,
capacity and, increases the mar-
thus, increases the
ginal costs of hydrogen
marginal costs of hydrogen production.production.
While
While industrialdemand
industrial demandisisunlikely
unlikelytotohelphelpJapan’s
Japan’s hydrogen
hydrogen economy, the country country
will profit from decreasing green hydrogen costs.
will profit from decreasing green hydrogen costs. Due to distribution Due to distributionand andstorage
storage infras-
infra-
structure
tructure availability,
availability, industrial
industrial parksparks
are are excellent
excellent laboratories
laboratories for for hydrogen
hydrogen pilot
pilot pro-
projects.
jects. Industrial
Industrial applications
applications for hydrogen
for hydrogen may eventually
may eventually extendextendbeyond beyond raw materials
raw materials since
since hydrogen
hydrogen can replace can hydrocarbons
replace hydrocarbonsin boilers,indirect
boilers, direct and
heating, heating, and cogeneration.
cogeneration. Similarly,
as Similarly,
green hydrogenas green hydrogen
becomes becomes
cheaper, cheaper,
industries willindustries
be able towill reducebe able
theirtoemissions
reduce their
[35].
emissions [35]. Hydrogen usage’s potential shares for paper
Hydrogen usage’s potential shares for paper and pulp, chemical fiber, glass, ceramics, and pulp, chemical fiber,
glass, ceramics,
non-ferrous metals, non-ferrous
manufacturing, metals,chemicals,
manufacturing,
and steelchemicals,
industries andofsteelJapanindustries of Ja-
are predicted
pan are predicted to be 25%, 8%, 1%, 9%, 2%, 5%,
to be 25%, 8%, 1%, 9%, 2%, 5%, 37%, and 13%, respectively, by 2050 [35]. 37%, and 13%, respectively, by 2050 [35].
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 11 of 19

2.3.5. Aerospace Industry

The air travel industry is anticipated to be one of the fastest expanding modes of
transportation, rising at 5% per year by 2030. Kerosene is by far the most frequently utilized
aviation fuel in commercial aircraft. Kerosene and other airplane fuels are often produced
to a strict specification, including resistance to large temperature fluctuations. It should be
emphasized that the aviation sector obtains the majority of its fuel from oil sources. Global
interest in deploying alternative fuels for aviation is developing to ensure energy security
and to mitigate the environmental effect of fossil fuels. Methane, methanol, and liquid
hydrogen are considered environmentally friendly alternatives to kerosene [51].
Liquid hydrogen can replace kerosene as airplane fuel. Since liquid hydrogen can be
generated from renewable primary energy sources, it is more environmentally friendly
than kerosene. In addition to high energy density and improved combustion kinetics,
aircrafts powered by liquid hydrogen have lower maintenance costs and longer engine
life. On the other hand, liquid hydrogen shows some issues when used as aircraft fuel.
Low ignition energy is a barrier when burning in large engines. In addition, there is the
potential for traces of unburned hydrogen during combustion, which can cause the metal
to be brittle [52]. Liquid hydrogen emits fewer greenhouse gases at each distance travelled.
Reports suggest that hydrogen and liquefied natural gas are more environmentally friendly
than other alternative fuels. However, the cost of hydrogen is higher than conventional
kerosene, ammonia, and methanol. More R&D is required to lower hydrogen production
costs by improving production and storage technologies for practical applications such as
commercial-scale airplane fuels [17].
Green Hydrogen International (GHI) has ambitions to build over 50 hydrogen stor-
age caverns, storing up to 6 terawatt-hours of energy and transforming the dome into a
significant green hydrogen storage hub, comparable to the importance of the Henry Hub
in the natural gas market [53]. Several potential applications for its hydrogen have been
discussed, including clean rocket fuel, clean aviation fuel, green ammonia for fertilizer
synthesis or sale to Asia, especially Japan, and as a natural gas alternative in power plants.
Hydrogen City is ideal because of its access to low-cost renewable energy sources, ample
unused land, salt domes, and proximity to Corpus Christi’s energy port.

3. SWOT Analysis
SWOT analysis is a strategic planning and strategic management technique that is used
to assist a person or organization in identifying the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats associated with business competition or project planning [54]. In the SWOT
analysis of the hydrogen economy, the strengths, the weaknesses, the opportunities, and
the threats were as follows.

3.1. Strengths
Hydrogen, the missing component in the clean energy mix, is expected to significantly
alter the value chains of energy systems in the years ahead. The primary driver of the rising
policy emphasis on hydrogen has been the climate change urgency. Hydrogen enables
economies to diversify away from fossil fuels.
While international hydrogen trade may expand dramatically, analysts doubt that
hydrogen will yield the same level of money that oil and natural gas yield now (Figure 7).
Thus, hydrogen cannot be a modern, clean alternative to oil. In contrast to oil and natural
gas, hydrogen is a conversion industry rather than an extraction one; hence, its economic
impact will likely be limited. Hydrogen will be more competitive and include a broader
range of businesses than oil and natural gas. As the cost of green hydrogen continues to
decline, more and diversified players will enter the hydrogen industry [13]. By 2050, the
profit from oil and natural gas exports for fossil fuel exporter countries will decline. The
market for hydrogen exports will be fiercer and will attract a broader range of participants
than the oil and natural gas sector. Hydrogen exports have the potential to someday
provide the same level of money that oil and natural gas exports already provide.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

Energies 2022, 15, 6064 than the oil and natural gas sector. Hydrogen exports have the potential to someday
12 of 19 pro-
vide the same level of money that oil and natural gas exports already provide.

Figure
Figure7.7.Expert
Expert opinions onthe
opinions on thefuture
future profitability
profitability andand market
market structure
structure of hydrogen
of hydrogen [13]. [13].

Naturalgas
Natural gas costs
costs climbed
climbedinin2021
2021and 2022;
and therefore,
2022; green
therefore, hydrogen
green was already
hydrogen was already
competitive with gray hydrogen across Europe.
competitive with gray hydrogen across Europe.
3.2. Weaknesses
3.2. Weaknesses
3.2.1. Obstacles of FCV
3.2.1. Obstacles
The biggestofobstacle
FCV to developing a hydrogen vehicle is the lack of a fuelling infras-
tructure. BEV chargers
The biggest areto
obstacle faster to deploya and
developing easily accessible
hydrogen vehicle isasthe
they canofbea installed
lack fuelling infra-
wherever there is access to the power grid, e.g., homes and parking structures. Due to the
structure. BEV chargers are faster to deploy and easily accessible as they can be installed
high expenses imposed by administrative and technological limits, the infrastructure of
wherever there is access to the power grid, e.g., homes and parking structures. Due to the
hydrogen recharging stations cannot be built as fast [17]. The availability of FCVs is highly
high
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW expenses
dependent imposed
on the by of
expansion administrative and which
refuelling stations, technological limits,tothe
have expanded 100infrastructure
13 of 19
stations in of
hydrogen recharging
Japan since stations
2018 (see Figure 8).cannot be built as fast [17]. The availability of FCVs is highly
dependent on the expansion of refuelling stations, which have expanded to 100 stations
in Japan since 2018 (see Figure 8).

3.2.2. High Prices and the Small Number of Customers

The expense of building and operation is what separates Japan from other countries.
According to reports, a hydrogen station costs twice or three times in Japan as it costs in
Europe due to significantly more demanding requirements. Capital and operating subsi-
dies are calculated based on 2.3 and 1.2 times the total cost, depending on the station’s
characteristics. Even with subsidies, given the small number of FCVs on the road, compa-
nies are trying to justify investing in hydrogen infrastructure. According to the hydrogen
strategy of Japan, each gasoline station should service around 900 automobiles each year
to remain profitable, a goal that is hoped to be achieved by 2030 [35]. While the number
of FCVs depends on the quantity of fuel stations, they are seldom created due to high costs
and consumer uncertainty.

Currentand
Figure8.8.Current
Figure andplanned
plannednumber
numberof
ofhydrogen
hydrogenstations
stationsworldwide
worldwide [18].
[18].

3.2.3. Regulatory Barriers

Hydrogen is difficult to regulate as an industrial gas, and standards are set for sizea-
ble chemical plants with a high explosion risk. The same rules now apply to fuel stations.
For example, hydrogen gas stations should be surrounded by more space than conven-
tional gas stations. This is a high cost for cities with high real estate costs, such as Tokyo
[55]. Additionally, these stations are fitted with sensors that promptly shut off the pump
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 13 of 19

3.2.2. High Prices and the Small Number of Customers

The expense of building and operation is what separates Japan from other countries.
According to reports, a hydrogen station costs twice or three times in Japan as it costs in
Europe due to significantly more demanding requirements. Capital and operating subsidies
are calculated based on 2.3 and 1.2 times the total cost, depending on the station’s charac-
teristics. Even with subsidies, given the small number of FCVs on the road, companies are
trying to justify investing in hydrogen infrastructure. According to the hydrogen strategy
of Japan, each gasoline station should service around 900 automobiles each year to remain
profitable, a goal that is hoped to be achieved by 2030 [35]. While the number of FCVs
depends on the quantity of fuel stations, they are seldom created due to high costs and
consumer uncertainty.

3.2.3. Regulatory Barriers

Hydrogen is difficult to regulate as an industrial gas, and standards are set for sizeable
chemical plants with a high explosion risk. The same rules now apply to fuel stations. For
example, hydrogen gas stations should be surrounded by more space than conventional
gas stations. This is a high cost for cities with high real estate costs, such as Tokyo [55].
Additionally, these stations are fitted with sensors that promptly shut off the pump when-
ever a leak is detected. The government is now reviewing safety measures as part of its
ongoing reform of fuel stations, which began in June 2016. Vehicles must be fuelled by
professionals who are licensed to utilize high-pressure gases. As the car-filling process is
automatic, Japan can follow the US path and legalize self-service pumps.

3.2.4. PtH Challenges for Japan

German PtH technology is ahead of Japan, and there are numerous factors why
Japan has yet to catch up. Japan’s natural gas pipeline network is only half the length
of Germany’s and is less integrated than Germany’s. In other words, even if enough
hydrogen is generated, it will be challenging to distribute. Another constraint on hy-
drogen transportation using natural gas pipelines is the lower mixing concentrations
permitted by Japanese pipe requirements, which are lower than those permitted for
European pipes [56]. Hydrogen may also be combined with natural gas. Other issues
include using excess renewable energy to make hydrogen. Even if electricity is available
for free, hydrogen generation is economically impractical when relying on restricted
power for electrolysis, as Shibata has demonstrated. The rebate must be large enough to
cover production costs. Investing in renewable electricity that lacks attractiveness looks
highly impossible.

3.3. Opportunities
Hydrogen is anticipated to impact the energy trade geography, substantially re-
gionalizing energy interactions. With the cost of renewable energy decreasing and the
cost of hydrogen transportation increasing, the coming geopolitical map is anticipated
to show an increase in the regionalization of energy interactions. Renewables may be
installed in any country, and renewable power can be exported via transmission lines
to bordering countries. Additionally, hydrogen enables the conveyance of the energy
generated by renewables across larger distances via pipelines and ships, enabling the
utilization of previously untouched renewable resources in remote regions. Existing
natural gas pipelines might be reused to carry hydrogen with minor technological
modifications [13].
Renewable energy-rich countries may become providers of green hydrogen, with
geoeconomic and geopolitical consequences. For the most cost-effective use of green
hydrogen, places with an ample supply of renewable energy sources, land for solar or wind
fields, and water availability are ideal. Existing power plants might be transformed into
hydrogen production and consumption hubs if they use these environmental factors.
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 14 of 19

Hydrogen trading and capital movements will result in new types of dependency
and a reorientation of bilateral ties. International bilateral agreements are fast developing,
shifting from traditional hydrocarbon-based energy arrangements. Over 30 nations have
hydrogen policies in place, including plans for hydrogen import and export, showing that
international hydrogen commerce is poised to expand significantly [57]. Countries that
have not previously exchanged energy are forging bilateral ties around technologies and
materials related to hydrogen. As economic relations between countries shift, their political
relationships may also shift.
Hydrogen is a conversion process, not an extraction process, and can be generated eco-
nomically in various locations. This will make it more challenging to extract profits similar
to those created by crude oil, which currently represents around 2% of the world’s GDP.
Additionally, when the green hydrogen cost declines, additional and varied competitors
will make market entry, further increasing hydrogen’s competitiveness. The technological
potential for green power will produce enormous volumes of green hydrogen, far outstrip-
ping world demand estimates by many orders of magnitude. Numerous nations have
shown an interest in becoming hydrogen exporters, reducing the risk of export concentra-
tion. Even net energy importers are set to become green hydrogen exporters based on their
plans and developing bilateral agreements.
Hydrogen cross-border trade will expand in the 2030s, in lockstep with green hydro-
gen’s cost competitiveness. Demand will begin to accelerate beyond 2035 based on several
decarbonization forecasts. According to IRENA, two-thirds of green hydrogen production
in 2050 will be utilized locally, with the remaining one-third traded internationally [13].
Pipelines, particularly modified natural gas pipelines, are expected to support around half
of this commerce. The remainder would be loaded aboard ships as hydrogen derivatives,
notably, ammonia.
Countries and regions may establish technical leadership and determine the norms of
a rising market in the short to medium term. A foothold in the hydrogen value chain may
help businesses compete more effectively. The immediate economic stakes are substantial,
as is the market potential. In the long run, nations with abundant renewable energy
resources might become hubs of green industries, attracting energy-intensive companies.
In the future years and decades, equipment manufacturing presents a chance to create
profit. The hydrogen value chain is complex, and most investments could go towards
renewable energy. By the middle of the century, estimations indicate more than a USD
50 billion market for electrolysers, and nearly a USD 21 billion market for fuel cells will
be created along this value chain [13]. While China, Europe, and Japan have established
a firm foothold in producing and selling electrolysers, the business is still in its infancy.
Innovation and new technologies have the potential to alter the manufacturing world as
we know it.
While any kind of hydrogen has the potential to increase energy independence and
resilience, the majority of the advantages are likely to accrue from green hydrogen. Today,
there are three primary ways that hydrogen might help energy security: firstly, by lowering
import dependency; secondly, by reducing price fluctuations; and, thirdly, by increasing
the energy system’s flexibility and resilience via diversifying primary energy resources.
The majority of these advantages are related to green hydrogen.
It is improbable that hydrogen trade flows will become politicized or cartelized. This
is because hydrogen may be created using a wide number of primary energy sources and
in many locations across the planet. Indeed, hydrogen is a product, not a raw resource
or energy source. As a result, green energy economic relations are improbable to be as
susceptible to geopolitical impact as crude oil and natural gas trade flows.
A few years back, hydrogen was regarded as a minor energy source in the global
energy debate. It is becoming a critical component of decarbonization initiatives for more
difficult-to-abate sectors, with an increasing number of nations and businesses banking on
its widespread adoption.
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 15 of 19

3.4. Threats
The hydrogen industry will be fiercer and less profitable than the oil and natural
gas industries. Green and blue hydrogen will not produce the same level of returns that
oil and natural gas produce now. The hydrogen supply will be controlled by the rate of
capital deployment and the production cost, especially in areas where markets, in the
long run, are uncertain. Blue hydrogen would adapt to the changes in the gas market,
increasing dependency on imports and market instability. Additionally, the predicted cost
reductions in green hydrogen mean that investing in fossil fuel-based supply chains may
become stalled.
The raw materials required for hydrogen and renewables will increase awareness
of material-supplying security concerns. While geological supplies of the majority of
minerals and metals are now adequate, markets may become highly constrained due to
fast-expanding demand and the long lead times associated with mining and processing
projects [58]. A seemingly minor change in demand or supply might result in significant
price changes. Such volatility might have repercussions across the hydrogen supply chain,
affecting the total cost of equipment and the income of raw material exporters. Supply
shortages are possible, especially during hydrogen trade’s inception, when the providers’
number is low and bilateral agreements control the bulk of the trade.

4. Recommended Strategies
To monitor and control hydrogen’s contribution to climate change efforts, certificates
of origin based on a transparent and reliable system will be required. Transparency in the
manner in which emissions are measured will be critical. Carbon lock-in is a well-known
concern if hydrogen plans continue to rely on fossil fuels and impede energy savings and
electrification. Robust and well-considered legislative frameworks may assist in ensuring
that hydrogen contributes successfully to greenhouse gas emission reductions.
Assisting developing countries in their early adoption of hydrogen technology has
the potential to improve everyone’s energy security while averting the global decarboniza-
tion divide from worsening. A diverse hydrogen market would decrease supply chain-
associated risks and improve energy security for everyone. Access to technology, education,
capacity building, and inexpensive financing will be vital for hydrogen to fully fulfil its
promise of decarbonizing the global energy sector and contributing to international peace
and equality. Implementing hydrogen trade links might pave the way for establishing
local hydrogen value chains, stimulating green industries, and creating jobs in nations with
abundant renewable energy resources.
The market for hydrogen-related equipment is still in its infancy and is very frag-
mented and complex. Electrolysers and fuel cells are two critical parts of the hydrogen
value chain. These two types of equipment provide the best opportunity for governments
and businesses to acquire value and position themselves as industry leaders in the future
years and decades. These technologies are more developed than those in other value chain
segments. Electrolysers were regarded more strategically than any other component of the
hydrogen value chain, while fuel cells were considered critical for technical leadership [13].
Developed strategies based on the SWOT analysis are presented in Table 1.
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 16 of 19

Table 1. SWOT strategies.

Strengths (S): Weaknesses (W):

S1: No infrastructure is required for fuel W1: The low availability and high cost of
transfer (due to the transportation small electrolysis systems are problematic
methods available for compressed gases). W2: No support for after-sales services.
S2: Readiness of community for the W3: High purchase cost.
energy transition. W4: Conversion to hydrogen is not cheap.
S3: Control of power fluctuations for W5: Conversion equipment is expensive,
optimal integration with alternating and the process consumes a lot of energy.
renewable energy sources is possible. W6: Undeveloped hydrogen
S4: Energy security. infrastructure.
Opportunities (O): SO Strategies: WO Strategies:

• Use budget programs to reduce the

cost of purchasing equipment
and systems.
• Accelerate the development of
O1: Support of Japanese government.
hydrogen technology to
O2: New job opportunities. • Faster development of renewable
increase efficiency.
O3: Diversity of companies in the energy through financial incentives.
• Create new business lines for
energy sector. • Utilizing LNG terminals for clean
employment and expand the
O4: Reducing environmental impacts. hydrogen imports.
workforce to support services.
O5: Carbon dioxide emission-limiting • Large-scale development of
• Government incentives for the
norms may be an incentive to accelerate blue hydrogen.
development of infrastructure
the development of hydrogen technology. • Popularization of FCVs.
(government subsidies and
O6: High social acceptability.
tax breaks).
• Foreign investments in technology
development related to
hydrogen industry.

Threats (T): ST Strategies: WT Strategies:

• Utilization of international
• Develop a suitable platform for
T1: Inexperienced users. experiences in the clean
business plans.
T2: Insufficient business plan. hydrogen industry.
• Propose appropriate laws
T3: Inadequate legal framework. • Improving hydrogen infrastructure.
and policies.
T4: Many barriers, especially low cost • Creating suitable conditions for
• Cooperate in the development of
and efficiency, prevent large-scale holding training courses for
international projects.
hydrogen technology’s introduction. required technicians.
• Encourage private
T5: Unconfirmed market potentials • Establishment of needed hydrogen
sector participation.
industry standards.

5. Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

The hydrogen economy promises to improve Japan’s energy security and lower green-
house gas emissions. To assist stake holders/decision makers in comprehending the current
state of the hydrogen economy in Japan and afterward developing practical long-term
strategies that advance the development of the hydrogen economy in Japan, a SWOT anal-
ysis of the current state of the hydrogen economy in Japan was conducted, and practical
strategies were recommended.
Several sub-factors were considered in the SWOT analysis, including abundant global
resource reserves, high development potential, and environmental benefits (all of which are
regarded as strengths); high cost, a lack of critical technologies, and incomplete hydrogen
infrastructure (all of which are considered as weaknesses); state funding, high social accept-
ability, and deepened cooperation (all of which are regarded as opportunities); and a lack
of investment channels and competitive pressures from other renewable resources (among
the threats). These sub-factors were identified to illustrate the current state of Japan’s
hydrogen economy. Four distinct types of strategies (SO, WO, ST, and WT strategies) were
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 17 of 19

identified, with SO strategies focusing on the large-scale development of coal–hydrogen

technologies with CCS and the popularization of fuel cell vehicles; WO strategies focus-
ing on government subsidies and tax breaks, as well as foreign capital importation; ST
strategies focusing on encouraging private sector participation in industrialization; and
WT strategies focusing on establishing clean hydrogen industry and market standards,
technologies, and infrastructure.
As a resource- and raw material-poor yet economically and sophisticated country,
Japan will need to develop hydrogen in its energy infrastructure during the next several
decades to address energy and climate issues. The government concentrates its efforts
on the full zero-carbon hydrogen supply chain, from manufacturing to transportation
and end-use applications. Japan’s ambitious approach includes several cross-sectoral
experimental initiatives involving local and overseas industry and government players.
At the moment, economic and technological hurdles and uncertainties remain. Before
considering the integration of hydrogen into large-scale economic and energy programs,
the government is awaiting the results of pilot projects. While the public budget is steadily
increasing, the government’s caution against any long-term commitments remains limited
and reflective. The carbon mitigation of Japan’s energy infrastructure is still based on
nuclear energy, renewable energy sources, energy efficiency measures, and natural gas.
Japan’s success depends on its capacity to create and use huge quantities of clean hydrogen
at a cost comparable with alternative fuels. Cost parity is also dependent on implementing
an effective carbon tax and carbon pricing. Hence, global policy coordination and inter-
industry cooperation will be increasingly needed.
Investment in hydrogen supply chain is a challenging, high-risk, decision-making
activity. Part of the complexity comes from the existence of factors including cost, technical
readiness, safety, environmental impacts, and ease of handling. All this means that in order
to reduce the risk of investment, we need to use multi-criteria decision-making methods
by weighting the importance of factors. A SWOT analysis is a qualitative method. We
should move towards qualitative–quantitative methods such as SWOT-AHP. Additionally,
introducing qualitative–quantitative decision support tools for helping such decisions is
necessary for future research.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.S. and M.H.; Methodology, M.S. and M.H.; Investiga-
tion, M.S. and M.H.; Writing—original draft, M.S. and M.H.; Writing—review & editing, T.N. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. UNFCCC. Historic Paris Agreement on Climate Change-195 Nations set path to keep temperature rise well below 2 degrees
Celsius. Unfccc 2015, 1, 1–7. [CrossRef]
2. IRENA-International Renewable Energy Agency. World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5 ◦ C. Pathway. Int. Renew. Energy Agency
2021. Available online: https://www.h2knowledgecentre.com/content/researchpaper1609 (accessed on 15 June 2022).
3. Moe, E. Energy transition. In Essential Concepts of Global Environmental Governance; Routledge: London UK, 2020; pp. 86–88.
4. Kraan, O.; Kramer, G.J.; Haigh, M.; Laurens, C. An Energy Transition That Relies Only on Technology Leads to a Bet on Solar
Fuels. Joule 2019, 3, 2286–2290. [CrossRef]
5. Lacey, F.; Monk, M.; Odey, A. Why the energy transition is about more than generating clean power. Trustnet 2020.
6. Soltani, S.M.; Lahiri, A.; Bahzad, H.; Clough, P.; Gorbounov, M.; Yan, Y. Sorption-enhanced Steam Methane Reforming for
Combined CO2 Capture and Hydrogen Production: A State-of-the-Art Review. Carbon Capture Sci. Technol. 2021, 1, 100003.
[CrossRef]
7. Detz, R.J.; Reek, J.N.H.; Van Der Zwaan, B.C.C. The future of solar fuels: When could they become competitive? Energy Environ.
Sci. 2018, 11, 1653–1669. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 18 of 19

8. Shih, C.F.; Zhang, T.; Li, J.; Bai, C. Powering the Future with Liquid Sunshine. Joule 2018, 2, 1925–1949. [CrossRef]
9. Hydrogen Council. How Hydrogen Empowers the Energy Transition. 2017, pp. 1–28. Available online: https://hydrogencouncil.
com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Hydrogen-Council-Vision-Document.pdf (accessed on 17 September 2020).
10. Kovač, A.; Paranos, M.; Marciuš, D. Hydrogen in energy transition: A. review. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 10016–10035.
[CrossRef]
11. IEA. The Future of Hydrogen. Futur. Hydrog. 2019, 203, 50.
12. Gisbert, N.; Careaga, Í. Hydrogen: Opportunities and Challenges of Its Value Chain; CIC EnergiGUNE: Álava, Spain, 2021.
13. IRENA. Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation: The Hydrogen Factor; IRENA: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2022; p. 117.
14. Tashie-Lewis, B.C.; Nnabuife, S.G. Hydrogen Production, Distribution, Storage and Power Conversion in a Hydrogen Economy-A
Technology Review. Chem. Eng. J. Adv. 2021, 8, 100172. [CrossRef]
15. Scipioni, A.; Manzardo, A.; Ren, J. Hydrogen Economy: Supply Chain, Life Cycle Analysis and Energy Transition for Sustainability.
In Hydrogen Economy: Supply Chain, Life Cycle Analysis and Energy Transition for Sustainability; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA,
USA, 2017; pp. 1–328.
16. Yue, M.; Lambert, H.; Pahon, E.; Roche, R.; Jemei, S.; Hissel, D. Hydrogen energy systems: A critical review of technologies,
applications, trends and challenges. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 146, 111180. [CrossRef]
17. Okolie, J.A.; Patra, B.R.; Mukherjee, A.; Nanda, S.; Dalai, A.K.; Kozinski, J.A. Futuristic applications of hydrogen in energy,
biorefining, aerospace, pharmaceuticals and metallurgy. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 8885–8905. [CrossRef]
18. Khan, U.; Yamamoto, T.; Sato, H. An insight into potential early adopters of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles in Japan. Int. J. Hydrogen
Energy 2021, 46, 10589–10607. [CrossRef]
19. Borhani, T.N. Chapter 11-Energy storage. In Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy; Sharifzadeh, F.C., Ed.; Academic Press:
Cambridge, MA, USA, 2020; pp. 311–332.
20. Thema, M.; Bauer, F.; Sterner, M. Power-to-Gas: Electrolysis and methanation status review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2019, 112,
775–787. [CrossRef]
21. Vázquez, F.V.; Koponen, J.; Ruuskanen, V.; Bajamundi, C.; Kosonen, A.; Simell, P.; Ahola, J.; Frilund, C.; Elfving, J.; Reinikainen, M.;
et al. Power-to-X technology using renewable electricity and carbon dioxide from ambient air: SOLETAIR proof-of-concept and
improved process concept. J. CO2 Util. 2018, 28, 235–246. [CrossRef]
22. Daiyan, R.; Macgill, I.; Amal, R. Opportunities and Challenges for Renewable Power-to-X. ACS Energy Lett 2020, 5, 3843–3847.
[CrossRef]
23. Qaiser, I. A comparison of renewable and sustainable energy sector of the South Asian countries: An application of SWOT
methodology. Renew. Energy 2022, 181, 417–425. [CrossRef]
24. Agyekum, E.B. Energy poverty in energy rich Ghana: A SWOT analytical approach for the development of Ghana’s renewable
energy. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2020, 40, 100760. [CrossRef]
25. Terrados, J.; Almonacid, G.; Hontoria, L. Regional energy planning through SWOT analysis and strategic planning tools. Impact
on renewables development. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2007, 11, 1275–1287. [CrossRef]
26. Elavarasan, R.M.; Afridhis, S.; Vijayaraghavan, R.R.; Subramaniam, U.; Nurunnabi, M. SWOT analysis: A framework for
comprehensive evaluation of drivers and barriers for renewable energy development in significant countries. Energy Rep. 2020, 6,
1838–1864.
27. Chen, W.M.; Kim, H.; Yamaguchi, H. Renewable energy in eastern Asia: Renewable energy policy review and comparative SWOT
analysis for promoting renewable energy in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Energy Policy 2014, 74, 319–329. [CrossRef]
28. Chaube, A.; Chapman, A.; Shigetomi, Y.; Huff, K.; Stubbins, J. The role of hydrogen in achieving long term Japanese energy
system goals. Energies 2020, 13, 4539. [CrossRef]
29. METI. Basic Hydrogen Strategy (Key Points), Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry; METI: Tokyo, Japan, 2017.
30. Kannah, R.Y.; Kavitha, S.; Preethi; Karthikeyan, O.P.; Kumar, G.; Dai-Viet, N.V.; Banu, J.R. Techno-economic assessment of various
hydrogen production methods–A review. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 319, 124175. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Hosseinpour, M.; Hajialirezaei, A.H.; Soltani, M.; Nathwani, J. Thermodynamic analysis of in-situ hydrogen from hot compressed
water for heavy oil upgrading. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2019, 44, 27671–27684. [CrossRef]
32. Zedtwitz, P.V.; Hirsch, D.; Steinfeld, A. Hydrogen production via the solar thermal decarbonization of fossil fuels. Int. Sol. Energy
Conf. 2003, 80, 107–109. [CrossRef]
33. Howard, K. World’s First Liquid Hydrogen Shipment to Set Sail for Japan; Australian Government: Barton, Australia, 2022.
34. Ahmad, M.S.; Ali, M.S.; Rahim, N.A. Hydrogen energy vision 2060: Hydrogen as energy Carrier in Malaysian primary energy
mix–Developing P2G case. Energy Strateg. Rev. 2021, 35, 100632. [CrossRef]
35. Nagashima, M. Japan’s Hydrogen Strategy and Its Economic and Geopolitical Implications. In Études de l’Ifri; Ifri: Paris, France,
2018; p. 75.
36. Li, M.; Bai, Y.; Zhang, C.; Song, Y.; Jiang, S.; Grouset, D.; Zhang, M. Review on the research of hydrogen storage system fast
refueling in fuel cell vehicle. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2019, 44, 10677–10693. [CrossRef]
37. Hydrogen, T.; Ministerial, E. Spera Hydrogen for the Future; Chiyoda: Yokohama, Japan, 2020.
38. Center for Strategic & International Studies. Japan’s Hydrogen Industrial Strategy; Center for Strategic & International Studies:
Washington, DC, USA, 2021.
39. Energy Connects. Japanese Consortium Ships Hydrogen from Brunei to Fuel Power Generation; Energy Connects: Singapore, 2020.
Energies 2022, 15, 6064 19 of 19

40. SABIC. Aramco Completes Acquisition of 70% Stake in SABIC from PIF; SABIC: Dhahran, United Arab Emirates, 2020.
41. Ito, H. Economic and environmental assessment of residential micro combined heat and power system application in Japan. Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy 2016, 41, 15111–15123. [CrossRef]
42. Watabe, A.; Leaver, J. Comparative economic and environmental benefits of ownership of both new and used light duty hydrogen
fuel cell vehicles in Japan. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 26582–26593. [CrossRef]
43. Newborough, M.; Cooley, G. Developments in the global hydrogen market: Electrolyser deployment rationale and renewable
hydrogen strategies and policies. Fuel Cells Bull. 2020, 2020, 16–22. [CrossRef]
44. Palmer, K.H. Forecasting the Impact of Growing Shares of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles on Future Emissions of Carbon Dioxide and Air
Quality Pollutants; University of Leeds: Leeds, UK, 2019.
45. Lotrič, A.; Sekavčnik, M.; Kuštrin, I.; Mori, M. Life-cycle assessment of hydrogen technologies with the focus on EU critical raw
materials and end-of-life strategies. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 10143–10160. [CrossRef]
46. Maruta, A. Japan’s ENE-FARM programme. In Fuel Cells: Why Is Austria Not Taking Off? IEA Research Cooperation: Vienna,
Austria, 2016.
47. Nose, M.; Kawakami, M.; Nakamura, T.; Kuroki, S.; Kataoka, H.; Yuri, M. Development of Hydrogen/Ammonia Firing Gas
Turbine for Decarbonized Society. Mitsubishi Heavy Ind. Tech. Rev. 2021, 58, 1.
48. Toit, M.H.D.; Avdeenkov, A.V.; Bessarabov, D. Reviewing H2 Combustion: A Case Study for Non-Fuel-Cell Power Systems and
Safety in Passive Autocatalytic Recombiners. Energy Fuels 2018, 32, 6401–6422. [CrossRef]
49. Patel, S. Mitsubishi Power Developing 100% Ammonia-Capable Gas Turbine. Bachelor’s Thesis, Høgskulen på Vestlande, Bergen,
Norway, 2021.
50. Gao, W.; Fan, L.; Ushifusa, Y.; Gu, Q.; Ren, J. Possibility and Challenge of Smart Community in Japan. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci.
2016, 216, 109–118. [CrossRef]
51. Bicer, Y.; Dincer, I. Life cycle evaluation of hydrogen and other potential fuels for aircrafts. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017, 42,
10722–10738. [CrossRef]
52. Baroutaji, A.; Wilberforce, T.; Ramadan, M.; Olabi, A.G. Comprehensive investigation on hydrogen and fuel cell technology in the
aviation and aerospace sectors. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2019, 106, 31–40. [CrossRef]
53. World’s Largest Green Hydrogen Hub Unveiled in Texas, Which Could Help Fuel Space Travel. Available online:
https://www.upstreamonline.com/energy-transition/worlds-largest-green-hydrogen-hub-unveiled-in-texas-which-could-
help-fuel-space-travel/2-1-1178809, (accessed on 15 June 2022).
54. Salimi, M.; Hosseinpour, M.; Borhani, T.N. Analysis of Solar Energy Development Strategies for a Successful Energy Transition in
the UAE. Processes 2022, 10, 1338. [CrossRef]
55. Trencher, G.; Taeihagh, A.; Yarime, M. Overcoming barriers to developing and diffusing fuel-cell vehicles: Governance strategies
and experiences in Japan. Energy Policy 2020, 142, 111533. [CrossRef]
56. Shibata, Y. Is Power to Gas Feasible in Japan? The Institute of Energy Economics (IEEJ): Tokyo, Japan, 2016.
57. Lebrouhi, B.E.; Djoupo, J.J.; Lamrani, B.; Benabdelaziz, K.; Kousksou, T. Global hydrogen development-A technological and
geopolitical overview. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47, 7016–7048. [CrossRef]
58. Vakulchuk, R.; Overland, I.; Scholten, D. Renewable energy and geopolitics: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020,
122, 109547. [CrossRef]