Liquid Hydrogen: A Review On Liquefaction, Storage, Transportation, and Safety
Liquid Hydrogen: A Review On Liquefaction, Storage, Transportation, and Safety
Liquid Hydrogen: A Review On Liquefaction, Storage, Transportation, and Safety
Review
Liquid Hydrogen: A Review on Liquefaction, Storage,
Transportation, and Safety
Muhammad Aziz
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153‐8505, Japan; [email protected]‐tokyo.ac.jp;
Tel.: +81‐3‐5452‐6196
Abstract: Decarbonization plays an important role in future energy systems for reducing green‐
house gas emissions and establishing a zero‐carbon society. Hydrogen is believed to be a promising
secondary energy source (energy carrier) that can be converted, stored, and utilized efficiently, lead‐
ing to a broad range of possibilities for future applications. Moreover, hydrogen and electricity are
mutually converted, creating high energy security and broad economic opportunities toward high
energy resilience. Hydrogen can be stored in various forms, including compressed gas, liquid hy‐
drogen, hydrides, adsorbed hydrogen, and reformed fuels. Among these, liquid hydrogen has ad‐
vantages, including high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen densities and hydrogen purity.
However, liquid hydrogen is garnering increasing attention owing to the demand for long storage
periods, long transportation distances, and economic performance. This paper reviews the charac‐
teristics of liquid hydrogen, liquefaction technology, storage and transportation methods, and safety
standards to handle liquid hydrogen. The main challenges in utilizing liquid hydrogen are its ex‐
tremely low temperature and ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion. These two characteristics have
led to the urgent development of hydrogen liquefaction, storage, and transportation. In addition,
safety standards for handling liquid hydrogen must be updated regularly, especially to facilitate
Citation: Aziz, M. Liquid Hydrogen: massive and large‐scale hydrogen liquefaction, storage, and transportation.
A Review on Liquefaction,
Storage, Transportation, and Safety. Keywords: liquid hydrogen; ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen; liquefaction; storage; transportation; safety
Energies 2021, 14, 5917.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185917
Academic Editor: Bahman Shabani
1. Introduction
and Attilio Converti
The increase in atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHGs) concentrations has raised con‐
Received: 3 June 2021 cern regarding climate change, which is currently regarded as the largest global issue that
Accepted: 18 August 2021 needs to be urgently mitigated. In 2019, the total carbon emitted from the energy‐related
Published: 17 September 2021 sector was approximately 33 Gt‐CO2 [1], approximately 87% of the total globally emitted
CO2. Moreover, this value is predicted to increase due to increasing global energy con‐
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐ sumption. The Kyoto Protocol [2], which was signed by 192 countries and entered into
tral with regard to jurisdictional
force in 2005, was an organized global effort to combat climate change. This effort was
claims in published maps and institu‐
followed by the Paris Agreement [3] in 2015, which aimed to limit the global average tem‐
tional affiliations.
perature increase to under 2 °C while actively attempting to limit this increase to 1.5 °C.
The strategy to establish a low‐carbon energy system is believed to be crucial for reducing
GHG emissions. Several evident efforts have been proposed, including reducing fossil
fuel consumption, increasing the renewable energy share, and decreasing primary energy
Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Li‐
intensity by improving energy efficiency [4,5]. The energy transition considering a strong
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
motivation for fuel decarbonization and an increase in renewable energy share must be
distributed under the terms and con‐ taken seriously for establishing a carbon‐free society. Japan and China have committed to
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐ achieving their carbon neutrality targets by 2050 and 2060, respectively [6].
tribution (CC BY) license (http://crea‐ Recently, the COVID‐19 pandemic has caused several changes in systems, including
tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). the energy system. Lower energy demand during the pandemic has resulted in the reduc‐
Energies 2021, 14, 5917. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185917 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 2 of 30
tion of fossil fuel consumption, especially coal [7], which was running to half of its capac‐
ity by 2020. In addition, the increasing share of renewable energy sources has also cumu‐
latively added a positive effect on the global energy transition trend [8]. However, energy
transition also faces several challenges, including the storage of renewable energy sources
and energy balancing following the fluctuation of renewable energy sources [4].
In terms of energy transition, hydrogen is predicted to have a more significant and
pivotal role in the future, owing to its characteristics and applicability. Hydrogen is a car‐
bon‐free fuel; hence, its oxidation leads to CO2‐free utilization, leading to the actualization
of fuel decarbonization. Hydrogen is the most abundant element on Earth, although it is
naturally available in its oxidized state (water). It can be produced from primary energy
sources through various conversion technologies, including thermochemical, electro‐
chemical, and biological routes. In addition, hydrogen is convertible to and from other
secondary energy sources, such as electricity and heat, leading to possible mutual conver‐
sion among these secondary energy sources. Hydrogen utilization covers a broad range
of oxidation technologies, including turbine combustion, internal combustion engines,
fuel cells, and fuel mixing [9,10]. Hydrogen can also be adopted as an effective energy
storage system, such as batteries. Compared to conventional batteries, which have char‐
acteristics of self‐discharge and capacity degradation following the storage period and
cycle, hydrogen can store the energy for a longer period, while maintaining its high en‐
ergy density.
The massive future hydrogen deployment is expected to establish the hydrogen
economy, in which hydrogen can be economically competitive. This massive deployment
demands a broad range of hydrogen storage and transportation, ranging from small scale
(e.g., vehicles) to large scale (e.g., power generation). Hydrogen is the lightest substance
in this universe, with a density of 0.081 kg/m3 at 27 °C and 1 atm. Hydrogen has an excel‐
lent gravimetric energy density with a lower heating value (LHV) of 118.8 MJ/kg, but it
possesses a very low volumetric energy density of approximately 3 Wh/L at ambient con‐
ditions (temperature and pressure of 20 °C and 1 atm, respectively) [11]. These character‐
istics pose the largest challenge in hydrogen utilization; therefore, developing and adopt‐
ing an effective storage method for hydrogen is crucial. In general, hydrogen can be stored
through different storage technologies, including compression, liquefaction, adsorption,
hydrides, and reformed fuels. Selecting appropriate technologies to store hydrogen is in‐
fluenced by its application, transportation mode, storage period, and other conditions
[12].
Among these hydrogen storage systems, liquid hydrogen is considered promising in
terms of both gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen densities, high hydrogen purity, and
the possibility for low‐pressure storage [13]. Liquid hydrogen was initially produced in
1898, and its application as a rocket fuel was adopted at the beginning of the 1950s [14].
As the demand for aerospace and other applications is increasing, the production of liquid
hydrogen also increases. Moreover, the rapid growth of various hydrogen applications,
including fuel‐cell‐based power generators and vehicles, demand high purity of hydrogen
on a large scale [14], which can be provided by liquid hydrogen‐based storage and trans‐
portation. Additionally, liquid hydrogen is considered to be the most feasible storage and
distribution method to facilitate the demand for mobility‐based hydrogen considering
economy, energy density, and technical issues [15].
Figure 1 shows the basic supply chain of liquid hydrogen, covering hydrogen pro‐
duction, liquefaction, transportation, distribution, and utilization. Hydrogen can be pro‐
duced from various primary energy sources, including conventional fossil fuels, renewa‐
ble energy sources, and surplus energy (heat and electricity). This conversion can be con‐
ducted through electrochemical (electrolysis), thermochemical (gasification, pyrolysis,
steam reforming, and chemical looping) [16], and biological processes (fermentation, bio‐
photolysis, and microbial electrolysis) [17]. The produced hydrogen is then liquefied be‐
fore being loaded for transportation. Various transportation options are available, such as
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 3 of 30
sea tankers, trucks, and railway tankers. Transportation covers long‐distance interna‐
tional shipping and domestic distribution. In the utilization sites, liquid hydrogen is un‐
loaded and regasified before being distributed to small sale consumers.
Figure 1. Basic liquid hydrogen supply chain, covering hydrogen production, liquefaction, transportation, storage, trans‐
portation, and utilization.
However, hydrogen liquefaction is an energy‐intensive process. In addition, because
of the extremely low temperature of −253 °C, handling and transporting liquid hydrogen
requires advanced technologies and careful handling to minimize hydrogen loss and haz‐
ardous risks. Several technologies for liquefying gaseous hydrogen have been developed,
including storage and transportation. This paper reviews the characteristics of liquid hy‐
drogen, liquefaction technology, storage and transportation, and some safety aspects and
standards required to manage liquid hydrogen.
2. Hydrogen Characteristics
2.1. Hydrogen Properties
Hydrogen is the simplest substance (one proton, one electron, and no neutron), non‐
toxic, and has no color, odor, or taste. In addition, at ambient conditions (temperature and
pressure of 20 °C and 1 atm, respectively), the hydrogen molecule is extremely small (van
der Waals radius of 120 pm) and about 14 times lighter than air at 2.016 g/mol, and has a
high diffusion rate (0.61 cm2/s) and buoyancy [12]. The bombardment of neutrons with
hydrogen leads to the formation of isotopes, including deuterium and tritium, which are
radioactive and are utilized in many nuclear devices [18]. The flashpoint (the temperature
at which the fuel generates sufficient vapor amount to facilitate a flame at its surface when
the ignition source exists) of hydrogen is –231 °C, which is the lowest compared to other
fuels. As the flashpoint indicates easy fuel combustion, the very low flashpoint of hydro‐
gen is advantageous because of the possibility of a simpler system to ignite and combust
hydrogen [19]. Table 1 lists the physical properties of hydrogen.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 4 of 30
Table 1. Physical properties of hydrogen.
Figure 2 shows the correlation between hydrogen density and temperature at specific
pressures. At ambient pressure (1 atm), hydrogen liquifies at a temperature of −253 °C,
leading to a significant increase in its density. Hydrogen has a critical temperature and
pressure of −240 °C and 1.3 MPa, respectively. Increasing the pressure to 1 MPa leads to
an increase in the boiling point, although a similar graph is obtained at 0.1 MPa. When the
pressure is increased further and higher than its critical point, different trends of graphs
are shown because there is no latent heat under these supercritical conditions.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 5 of 30
Figure 2. Correlation of hydrogen density and temperature under different pressure [23].
2.2. Comparison of Hydrogen Storage
Figure 3 shows some possible hydrogen storage options, including compression, liq‐
uefaction, hydrides, and adsorption. In physical storage, hydrogen can be stored through
compression and liquefaction in the form of compressed, liquid, cryo‐compressed, and
slush hydrogen. In addition, chemical storage converts a broad range of materials to bind
or react with hydrogen. These include hydrides (metal, interstitial metal, complex, and
chemical hydrides), liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC), reformed organic fuels, and
hydrolysis. Among these, compression and metal hydrides are considered efficient meth‐
ods for small‐ to medium‐scale hydrogen storage [24]. Integrating large‐scale energy stor‐
age into the electrical grid has the potential to solve grid problems, including the fluctua‐
tion of renewable energy [25] and storage of surplus energy.
Figure 3. Hydrogen storage options, including physical and chemical storages.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 6 of 30
Table 2 lists the characteristics comparison of several representative hydrogen stor‐
age methods, including compressed hydrogen, metal hydride, LOHC, liquid hydrogen,
and liquid ammonia. These four methods are selected due to their hydrogen storage den‐
sity, technological maturity, and no involvement of carbon during hydrogen utilization.
Table 2. Brief comparison of representative hydrogen storage technologies [26–29].
Compression is the conventional and easiest way to store hydrogen. The hydrogen
density stored in its compressed form depends strongly on the storage pressure. Typi‐
cally, at pressure of 10 MPa, the volumetric density of the storage hydrogen is 7.8 kg‐
H2/m3 (temperature of 20 °C). It increases to 39 kg‐H2/m3 when the pressure is increased
to approximately 69 MPa. Compressed hydrogen is adopted in many applications, includ‐
ing vehicles, hydrogen refueling stations, and other industrial purposes. To achieve a high
density, advanced materials for vessels are required, such as carbon fiber and glass fiber‐
reinforced plastics. However, due to manufacturing limitations, the vessel size is also lim‐
ited. In addition, because of its high pressure, the permeation of hydrogen gas (permeated
hydrogen gas amount) to the vessel wall becomes larger [30] leading to higher risk of
accelerated embrittlement.
Hydrides for hydrogen storage include metal, complex, chemical, and interstitial
metal hydrides. Metal hydrides are intermetallic compounds formed through a combina‐
tion of stable hydride‐forming elements and unstable‐hydride‐forming elements. Com‐
mon metal hydrides include MgH2, AlH2, LaNi5, and Mn2Zn [31]. Metal hydrides have the
benefits of absorption and desorption at constant pressure, moderate temperature opera‐
tion, and stability and safety during storage (possibility of long‐term storage) [32]. How‐
ever, metal hydrides also face several challenges, including limited hydrogen storage, lim‐
ited reversibility, packing limitation, thermal management, and heat demand during de‐
sorption to release hydrogen [33]. Furthermore, complex hydrides are generally defined
as compounds with the general formula M(XHx)y, in which M and X represent metal cati‐
ons and metal or non‐metal elements that have covalent or iono‐covalent bonding with
hydrogen. Complex hydrides include alanates (e.g., LiAlH4 (10.4 wt%) and Mg(AlH4)2 (9.7
wt%)), amide–hydride composites (e.g., LiNH2‐2LiH (11.5 wt%)), metal B‐based complex
hydrides (e.g., LiBH4(NH3BH3) (18.9 wt%), Mn(BH4)2∙6NH3 (14.0 wt%)), and metalorganic
hydrides [34]. Additionally, chemical hydrides are a promising option. Chemical hydrides
are lighter than metal hydrides and have higher hydrogen densities. LiH (25.2 wt%),
LiAlH (21.1 wt%), NaBH (21.3 wt%), and NH3BH3 (19.6 wt%) are promising chemical hy‐
drides [35]. Although these complex and chemical hydrides have high hydrogen density,
they continue to face several problems, including low reversibility, thermodynamic limi‐
tations during dehydrogenation, slow kinetics during hydrogenation and dehydrogena‐
tion, and potential evolution of another product [36].
Hydrogen can also be stored via adsorption, in which hydrogen molecules are phys‐
ically bonded through van der Waals bonding with a material with a large specific surface
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 7 of 30
area. However, as van der Waals bonding is relatively weak (3 kJ/mol‐H2–10 kJ/mol‐H2),
gaseous hydrogen must be charged at relatively high pressures and low temperatures [37]
to achieve a relatively high hydrogen storage density. The pressure during hydrogen
charging is 1–10 MPa (depending on the adsorbent materials and application), while liq‐
uid nitrogen is generally adopted as the cooling medium [38]. Several adsorbents have
been developed, including zeolites [39], metal organic frameworks (MOFs) [40], porous
carbon materials [41], and porous polymeric materials [37]. Low adsorbent density, the
requirement for additives to enhance heat conductivity, low volumetric hydrogen density
[42], and requirement for heat management are challenges faced by hydrogen adsorption.
The adsorption is exothermic; therefore, heat removal is required to facilitate a sufficient
level of adsorption [37].
LOHC is a liquid that can store and release hydrogen reversibly through hydrogena‐
tion and dehydrogenation processes, respectively. The hydrogen density of LOHCs was
in the range of 5–7 wt%. Promising LOHCs included toluene (C7H7)/methyl cyclohexane
(C7H14), benzene (C6H6)/cyclohexane (C6H12), naphthalene (C10H8)/decalin (C10H18), bi‐
phenyl (C12H10)/bicyclohexyl (C12H22), and dibenzyltoluene (H0‐DBT)/perhydrodiben‐
zyltoluene (H18‐DBT) with hydrogen storage densities of 6.2, 7.2, 7.3, 7.23, and 6.2%, re‐
spectively [43–45]. LOHCs are essentially liquid under atmospheric conditions (20 °C and
1 atm); therefore, their handling, storage, and transportation are highly convenient. In ad‐
dition, it is stable, safe, and compatible with the existing fuel infrastructure [44]. However,
LOHCs have disadvantages, such as low hydrogen density, the large amount of energy
required during dehydrogenation, and the need for purification after dehydrogenation
[46].
Hydrogen can also be physically stored in liquid conditions at a temperature of −253
°C. This liquefaction leads to high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen densities of 100
wt% and 70.9 kg‐H2/m3, respectively, which are higher than those of compressed hydro‐
gen, hydrides, and adsorption‐based hydrogen storage. Furthermore, the liquefaction of
hydrogen leads to several possibilities of storage, including liquid hydrogen (at normal
pressure), cryo‐compression (at elevated pressure), and slush (suspension with solid) hy‐
drogen. Hydrogen becomes supercritical at temperatures and pressures higher than −240
°C and 1.3 MPa, respectively. Cryo‐compressed storage refers to a combination of cryo‐
genic liquid and compressed storage [47]. This combination leads to a higher hydrogen
storage density than liquid hydrogen, no change in phase, reduction in evaporation, in‐
crease in pressure buildup time, and reduction of boil‐off losses [48,49]. However, the heat
transferred from the surroundings results in evaporation, and the pressure inside the ves‐
sel increases accordingly. When the pressure limit was reached, the boil‐off valve opened.
Cryo‐compressed hydrogen has several challenges, such as tank design, material, and ex‐
pensive refueling infrastructure.
Slush hydrogen is defined as a cryogenic suspension of combined sub‐cooled liquid
and solid hydrogen at a triple point (−259.3 °C, 7.042 kPa) [50], and it has a higher gravi‐
metric density (approximately 15–20% higher) than liquid hydrogen [51]. When the hy‐
drogen slush contains 50% mass fraction of hydrogen solid, the gravimetric density and
heat capacity are increased by 15.5 and 18.3%, respectively, compared to the liquid hydro‐
gen at its boiling temperature. It has a higher density and heat capacity compared to liquid
hydrogen, and is mainly adopted in aerospace rockets as a fuel [52]. Moreover, slush hy‐
drogen can be achieved through any repeated freeze–thaw process, in which liquid hy‐
drogen is brought near its boiling point and the pressure is reduced. This results in vapor‐
ization of liquid hydrogen, removing the latent heat, and decreasing its temperature [53].
When the liquid hydrogen is subsequently cooled down and its triple point is reached,
solid hydrogen is formed on the surface of the vaporizing liquid. As the vacuuming is
stopped, the pressure increases, leading to the melting of the formed solid hydrogen be‐
fore it sinks and is agitated in liquid hydrogen. This process is repeated.
Storing hydrogen in the form of organic fuels, including methane and methanol, is
considered non‐carbon‐free, as these materials involve carbon in their molecules. Among
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 8 of 30
reformed organic fuels, ammonia is also considered promising for storing hydrogen due
to its high hydrogen density (17.8 wt%), availability of infrastructure, wide possibility for
utilization (with and without decomposition), and good storability (liquefaction at pres‐
sure of 0.8 MPa and temperature of 20 °C) [26,54]. However, ammonia faces several chal‐
lenges, including high energy demand during its synthesis, narrow flammability range
(15.15–27.35% and 15.95–26.55% in dry and 100% relative humidity of air, respectively),
relatively higher apparent toxicity (approximately three orders of magnitude higher than
methanol), and its potential to generate NOx during its combustion at high temperatures
[52]. In addition, ammonia decomposition to release hydrogen requires a large amount of
energy of 30.6 kJ/mol‐H2.
Large‐scale hydrogen storage demands a high density of hydrogen storage. Liquid
hydrogen and ammonia are considered promising storage methods, considering their hy‐
drogen storage density and utilization. According to Wijayanta et al. [26], liquid hydrogen
is the most economically competitive when high‐purity hydrogen is required during uti‐
lization. In addition, liquid hydrogen remains highly competitive compared to ammonia
in many carbon‐neutral applications. Liquid hydrogen is predicted to be applicable for
advanced applications demanding high gravimetric energy density, such as maritime and
aviation.
2.3. Characteristics of Liquid Hydrogen
Like gaseous hydrogen, liquid hydrogen is odorless, tasteless, and colorless. The
main characteristics of liquid hydrogen distinguishing it from gaseous hydrogen are its
very low temperature and liquid phase. The liquid phase leads to a significantly higher
density (approximately 848 times that of gaseous hydrogen). The properties of liquid hy‐
drogen are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Physical properties of liquid hydrogen.
Furthermore, discussion related to hydrogen isomers becomes very important when
considering liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen has two different spin isomers that possibly co‐
exist; they are ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen. This phenomenon was initially observed in 1912
during experiments using hydrogen at low temperatures. The heat capacity at cryogenic
temperatures showed different hysteresis compared to the cooling and heating curves.
Subsequently, the existence of a hydrogen spin isomer was postulated [57] and experi‐
mentally proven [58] in 1927 and 1929, respectively.
Figure 4 shows the spin isomers of hydrogen and para‐hydrogen concentrations in
equilibrium hydrogen according to the temperature. In addition, Table 4 shows the char‐
acteristic comparison of ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen. Ortho‐hydrogen is defined as the con‐
dition in which both protons in the nuclei of both hydrogen atoms spin in the same direc‐
tion; therefore, the resultant nuclear spin is one. Conversely, para‐hydrogen refers to the
conditions in which both protons in the nuclei of hydrogen atoms spin in opposite direc‐
tions; hence, the resultant is zero. Both have slightly different physical properties, includ‐
ing thermal, magnetic, and optical properties [59,60], although their chemical properties
are still equivalent. Therefore, both still have similar hazards when they are used.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 9 of 30
Figure 4. Spin isomers of molecular hydrogen and its para‐hydrogen concentration in equilibrium
hydrogen for each corresponding temperature [61].
Table 4. Characteristics comparison of ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen [62].
The concentration of ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen depends strongly on the tempera‐
ture. Particularly at lower temperatures, below −120 °C, the concentration of para‐hydro‐
gen increased significantly under equilibrium conditions. There was no significant change
in the concentration ratio of both ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen at temperatures higher than
−120 °C. Under atmospheric conditions (20 °C and 1 atm), gaseous hydrogen consists of
75 and 25% ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen, respectively [63], and is generally referred to as
normal hydrogen. However, when the temperature is cooled to near zero, the concentra‐
tion of para‐hydrogen approaches 100%.
When gaseous hydrogen with 75% ortho‐hydrogen is cryogenically liquefied from
ambient temperature, the conversion of ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen gradually occurs to
achieve the equilibrium condition. Para‐hydrogen has a lower energy stage than ortho‐
hydrogen. The complete conversion of ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen generates heat of 703
kJ/kg. Hence, it can be calculated that in the case of normal hydrogen (para‐hydrogen
concentration of 25%) is liquefied, its conversion generates a heat of 527 kJ/kg. As the la‐
tent heat of vaporization of liquid hydrogen is 446 kJ/kg, boil‐off occurs following the
storage period, leading to a lower storage efficiency.
At low temperatures, ortho‐hydrogen, especially in liquid hydrogen, is unstable and
changes to a more stable para‐hydrogen. This isomer change leads to heat generation and
promotes vaporization of liquid hydrogen.
3. Brief Review on Liquefaction Technologies
As hydrogen is a permanent gas (a gas that cannot be liquefied, except at very low
temperatures), it cannot be liquefied only by compression at 1 atm. To liquefy the hydro‐
gen, it should be cooled down to its critical temperature (−240 °C), which is then stored in
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 10 of 30
vacuum‐insulated vessels below the boiling temperature (−253 °C at 1 atm). Through cry‐
ogenic cooling, the volume of hydrogen is reduced by 1/848, leading to significantly effi‐
cient hydrogen storage. Hydrogen liquefaction is considered an established technology,
although several improvements are being carried out, specifically further reducing energy
consumption. The current global production of liquid hydrogen is approximately 355 t/d,
with the largest liquefaction plant producing up to 34 t/d [64].
Hydrogen has been initially liquefied in 1898 by Sir James Dewar in Scotland using
a small liquefaction device with a capacity of 0.24 L/h [65], several years before a pre‐
cooled Hampson–Linde cycle was tested in a laboratory‐scale liquefaction system [64].
Dewar initially pressurized gaseous hydrogen to 18 MPa, and then pre‐cooled using car‐
bolic acid and liquid air to a temperature of −250 °C. This liquefaction system is relatively
similar to the Hampson–Linde cycle, which is currently adopted for air liquefaction [64].
Several other liquefaction processes were developed around 1900, including Claude, pre‐
cooled Claude, and helium‐refrigerated systems. In 1957, a relatively large hydrogen liq‐
uefaction plant that would utilize a pre‐cooled Claude system was developed to meet the
demands of the chemical and aerospace industries. In this system, hydrogen is initially
pre‐cooled using liquid nitrogen to a temperature of approximately −193 C, which is fol‐
lowed by refrigeration using hydrogen until liquid hydrogen is formed [65].
During hydrogen liquefaction, throttling and Joule–Thomson effects are important
concepts. Throttling is generally employed in large gas liquefaction cycles after increasing
the pressure and/or decreasing the temperature to create non‐ideality [66]. Conversely,
the Joule–Thomson effect deals with the maximum inversion temperature compared to
the ambient temperature. Cooling during throttling occurs if the inversion temperature is
higher than the ambient temperature. Moreover, the Joule–Thomson coefficient repre‐
sents the extent and direction of the temperature change during the isenthalpic change of
state. A positive Joule–Thomson coefficient indicates that the temperature decreases fol‐
lowing a decrease in isenthalpic pressure. The concept of a positive Joule–Thomson coef‐
ficient is adopted during hydrogen liquefaction, in which a rapid pressure change can be
facilitated using a nozzle. Conversely, a negative Joule–Thomson coefficient leads to a
temperature increase during the decrease in isenthalpic pressure. This concept was uti‐
lized during the hydrogen filling of the high‐pressure vessel. This section describes sev‐
eral basic hydrogen liquefaction processes, catalyzed ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion,
and specific energy consumption during hydrogen liquefaction.
3.1. Linde Process
The Hampson–Linde (or Joule–Thomson expansion) process is considered the most
basic and simplest liquefaction process [56]. In this process, the hydrogen gas under am‐
bient conditions is compressed and then cooled via heat exchange. Subsequently, the is‐
enthalpic Joule–Thomson expansion for this compressed and cooled gas was conducted
through a throttling valve. As the system relies on the Joule–Thomson effect for liquefac‐
tion, a high pressure of hydrogen is generally required [67]. A part of the compressed gas
becomes liquid, while the rest (which is still in gaseous form) is recirculated back for the
subsequent cooling process. This process is appropriate for gas that can be cooled by ex‐
pansion at room temperature, such as nitrogen. However, hydrogen, such as helium,
warms up during expansion at room temperature. Therefore, to cool down the hydrogen
following expansion, hydrogen must be initially cooled to its inversion temperature (−73
°C at 1 bar) or lower [68]. Liquid nitrogen (boiling temperature of −195 °C at 1 bar) can be
used to pre‐cool the hydrogen. It is important to note that the inversion temperature is
strongly influenced by the pressure; hence, pressure adjustment is crucial to facilitate suf‐
ficient pre‐cooling.
Figure 5 shows a schematic of the Linde–Sankey process for hydrogen liquefaction
[56]. Gaseous hydrogen is compressed and cooled in subsequent heat exchangers for cool‐
ing using compressed and liquid nitrogen. After the temperature of compressed hydrogen
is lower than its inversion temperature, Joule–Thomson expansion is conducted, and as a
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 11 of 30
result, a part of the hydrogen liquefies. The remaining gaseous hydrogen was then recir‐
culated and mixed with the new gaseous hydrogen feed.
Figure 5. Basic schematic diagram of Linde–Sankey process for liquid hydrogen production.
3.2. Claude Process
A crude process was successfully developed by Georges Claude in 1902 to liquefy air
using a reciprocating expansion machine [64]. This process combines the expansion en‐
gine and the Joule–Thomson expansion effect. Isenthalpic expansion leads to the simplic‐
ity of the system; however, it suffers from low energy efficiency [69]. The introduction of
an expansion engine in the Claude process can produce a lower temperature before isen‐
thalpic expansion (as adopted by the Linde process). In addition, as the expansion engine
becomes the main refrigeration source, cooling using liquid nitrogen is not essential. How‐
ever, Timmerhaus and Flynn mentioned in their study that 50–70% higher exergy effi‐
ciency can be established when liquid nitrogen is additionally utilized for pre‐cooling [70].
Figure 6 shows a schematic diagram of the Claude process for hydrogen liquefaction
[69]. The compressed gaseous hydrogen is cooled through several series of heat exchang‐
ers, where an expansion engine is installed between the heat exchangers. A part of the
compressed gas is fed to the expansion engine and used to cool the remaining gas. Theo‐
retically, isothermal compression and isenthalpic expansion are employed. The expansion
engine cannot practically be used for condensation, as the liquefied substance potentially
damages this expansion engine. Using this expansion engine, a part of the high‐pressure
hydrogen is expanded to generate a lower temperature of hydrogen. Then, it was mixed
with cold hydrogen at a low temperature, which was then heat exchanged with the high‐
pressure hydrogen in the heat exchanger (HE2).
Figure 6. Basic schematic diagram of Claude process for hydrogen liquefaction [69].
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 12 of 30
3.3. Collins Process
The Collins process was initially developed for helium liquefaction [71]. Figure 7
shows a schematic diagram of the Collins process [56]. The Collins process is called the
modified Claude process due to its similarities to the Claude process. The gaseous hydro‐
gen is compressed and then fed to several heat exchangers before being expanded through
the Joule–Thomson expansion valve. Following the expansion, the pressure of the hydro‐
gen decreases and a part of the hydrogen condenses, while the remaining gaseous hydro‐
gen flows back to the heat exchangers in the counter‐current mode. Cooling must be con‐
ducted until the temperature reaches or below the inversion temperature. For cooling, two
adiabatic expansion engines working at different working temperatures were adopted.
Figure 7. Basic schematic diagram of Collins process for hydrogen liquefaction.
3.4. Helium Brayton Cycle
Figure 8 shows schematic diagrams of helium Brayton cycle hydrogen liquefaction
[67]. Several possible structures include simple helium Brayton cycle, helium Brayton cy‐
cle with pre‐cooling using liquid nitrogen, and two‐steps helium Brayton cycle. The Bray‐
ton cycle is generally adopted for jet engines or gas turbines in power generation plants.
In Brayton refrigeration system, helium and hydrogen commonly used as refrigerant. He‐
lium—primarily used as a refrigerant, not as a liquefier—is cooled down to a temperature
lower than the hydrogen temperature [72]. In a system with liquid nitrogen pre‐cooling,
liquid nitrogen is used to additionally provide a cold heat; hence, the compressor work
can be reduced.
Figure 8. Basic schematic diagram of Brayton cycle for hydrogen liquefaction: (a) simple helium Brayton cycle; (b) helium
Brayton cycle with liquid nitrogen pre‐cooling, and (c) two‐step helium Brayton cycle [67].
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 13 of 30
3.5. Magnetic Refrigeration/Liquefaction System
Magnetic refrigeration utilizes a magnetic field to both magnetize and demagnetize
the magnetic material repeatedly, resulting in a magnetocaloric effect. Therefore, a low
temperature of heat can be produced owing to this magnetocaloric effect [72]. The mag‐
netocaloric effect is a phenomenon in which a change in the magnetic field results in a
reversible change in the working material temperature. The first magnetic refrigerator
was initially developed in 1930 [73]. Furthermore, a near room temperature magnetic re‐
frigerator was successfully developed in 1976 by Brown [74]. By using gadolinium and
changing the magnetic field (0–7 T), Brown successfully realized a 47 K no‐load tempera‐
ture difference between hot and cold ends (temperatures of 319 and 272 K, respectively)
[74]. Gadolinium alloys have been broadly adopted as working magnetic materials, alt‐
hough some other promising materials have also been developed and evaluated [75].
Figure 9 shows a schematic diagram of the magnetic hydrogen liquefaction. Magnetic
refrigeration principally adopts the reversed Carnot cycle and consists of four continuous
steps: adiabatic magnetization, isothermal magnetization, adiabatic demagnetization, and
isothermal demagnetization [76]. In adiabatic magnetization, the working material is in‐
stalled in a thermally insulated environment. When an external magnetic field is applied
and increased, the magnetic atom dipoles are aligned, leading to a decrease in the entropy
and heat capacity. Subsequently, the process was continued with isothermal magnetiza‐
tion (isomagnetic enthalpy transfer), where the heat was removed by another fluid, while
the magnetic field was kept constant to avoid heat absorption by the dipoles. Furthermore,
the working material is placed under adiabatic conditions in adiabatic demagnetization;
hence, the total enthalpy remains constant. In this step, as the magnetic field decreases,
the generated heat results in magnetic moments overcoming the magnetic field. Therefore,
the working material was cooled. The thermal entropy was converted to the magnetic
entropy. In the last step, isothermal demagnetization (isomagnetic entropy transfer) is
conducted, in which the magnetic field is kept constant to prevent material reheating. In
this step, the working material has thermal contact with the hydrogen to be refrigerated
or liquefied. As the environment temperature is higher than the working material tem‐
perature, heat is transferred to the working material.
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of magnetic hydrogen liquefaction.
The theoretical efficiency of this cycle is higher than that of the Carnot cycle‐based
system, especially compressed‐gas refrigeration. The magnetic refrigeration system can
establish approximately 50% theoretical Carnot efficiency, which is much higher than that
of the compressed‐gas refrigeration system, which has an efficiency of 38% theoretical
Carnot efficiency [77]. Moreover, by adopting a solid magnetic material in a magnetic re‐
frigeration system, the liquefying plant will be more compact owing to its higher entropy
density than gas.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 14 of 30
3.6. Catalyzed Ortho‐ to Para‐Hydrogen Conversion
The non‐catalyzed conversion of ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen is very slow, and when this
conversion occurs during storage and transportation, hydrogen loss due to boil‐off may
occur. To minimize the conversion of ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen and thus minimize the heat
release during storage, a catalyst is used during liquefaction to accelerate the change of
ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen. Therefore, a high para‐hydrogen concentration can be achieved,
and boil‐off due to ortho‐to‐para‐hydrogen conversion can be minimized [61]. The cata‐
lytic conversion of ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen can be described using the following reac‐
tion:
,
ortho H2 catalyst para H2 catalyst (1)
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 (2)
where k0, kop, and kpo are the total conversion rate constant, ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen con‐
version rate constant, and para‐ to ortho‐hydrogen conversion rate constants, respectively.
Fradkov and Troitskii [78] reported a hydrogen liquefaction system equipped with
an ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion module in 1965. They found that to improve the
output, ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion should be performed at several temperature
levels. In addition, they also suggested utilizing liquid nitrogen as the pre‐coolant to par‐
tially remove the conversion heat. Their system indicated a very high conversion rate of
98%. Figure 10 shows the possible installation of an ortho‐to‐para‐hydrogen conversion
reactor in different liquefaction systems of the helium Brayton cycle with liquid nitrogen
pre‐cooling and a two‐step helium Brayton cycle [67]. The conversion reactor can be in‐
stalled in a multistage manner to achieve effective conversion. As shown in Figure 10, two
ortho‐to‐para‐hydrogen conversion reactors (CV1 and CV2) were installed in a two‐stage
arrangement. In both systems, the first conversion reactor was installed at an intermediate
temperature in the gas phase, while the second conversion reactor was located at the end
of liquefaction, where liquid hydrogen was produced. In the former system (Figure 10a),
the first ortho‐ to‐para‐hydrogen conversion reactor was installed in the first heat ex‐
changer under isothermal conditions at liquid nitrogen temperature; therefore, the con‐
version heat can be covered by liquid nitrogen. Conversely, in the latter system, the first
conversion reactor was installed under adiabatic conditions, where the hydrogen temper‐
ature increased following ortho‐ to‐para‐conversion. The second conversion reactor in
both liquefaction systems was conducted under isothermal conditions at −253 °C.
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of possible installation of ortho‐ to‐para‐hydrogen converter in: (a)
helium Brayton cycle with liquid nitrogen pre‐cooling, and (b) two‐step helium Brayton cycle [67].
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 15 of 30
Various catalysts have been developed and evaluated, especially in terms of their
ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion performance. The kinetics of the catalytic conversion
of ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen include seven consecutive steps: (a) diffusion of ortho‐hydro‐
gen from the liquid to the surface of the catalyst; (b) diffusion of ortho‐hydrogen in the
catalyst pore reaching the active site; (c) ortho‐hydrogen adsorption; (d) surface reaction
of ortho‐ and para‐hydrogen (ortho‐hydrogen ↔ para‐hydrogen); (e) desorption of para‐
hydrogen; (f) diffusion of para‐hydrogen in the catalyst pore to the catalyst surface, and
(g) diffusion of para‐hydrogen to the liquid through the boundary film [79,80].
Some materials, such as silver [81–83], copper [84,85], charcoal [56], graphite [86], and
supported chromium [87,88] and ferric [89,90] oxides, have been found to be effective for
this conversion. Schmauch and Singleton [91] compared the following three catalysts:
APACHI, iron gel, and chromia on alumina. They found that the APACHI catalyst dis‐
played an excellent conversion activity, which was approximately 10 times that of iron gel
(2.6 min−1 compared to 0.27 min−1). In addition, the smaller particle size of the catalyst leads
to higher activity because of the smaller average pore length and higher diffusion. Sulli‐
van et al. [92] compared chromic oxide (CrO3) and ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) for ortho‐
to para‐hydrogen conversion, and they found that chromic oxide supported by silica gel
has a highly efficient catalytic surface for conversion at low temperatures. In addition,
chromic oxide is less susceptible to poisoning than ferric hydroxide. Moreover, Hartl et
al. [88] compared chromium‐doped silica and ferric oxide gel, and they found that chro‐
mium‐doped silica has better adsorption and desorption, leading to better surface mobil‐
ity. In addition, chromium‐doped silica can adsorb more hydrogen per surface area. These
characteristics improve the performance of chromium‐doped silica during the conversion.
Recently, Boeva et al. [93] used gold nanoparticles supported on γ‐Al2O3 and reported
high catalytic activity and reaction rate, although they also found that there was no sig‐
nificant impact of particle size on the catalytic activity and reaction rate.
3.7. Specific Energy Consumption for Hydrogen Liquefaction
Theoretically, the minimum work required for hydrogen liquefaction is 2.7 kWhel/kg‐
H2 at a feed pressure of 2.5 MPa [94]. However, in practical applications, the specific en‐
ergy demand for hydrogen liquefaction is approximately 10 kWhel/kg‐H2, although it is
predicted that the demand can be reduced to approximately 6 kWhel/kg‐H2 with further
process improvements [37,94]. Hydrogen liquefaction is a very energy‐intensive process
because of its very low boiling temperature (−253 °C at 1 atm). In addition, as hydrogen
cannot be cooled down through throttling processes, including adiabatic and isenthalpic
expansion, for temperatures higher than −73 °C, pre‐cooling during the liquefaction pro‐
cess, such as by evaporating liquid nitrogen, is required. This pre‐cooling increases the
energy consumed during liquefaction [15]. The US Department of Energy (DOE) has set
the ultimate energy consumption target for hydrogen liquefaction to 6 kWhel/kg‐H2 (large‐
scale liquefaction, 300,000 kg‐H2/d) [95]. It is important to note that although the energy
consumed for liquefaction can be lowered by adopting further process integration and
improvements, the capital cost for liquefaction remains a challenge [96], as this capital cost
for liquefaction may dominate approximately 40–50% of the total liquefaction process (as‐
suming a liquefaction capacity of 100 t/d) [97].
Efforts to reduce energy consumption during hydrogen liquefaction have been un‐
dertaken by various researchers and industries. In addition, more complicated liquefac‐
tion processes have been developed. A large‐scale Linde hydrogen liquefaction plant, in‐
stalled in Ingolstadt, Germany, has specific energy consumption of 13.58 kWhel/kg‐H2 and
capacity of 4.4. t/d by applying the Claude process with nitrogen pre‐cooling [98]. Very
large hydrogen liquefaction with a capacity of 50 t/d was modeled and developed by
adopting helium pre‐cooling and four ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion catalyst beds
by Shimko and Gardiner. The system can achieve a specific energy consumption of 8.73
kWhel/kg‐H2 [99]. Zhang and Liu modeled the Claude pre‐cooling cycle combined with
the Joule–Brayton refrigeration cycle, and obtained a specific energy consumption of 5.85
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 16 of 30
kWhel/kg‐H2 [100]. A hydrogen liquefaction system consisting of a pre‐cooling process us‐
ing mixed refrigerants and four cascaded Joule–Brayton refrigeration cycles was devel‐
oped by Krasae‐In et al. [64]; their developed system indicated extremely high energy ef‐
ficiency, with a specific energy consumption of 5.35 kWhel/kg‐H2. Matsuda and Nagami
[101] evaluated the Joule–Brayton pre‐cooling Claude process employing four different
refrigerants and found that neon with a cold pump showed the lowest specific energy
consumption of 8.49 kWhel/kg‐H2. Quack et al. [102] developed an ethane‐propane Joule–
Brayton pre‐cooling Claude process using helium‐neon as a refrigerant in the cryogenic
module, and the system showed a specific energy consumption of 5 kWhel/kg‐H2–7
kWhel/kg‐H2. Further efforts to reduce the energy consumption during hydrogen lique‐
faction are required; consequently, the liquefaction cost can be further reduced, leading to
a low total hydrogen cost.
4. Liquid Hydrogen Storage and Transportation
Liquid hydrogen can be transported via road and rail transportation. The former is
usually utilized for short and medium domestic and international transportation, while
the latter is utilized for long‐distance international transportation. The amount of trans‐
ported liquid hydrogen can reach up to 4,000 and 10,000 t per truck and shipment, respec‐
tively [18].
4.1. Liquid Hydrogen Storage
As the temperature is extremely low, the apparatuses (pipe, tank, vessel, vent, valve,
etc.) having direct contact with the liquid hydrogen must be designed and manufactured
such that they can withstand this low temperature. In addition, the formation of ice sur‐
rounding the pipes, valves, and vents needs to be minimized, as it potentially leads to
material rupture, especially when a strong pressure and force are impacted. Moreover,
liquid hydrogen is non‐corrosive; hence, providing any special material to prevent corro‐
sion is unnecessary.
4.1.1. Boil‐Off
The phenomenon in which liquid hydrogen vaporizes to its gaseous state during
storage is usually referred to as boil‐off. The evaporation of hydrogen during storage re‐
sults in two different losses: the energy loss for liquefaction and the hydrogen loss due to
purging of the evaporated gas to avoid pressure buildup inside the vessel [37]. This boil‐
off is correlated with the thermal insulation, tank shape and dimension, and the ortho‐ to
para‐hydrogen ratio. The vaporized hydrogen should be released from the storage tank
and vessel; otherwise, the inner pressure of the tank and vessel increases significantly,
leading to the possibility of breakage or explosion. This release of gaseous hydrogen from
the storage tank indicates the loss of hydrogen capacity in the tank and vessel. As the
expansion ratio of liquid to gas hydrogen is approximately 848, when the tank/vessel is
completely contained and has an initial pressure of 1 atm, the inner pressure of the
tank/vessel may increase to approximately 172 MPa when the liquid hydrogen is com‐
pletely vaporized.
Boil‐off occurs due to several causes or mechanisms, including ortho‐ to para‐hydro‐
gen conversion (spin isomer conversion), heat leakage, thermal stratification, sloshing,
and flashing. The details of each mechanism are provided below.
1. Change of spin isomer (ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion)
As described in Section 2.3, ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion results in heat gen‐
eration, leading to the evaporation of liquid hydrogen, followed by an increase in
pressure inside the vessel. Therefore, the accelerated conversion of ortho‐ to para‐
hydrogen should be performed before liquid hydrogen is stored and transported,
especially for a long period of time. Hence, the amount of conversion can be defined
by the storage and transportation durations;
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 17 of 30
2. Heat transferred from surrounding environment
Liquid hydrogen is stored in a very well‐insulated vessel and tank. However, there
is no insulation that can completely neglect the heat transfer from the surroundings
to the liquid hydrogen, especially when the temperature difference is very large. The
liquid hydrogen is partially vaporized because of the heat transferred from the sur‐
roundings. In stationary liquid hydrogen storage, this type of hydrogen loss is con‐
sidered the most significant one, which can reach 1% or might be higher in the case
of small storage tanks (tanks with volumes of 0.1 and 100 m3 have boil‐off of approx‐
imately 2 and 0.06%, respectively) [56]. However, this loss can be reduced when the
size of the storage tank is increased (scale effect) [63], as a larger tank dimension leads
to a better surface‐to‐volume ratio. Heat transfer from the surroundings to the liquid
hydrogen occurs through conduction, convection, and radiation. The conduction
heat transfer is reduced by a material with low heat conductivity, while the convec‐
tion can be minimized by facilitating a vacuum space between the outer and inner
walls. Furthermore, the radiation heat transfer can be reduced by installing a multi‐
layer insulation facing the inner walls;
3. Sloshing and flashing
Sloshing is defined as the motion of liquid hydrogen inside a tank or vessel due to
acceleration, deceleration, and shaking during movement or any other causes. The
generated kinetic energy is then transformed into thermal energy, which is trans‐
ferred to the liquid inside the tank or vessel. The generated thermal energy also in‐
creases the amount of evaporated liquid hydrogen. Conversely, flashing refers to the
phenomenon that occurs during the transfer of liquid hydrogen from a tank with
higher pressure to that with lower pressure. This pressure difference leads to the
evaporation of some parts of the liquid hydrogen;
4. Thermal stratification and overfill
When the heat is transferred to the liquid hydrogen inside the vessel (such as due to
thermal leakage), hydrogen with a relatively higher temperature is drawn to the sur‐
face due to lower density, resulting in a liquid–vapor interface. Consequently, this
layer creates different pressures, in which the pressure of the vapor is higher than
that of the bulk liquid. This stratification in liquid hydrogen is relatively stable be‐
cause of the poor thermal conductivity of liquid hydrogen (0.0012 W/cm∙K at −253 °C)
[56]. Moreover, the thermal overfill represents the condition when the tank is filled
with liquid hydrogen, and the saturation pressure is higher than the maximum op‐
erating pressure of the vessel. In this case, the surface layer exhibits liquid surface
temperature, which corresponds to the tank operating pressure (not the higher pres‐
sure of bulk liquid hydrogen). As a result, rapid boil‐off may occur as the system
achieves equilibrium conditions following a change in the surface layer.
The boil‐off can be minimized (zero boil‐off) through various active and passive ef‐
forts, such as acceleration of isomer change from ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen during lique‐
faction, minimization of surface‐to‐volume ratio of the vessel (such as spherical shape),
excellent insulation of the vessel to reduce the heat transfer from the surrounding envi‐
ronment, and the adoption of a cryocooler [37]. A combination of liquid hydrogen storage
vessels and metal hydrides has been proposed to reduce the total hydrogen loss from the
system [103]. The evaporated liquid hydrogen can be stored further by utilizing metal
hydride hydrogen storage. Cryocoolers and passive insulation have also been developed
to minimize boil‐off [104]. The cryocooler is adopted to reject the heat leak; therefore,
evaporation can be avoided. Another method to minimize the heat leak is to shield the
vessel wall using liquid nitrogen [105]. The liquid nitrogen cools the vessel, and therefore,
the heat transfer to the hydrogen liquid can be significantly minimized. It was demon‐
strated that the system is able to realize zero boil‐off for approximately 12 days of storage
[56]. Furthermore, if the liquefaction plant and liquid hydrogen storage vessel are located
in the same area, or relatively near, the boil‐off gas can be reliquefied and refed to the
storage vessel. In addition, boil‐off gas can be utilized for any application, including
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 18 of 30
power generation to cover the electricity consumed by the surrounding equipment and
fuel for tankers and trucks.
Xu et al. [106] proposed a combination of fuel cells, refrigeration systems, and passive
insulation to establish zero boil‐off liquid hydrogen storage.
4.1.2. Materials and Equipment Structures
The materials employed for hydrogen handling, including pipes, vessels, valves, and
fittings, must be selected carefully to fulfill their suitability with hydrogen characteristics.
The main considerations for materials used to handle liquid hydrogen include hydrogen
embrittlement, permeability, and capability to withstand very low temperatures. This em‐
brittlement weakens the material. However, as the hydrogen solubility decreases with de‐
creasing temperature, hydrogen embrittlement for liquid hydrogen is significantly lower
than that for gaseous hydrogen [56]. Permeability handles the passage of hydrogen
through the material. Recently, high‐performance composites have been developed as
promising material options, facilitating high strength in both pressure and temperature,
low permeability, and reduced embrittlement risk. In addition, owing to the very low
temperature, the application of new materials for liquid hydrogen requires sufficient ma‐
terial testing in the storage environment.
In addition, the equipment must be designed to be adaptable to any physical fluctu‐
ation, including thermal expansion and contraction, due to temperature fluctuations. The
pipes used to transfer the liquid hydrogen from the vessel tanker to the storage vessel
must be able to withstand a wide range of temperature changes, from room temperature
to its liquid temperature (approximately 280 °C temperature difference).
The storage vessels used to store liquid hydrogen generally have two walls that are
highly vacuumed between them; hence, both convection and conduction heat transfers
can be minimized [47]. In addition, several materials, including alumina‐coated polyester
sheets, combined layers of aluminum foil and glass fiber, aluminum, silica, and perlite
particles, are also added between these walls to reduce the radiation heat transfer
[37,107,108]. Through excellent insulation and a low surface‐to‐volume ratio (large spher‐
ical tank), the boil‐off can be suppressed to less than 0.1% per day [37]. Large storage ves‐
sels for liquid hydrogen have the potential to be more economical than storing hydrogen
under compressed conditions [107]. Currently, National Aeronautics and Space Admin‐
istration (NASA) has the largest liquid hydrogen storage vessel worldwide, with a capac‐
ity of 230–270 t [107].
When designing the liquid hydrogen tank, several design parameters are set, includ‐
ing the operating temperature, pressure, and insulation quality. Two different structural
and material approaches are generally adopted considering thermal insulation. The first
design adopted closed‐cell foams that were installed between the walls. In addition, dif‐
ferent metallic layers were considered to improve the performance of this foam. The sec‐
ond approach utilizes a multilayered system that is low emissive and highly reflective,
and they are separated by fiber glass. Low thermal conductivity due to the partial vacuum
between the layers and low radiation heat transfer can be established.
Correlating with the boil‐off phenomenon, as the storage tank and vessel are not de‐
signed for very high pressure (the average operating pressure is approximately 5 bar), the
liquid hydrogen tank/vessel must be equipped with a pressure‐relief apparatus to avoid
any excessive pressure. Although it is a very small amount, boil‐off is unavoidable; there‐
fore, purging and pressure controlling systems must be provided. The purging/venting
system should consider the flow of evaporated hydrogen, and a system that prohibits air
infiltration into the line and tank. Air infiltration can potentially freeze and block the line.
Generally, liquid hydrogen vessels are made of stainless steel and aluminum. In ad‐
dition, a combination of lightweight fiber‐reinforced materials and metallic inner has been
developed. Currently, double‐walled vessels made of austenitic stainless steel, which are
vacuumed between the walls, are mainly adopted. Passive insulation includes multilayer
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 19 of 30
[109], spray‐on foam [110], and hollow‐glass microsphere [111]. Vacuum multilayer insu‐
lation shows extremely low thermal conductivity, which can be approximately 10−6–10−5
W/m∙K [112], while non‐evacuated insulation (such as foams and fibrous insulation) has
a thermal conductivity of approximately 10−2 W/m∙K [56]. In addition, by combining with
variable‐density multilayer insulation, the above thermal conductivity can be further re‐
duced by 10–50% [113]. Spray‐on foam insulation (e.g., polystyrene, polyurethane, rubber,
and silicone) generally has a thermal conductivity of 10−3–10−2 W/m∙K [114]. Furthermore,
insulation using hollow‐glass microspheres has a thermal conductivity of 10−3–10−4 W/m∙K
[115]. Both spray‐on foam insulation and hollow‐glass microsphere show no significant
difference in thermal conductivity under vacuum or non‐vacuum conditions; therefore,
they can play a crucial role considering faults in vacuum insulation [116]. Further combi‐
nations of insulation materials can establish different thermal conductivities, depending
on the insulation demand.
Thermodynamic vent systems can be adopted to realize zero‐boil‐off storage. This
system may comprise a cryogenic pump, Joule–Thomson expansion system, heat ex‐
changer, and longitudinal spray bar system. It is able to maintain the pressure stability
inside the liquid hydrogen vessel through mixing and Joule–Thomson expansion
[117,118]. Moreover, the adoption of cryocoolers significantly increases the reliability and
storage duration [113].
A cryo‐compressed hydrogen storage tank has been developed in which liquid hy‐
drogen can be stored under high‐pressure conditions, leading to a higher hydrogen ca‐
pacity. The internal pressure can reach approximately 23 MPa, although the tank can op‐
erate at a much higher pressure. This tank can store hydrogen under both gaseous and
liquid conditions.
4.2. Liquid Hydrogen Transportation and Loading/Unloading
Large‐scale sea transportation can be performed using a large tanker with a total vol‐
ume larger than 10,000 m3. Moreover, land transportation has many options for transpor‐
tation methods and tank sizes. Road transportation can utilize a trailer, which typically
has a tank size of 30–60 m3 that can hold 2100–4200 kg; for rail transport, a larger container
of 115 m3 (approximately 8000 kg) can be utilized. For safety reasons considering the ther‐
mal expansion, the amount of filling during vessel refueling is limited to approximately
85% of the vessel volume [54]. Furthermore, the DOE set the lifetime target of liquid hy‐
drogen tank trailers to 30 years for 2020 and beyond 30 years as the ultimate target [95].
The boil‐off of liquid hydrogen storage in liquid tanker ranges from 0.3 to 0.6% per
day, and additional boil‐off may occur when the liquid hydrogen is transferred from the
tanker to the storage vessel [63]. Transporting liquid hydrogen under atmospheric pres‐
sure is considered to have lower losses compared to transporting it at higher pressures.
This is due to the rapid vaporization (flash losses) occurring during the transfer of high‐
pressure liquid hydrogen to lower pressure, which typically ranges from 10–20% or even
much higher. However, storing liquid hydrogen at a lower pressure means that a lower
volume of hydrogen is stored. In addition, vaporization during the transfer of liquid hy‐
drogen from the tanker to the storage vessel occurs because of the temperature difference
between the liquid hydrogen, pipelines, and storage vessel. Pre‐cooling the transferring
pipelines using liquid nitrogen is not recommended because of the possibility of nitrogen
solidification in the pipelines.
Transfer of liquid hydrogen should be performed in a vacuum‐insulated system to
minimize the loss due to vaporization and avoid the formation of liquid air with subse‐
quent enrichment of oxygen. In addition, this transfer should be conducted in a closed
system with a proper safety relief device to avoid a flammable atmosphere or explosive
mixture of air and liquid hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen is purged with helium gas, avoiding
any solidification of the substance, owing to the lower boiling point of helium than that
of hydrogen. Moreover, the device or facilities to transfer liquid hydrogen should be vac‐
uum‐insulated and grounded.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 20 of 30
In consumer distribution sites, safety in hydrogen refueling stations must also be en‐
sured. When liquid hydrogen is adopted, several risks, including low‐temperature risk,
overpressure, overfilling, and overheating must be carefully considered, especially be‐
cause of the very low temperature characteristic of liquid hydrogen. Overfilling may eas‐
ily occur when the ambient temperature is low; therefore, when the vessel is exposed to
higher temperatures or when the ambient temperature is increasing, the vessel pressure
increases gradually and might be higher than its operational pressure. Overheating also
potentially occurs at a low remaining pressure of the vessel and a high ambient tempera‐
ture. Moreover, hydrogen sensors are installed in several locations in the hydrogen refu‐
eling station to detect hydrogen leaks.
Figure 11 shows a schematic diagram of a typical refueling station with liquid hydro‐
gen delivery. Most hydrogen refueling stations employ compressed gaseous hydrogen to
be delivered and stored, and very few of them adopt liquid hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen
is delivered to the station using a delivery trailer, and liquid hydrogen is transferred to
the liquid hydrogen vessel. Both boil‐off gas and liquid hydrogen are utilized together,
and are evaporated and compressed before being stored in compressed hydrogen tanks.
The hydrogen dispenser was connected to these compressed hydrogen tanks.
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of typical hydrogen refueling station with liquid hydrogen delivery.
Purging, conducted during storage and transportation, is important to avoid the for‐
mation of flammable mixtures. Purging can be performed using several methods. Helium
is ideally used to purge liquid hydrogen from the storage tank/vessel because helium has
a lower boiling temperature than hydrogen. However, helium is expensive. Moreover,
when hydrogen is purged with nitrogen, the nitrogen must be purged initially, followed
by the purging of gaseous hydrogen under ambient conditions. The vessel and pipes
should be equipped with a purging system (evacuation procedure).
5. Safety
5.1. General Safety
Hydrogen has been adopted for a long time since it was artificially produced in 1766;
therefore, its standards and regulations for handling and management are available
worldwide. It is generally accepted that hydrogen is not more dangerous or hazardous
than other currently adopted fuels [119]. Table 5 lists the comparison of the combustion
properties of several fuels at a temperature of 25 °C and pressure of 1 atm. Hydrogen is
highly flammable and has very wide range of flammability, with both lower and higher
flammability limits of 4.1 and 74.8% (at temperature of 25 °C and pressure of 1 atm), and
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 21 of 30
Table 5. Comparison of combustion properties among fuels at atmospheric condition (temperature
and pressure of 25 °C and 1 atm, respectively) [18,120].
Hydrogen safety, including the prevention and mitigation of danger, and the success
of handling the danger when it occurs, becomes the key issue to increase the social ac‐
ceptance of hydrogen in the community. The dangers of hydrogen can be categorized into:
physical (embrittlement, failures, and phase change), physiological (frostbite, suffocation,
hypothermia, asphyxiation, and respiratory problems), and chemical (fire, explosion) [20].
The challenge in hydrogen safety is due to its characteristics, including vulnerability to
leakage, low ignition energy, and a wide range of fuel‐to‐oxygen ratios for combustion,
buoyancy, and embrittlement [121,122].
Hydrogen has a high auto‐ignition temperature (the temperature at which the fuel
ignites without any external ignition source, 585 °C). Owing to its broad flammability
range, the auto‐ignition temperature of hydrogen seems to be unchanged, although at
higher oxygen concentrations and pressures [18]. From a safety perspective, a high auto‐
ignition temperature indicates that it is safer. However, the energy required to initially
ignite hydrogen is very low compared to that of other fuels. In addition, hydrogen also
has an extremely low electro‐conductivity rate, which means that both flow and agitation
of hydrogen have the potential to generate an electrostatic charge that might trigger the
spark, whether in liquid or gaseous conditions. Hence, eliminating any potential ignition
and heat sources (such as static electricity, hot objects, open flames, and electrical equip‐
ment) and electrically grounding the devices dealing with hydrogen are important. On
burning, hydrogen has an almost invisible, pale blue color, making it difficult to detect;
hence, it requires very careful handling during ignition and combustion. The flame of a
hydrogen fire is usually in the form of a torch or jet originating at the point of hydrogen
discharge.
The vapor‐from‐liquid generation speed of hydrogen is significantly faster compared
to any fossil fuel, resulting in very short period of hydrogen fire (0.1–0.2 of hydrocarbon‐
based fire for the same fuel volume) [123]. However, as the combustion produces water,
the inhalation of smoke from hydrogen combustion is safe, with no risk of smoke asphyx‐
iation. Hydrogen is relatively sensitive to detonation [124], and its wide range of oxygen
mixtures potentially lead to convenient ignition and detonation [19], resulting in the de‐
mand for very careful attention during its storage. A very rapid hydrogen burning rate
leads to a reduction in the total energy that is radiated for equal volumes of fuels; there‐
fore, the heat transferred to the object surrounding the flame through radiation becomes
smaller. This results in a lower risk of secondary burns and ignition [63]. Furthermore, the
mixture of hydrogen and air has a higher propensity to detonate compared to a mixture
of other fuels with air. However, this detonation seemingly occurs in confined spaces be‐
cause of the rapid dispersion of hydrogen [63].
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 22 of 30
5.2. Safety of Liquid Hydrogen
Compared to gaseous hydrogen, liquid hydrogen requires further careful attention
and treatment owing to its extremely low temperature (boiling temperature of −253 °C at
1 bar) and high hydrogen density. Direct contact with liquid hydrogen and cold oil‐off
gas from liquid hydrogen leads to severe burns, which are similar to thermal burns, in‐
cluding frostbite and hypothermia. Moreover, inhalation of cold vapor can cause respira‐
tory ailments and asphyxiation [12]. Some tissues of the human body can be injured due
to exposure to liquid hydrogen and its boil‐off gas in a relatively short time. The contact
between the insufficiently insulated equipment and the human body also potentially
causes the skin to stick and tear. Moreover, owing to the cold temperature, the condensed
air that drips from the equipment may also result in cold burn hazards.
According to Hansen [125], some challenges faced in handling liquid hydrogen in‐
clude several factors. A large release or leak of liquid hydrogen leads to a hydrogen‐rich
atmosphere and the accumulation of liquid hydrogen and solidified air outside the vessel.
This condition is considered very dangerous as detonation may occur, releasing a larger
amount of energy than gaseous hydrogen. When this condition occurs, water can be
sprayed to vaporize immediately and mitigate the accumulation of liquid hydrogen and
solidified air. Moreover, the small release or leakage of liquid hydrogen also potentially
results in explosion due to exposure to liquid hydrogen, which may vaporize quickly to
become gaseous hydrogen, and react with the air. In addition, as the vaporized liquid
hydrogen can form hydrogen gas clouds, a high concentration of hydrogen gas is created
and not immediately released into the atmosphere.
The vaporizing liquid hydrogen, which disperses to its gaseous state, has different
characteristics from gaseous hydrogen, especially immediately after vaporization. This
vaporizing hydrogen has a very cold temperature and a higher density (higher than air);
therefore, it accumulates at a low level and acts as a dense gas for a certain period of time
[63]. An immediate contact between cold hydrogen and hot liquid potentially leads to a
rapid phase transition (RPT) explosion. RPT is a physical process, and it is different from
any explosion due to a chemical reaction; therefore, the energy following RPT is signifi‐
cantly lower. This type of RPT explosion has been confirmed in dripping liquefied natural
gas (LPG) in water [126]. Further observation of the possibility of an RPT explosion in the
case of liquid hydrogen is required to ensure its safety.
Oxygen has higher melting and boiling temperatures than nitrogen; therefore, when
air is solidified, it seems that oxygen may condense faster than nitrogen, leading to oxygen
enrichment in the solidified material. The concentration of this oxygen may increase with
an increase in the time period and cycle of refilling and pressurization. When the storage
system is maintained and returned to room temperature, the solidified material may evap‐
orate. Therefore, the regasified material contains a higher concentration of oxygen, lead‐
ing to a high‐pressure and oxygen‐enriched flammable gas mixture [63]. A high concen‐
tration of oxygen in the gas leads to a lower ignition energy; hence, it increases the com‐
bustion rate of combustible materials and the possibility of detonation. Precautions dur‐
ing the maintenance of this phenomenon should be taken intensively. Furthermore, the
liquid hydrogen spill or flow may lead to condensation and solidification of air surround‐
ing the liquid hydrogen. This type of mixture (liquid hydrogen and solidified air) is shock‐
sensitive, and when the mixture is regasified, flammable conditions can be obtained.
When liquid hydrogen leaks and spills, it vaporizes rapidly with decelerated buoy‐
ancy and tends to spread horizontally with strong concentration fluctuations. The rapid
spillage of liquid hydrogen leads to cloud dispersion to a relatively safe concentration
level and becomes positively buoyant, owing to thermal and momentum‐induced turbu‐
lence. The cloud due to the rapid evaporation of liquid hydrogen may extend widely be‐
cause of the condensation of water in the air. In addition, because of the higher density of
liquid hydrogen than air, the release of liquid hydrogen is much slower and takes a longer
time to be completely dissipated into the atmosphere. This leads to a larger dispersion
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 23 of 30
hazard distance during handling of liquid hydrogen. Extremely low temperatures of liq‐
uid hydrogen and hydrogen embrittlement demand very well‐designed vessel and con‐
tainment facilities, including material and structure. Liu et al. [127] studied the effect and
behavior of liquid hydrogen spillage in an open environment; they found that the wind
speed positively affects the transport of evaporated gas, atmospheric turbulence, and
cloud‐air shear force, leading to an increase in the safety distance. However, a significantly
higher wind speed potentially decreases the safety distance. Moreover, the spill rate of
liquid hydrogen positively correlated with the safety distance.
The liquid hydrogen storage tank is equipped with several safety devices, including
overfilling protection, pressure‐relief valves, rupture disks, and pressure‐safety valves.
The pressure‐relief valve vents the evaporated liquid hydrogen owing to the overpressure
inside the vessel to a safe location. Overfilling of liquid hydrogen in the vessel potentially
dumps the pressure‐relief valve, resulting in non‐functioning of the pressure‐relief valve
or the possibility of liquid hydrogen release. A rupture disk may be installed on the pres‐
sure‐relief valve line. It works together with a pressure‐relief valve and breaks when the
pressure inside the vessel rises higher than the set pressure of the pressure‐relief valve.
5.3. Safety Standards
Various standards have been established to support the adoption of hydrogen, both
in gaseous and liquid conditions, although the standards for liquid hydrogen require fur‐
ther modifications. The International Standardization Organization (ISO) has issued sev‐
eral guidelines related to the use of hydrogen. The Technical Committee (TC) 197 is ded‐
icated to developing standards related to the systems and devices used for hydrogen pro‐
duction, storage, transportation, and measurement. ISO/TR 15916:2004 has been estab‐
lished to provide guidelines for hydrogen utilization in both gaseous and liquid forms. It
consists of basic safety concerns, basic hydrogen properties, and risks. In addition, ISO
13984:1999 and ISO 13985:2006 were issued to provide guidance related to the dispensing
of liquid hydrogen to vehicles and the required specifications of the liquid hydrogen fuel
tank, respectively.
The separation distance (safety distance) is defined as the minimum separation dis‐
tance between the hazard source and the object, including humans, that can avoid any
effect of likely foreseeable incident and prevent the extension of minor incidents to in‐
crease. The European Industrial Gases Association (EIGA) has recommended several min‐
imum separation distances for liquid hydrogen for each corresponding application [127].
According to this list, the separation distances for liquid hydrogen facilities installed in
public spaces, near the occupied building, and combustible liquid and solid are 60, 20, and
10 m, respectively [128]. The separation distance can be reduced by adopting several mit‐
igation measures, such as water sprays (reducing thermal radiation effects) and walls
(protecting from explosion). It is important to establish that one important point to con‐
sider is the mitigation of another new hazard. The separation distance is established by
considering both the consequence of the failure event and the likelihood of its occurrence.
EIGA also recommended that liquid hydrogen storage vessels are not installed inside
buildings, while underground storage demands additional requirements to be fulfilled.
Regarding piping and fittings, owing to the existence of ammonia and chlorine as con‐
taminants, pipes and fittings made of copper and alloys of copper, tin, zinc should not be
used because of potential attacks by these contaminants.
In the United Kingdom, several regulations deal with the handling of liquid hydro‐
gen and its associated infrastructure, including dangerous substances and explosive at‐
mosphere regulations (DSEAR) 2002, Control of Major Accident Hazard (COMAH), Pres‐
sure Equipment Regulations (PER) 1999, and Carriage of Dangerous Goods (CDG) regu‐
lations. DSEAR deals with risk management for using dangerous substances in the work‐
place, including any substance with explosive potential, such as flammable gases and liq‐
uids, and one that is corrosive to metals [129]. DSEAR regulations are managed by the
Health and Safety Executive (HSE). DSEAR covers measures to mitigate and prevent the
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 24 of 30
occurrence of hazardous concentrations of flammable gases and liquids. The explosive
atmosphere in DSEAR is defined as a mixture of flammable material with air in the form
of gas, liquid, mist, and dust, which potentially ignites and spreads to the entire unburned
mixture under atmospheric conditions. In addition, the explosive atmosphere is regulated
by ATEX, which refers to two European directives that regulate the explosive atmosphere.
ATEX includes ATEX 137 (Directive 99/92/EC and is also called ATEX Workplace Di‐
rective) and ATEX 95 (Directive 94/9/EC, also called the ATEX Equipment Directive). Con‐
sidering liquid hydrogen, ATEX 137 requests the employer to provide an explosion pro‐
tection document that describes the fire and explosion hazards, areas in which the explo‐
sive atmospheres may exist, risk evaluation, and measures to mitigate and prevent acci‐
dents [130].
The COMAH Regulations were brought into effect in 1999 and then amended in 2005
by the COMAH Regulations 2005, implementing the EU Directive 96/82/EC (Serveso II
Directive) [131]. The regulations correlated to the threshold quantities (both lower‐tier and
top‐tier) of dangerous materials stored in the chemical industry or storage facilities. The
site operators of lower‐tier levels have the obligation to notify the competent authority
(CA), prepare the major accident prevention policy, decide all necessary measures to pre‐
vent and mitigate the accident, and report the major accidents. In addition, the operators
of top‐tier sites have to prepare a safety report and arrange for emergency planning, in
addition to completing the tasks required for lower‐tier site operators. The lower‐ and top‐
tier thresholds for hydrogen are 5 and 50 t, respectively. Based on this regulation, hydro‐
gen refueling stations can be categorized as lower‐tier sites [63].
In the United States, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) issued a
Hydrogen Technologies Safety Guide, summarizing various codes and standards, includ‐
ing liquid hydrogen [132]. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has issued
several codes related to hydrogen handling, including NFPA 2 [133] and NFPA 55 [134]
(which renewed previous codes of NFPA 50A and NFPA 50B). Both NFPA 2 and NFPA
55 used the liquid hydrogen system defined by the Compressed Gas Association, Inc.
(CGA) P‐28: OSHA Process and Safety Management (OSHA PSM) and EPA Risk Manage‐
ment Plan (EPA RMP) Guidance Document for Bulk Liquid Hydrogen Systems. The sys‐
tem consists of a liquid hydrogen tank, a pressure buildup circuit, an economizer, a va‐
porizer, and a pump. In addition, CGA P‐28 describes the hazard and operability of bulk
liquid hydrogen systems, including delivery (trailer, hose, and filling line), storage tank,
pressure buildup circuit and economizer, hydrogen line (liquid through vaporizer to the
final line), hydrogen pump, venting system, and other general aspects [135]. CGA P‐12
and CGA PS‐17 are dedicated to the safe handling and underground installation of liquid
hydrogen storage, respectively. Moreover, CGA H‐3 provides standards for cryogenic hy‐
drogen storage.
NFPA 2 suggested a safety distance of the bulk liquid hydrogen system of 15.2 m
when a sufficient mitigation system is installed in the system, including connection to the
vent stack system, equipment of emergency shutdown device and fast‐acting liquid hy‐
drogen shut‐off valve during the trans‐fill process, and a sign indication. Moreover, the
standard also adopts ASME B31.3: Process Piping as the piping system requirements, and
CGA S‐1.1. to 1.3 as pressure‐relief device standards. Moreover, the International Fire
Code (IFC) issued various guidelines related to liquid hydrogen storage, covering equip‐
ment locations, and containers. IFC 2209.3 suggested that a liquid hydrogen vessel and its
equipment should be placed at least 7.62 m from buildings with combustible walls or one‐
hour fire resistance wall surfaces, wall openings, public streets, and parked vehicles. In
addition, IFC 3204 and 3205 contain cryogenic fluid storage and use and handling guide‐
lines, respectively. The dispensing system and its operation and maintenance have been
regulated in various guidelines, including NFPA 2 (10.2 and 10.3), CGA G‐5.5, IFC 2204,
IFC 2209, and NFPA 30A. Tubing, valving, and venting were also provided by ASME B31,
CG G‐5.4, IFC 2209, IFC 3203, and IFC 3005. Finally, fire safety, including construction,
equipment, and signage, has been regulated by various regulations, including IFC 911,
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 25 of 30
IFC 706, IFC 404, IFC 2209, NFPA 52, NFPA 55, and CGA H‐3 [132]. In the aviation sector,
the technical guidelines for installing, operating, and maintaining liquid hydrogen storage
in aircraft are provided by SAE AS6679 [136].
Through its Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China (SAC),
China has issued several standards for hydrogen storage and transportation. GB/T 34583
[137], GB/T 34584 [138], and GB/T 29729 [139] are standards related to safety issues for
hydrogen storage, especially in refueling stations.
6. Conclusions
As a non‐carbon‐based fuel, hydrogen has the potential to replace carbon‐based fuels
being used currently, which are mainly dominated by fossil fuels. The massive adoption
of hydrogen demands a broad range of hydrogen storage and transportation systems. Liq‐
uid hydrogen shows high potential for efficient hydrogen storage and transportation ow‐
ing to its high gravimetric and volumetric energy densities and hydrogen purity. The very
low temperature of liquid hydrogen and ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion are chal‐
lenging characteristics of liquid hydrogen, which should be appropriately and sufficiently
managed. Ortho‐ to para‐hydrogen conversion needs to be accelerated before liquid hy‐
drogen is stored and transported, especially for long durations and distances. In addition,
several safety points during the storage and transportation of liquid hydrogen must be
considered carefully. These include materials that can withstand very low temperatures,
overpressure protection mechanisms, ice buildup, air and nitrogen condensation, cold va‐
por and liquid leakage, and hazards related to flammability, ignition, and explosion. Phys‐
ical infrastructure and its management must be strictly developed, improved, and main‐
tained to avoid any occurrence of incidence. Additionally, hydrogen liquefaction with
high energy efficiency (low specific energy consumption) must be intensively developed.
A specific energy consumption of approximately 5–6 kWhel/kg‐H2 should be established
in the near future. This agrees with zero boil‐off storage and transportation technology;
therefore, the total cost of production, storage, and transportation of liquid hydrogen can
be reduced significantly. Safety aspects such as the standards and regulations that com‐
prehensively cover the installation, operation, maintenance, and accident management
related to liquid hydrogen need to be emphasized.
Funding: This research was financially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP19K04211
and the Iwatani Naoji Foundation.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.
References
1. International Energy Agency (IEA) Global CO2 Emissions in 2019. Available online: https://www.iea.org/articles/global‐co2‐
emissions‐in‐2019 (accessed on 28 July 2021).
2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Con‐
vention on Climate Change. Available online: https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf (accessed on 28 July 2021).
3. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Twenty‐
First Session, Held in Paris from 30 November to 13 December 2015. Available online: https://cop23.unfccc.int/re‐
source/docs/2015/cop21/eng/10a01.pdf (accessed on 28 July 2021).
4. Mikul, H. Energy transition and the role of system integration of the energy, water and environmental systems. J. Clean. Prod.
2021, 292, 126027.
5. Nam, E.; Jin, T. Mitigating carbon emissions by energy transition, energy efficiency, and electrification: Difference between
regulation indicators and empirical data. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 300, 126962, doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126962.
6. Li, Y.; Lan, S.; Ryberg, M.; Pérez‐Ramírez, J.; Wang, X. A quantitative roadmap for China towards carbon neutrality in 2060
using methanol and ammonia as energy carriers. iScience 2021, 24, 102513, doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.102513.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 26 of 30
7. Mutezo, G.; Mulopo, J. A review of Africa’s transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy using circular economy principles.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 137, 110609, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110609.
8. Klemeš, J.J.; Van Fan, Y.; Jiang, P. The energy and environmental footprints of COVID‐19 fighting measures—PPE, disinfection,
supply chains. Energy 2020, 211, 118701, doi:10.1016/j.energy.2020.118701.
9. Lata, D.; Misra, A. Theoretical and experimental investigations on the performance of dual fuel diesel engine with hydrogen
and LPG as secondary fuels. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2010, 35, 11918–11931, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.08.039.
10. Juste, G.L. Hydrogen injection as additional fuel in gas turbine combustor. Evaluation of effects. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2006, 31,
2112–2121, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.02.006.
11. Juangsa, F.B.; Prananto, L.A.; Mufrodi, Z.; Budiman, A.; Oda, T.; Aziz, M. Highly energy‐efficient combination of dehydrogena‐
tion of methylcyclohexane and hydrogen‐based power generation. Appl. Energy 2018, 226, 31–38, doi:10.1016/j.apen‐
ergy.2018.05.110.
12. Kovač, A.; Paranos, M.; Marciuš, D. Hydrogen in energy transition: A review. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2021, 46, 10016–10035,
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.11.256.
13. Li, M.; Bai, Y.; Zhang, C.; Song, Y.; Jiang, S.; Grouset, D.; Zhang, M. Review on the research of hydrogen storage system fast
refueling in fuel cell vehicle. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2019, 44, 10677–10693, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.02.208.
14. Yin, L.; Ju, Y. Review on the design and optimization of hydrogen liquefaction processes. Front. Energy 2020, 14, 530–544,
doi:10.1007/s11708‐019‐0657‐4.
15. Valenti, G. 2‐Hydrogen liquefaction and liquid hydrogen storage. In Compendium of Hydrogen Energy; Gupta, R.B., Basile, A.,
Veziroğlu, T.N., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2016; pp. 27–51, ISBN 978‐
1‐78242‐362‐1.
16. Arregi, A.; Amutio, M.; Lopez, G.; Bilbao, J.; Olazar, M. Evaluation of thermochemical routes for hydrogen production from
biomass: A review. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 165, 696–719, doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2018.03.089.
17. Akhlaghi, N.; Najafpour‐Darzi, G. A comprehensive review on biological hydrogen production. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2020, 45,
22492–22512, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.06.182.
18. Mazloomi, K.; Gomes, C. Hydrogen as an energy carrier: Prospects and challenges. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16, 3024–
3033, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.028.
19. Verhelst, S.; Wallner, T. Hydrogen‐fueled internal combustion engines. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2009, 35, 490–527,
doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2009.08.001.
20. Najjar, Y.S. Hydrogen safety: The road toward green technology. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2013, 38, 10716–10728,
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.05.126.
21. Hydrogen Tools Basic Hydrogen Properties. Available online: https://h2tools.org/hyarc/hydrogen‐data/basic‐hydrogen‐prop‐
erties (accessed on 26 June 2021).
22. University of Florida Liquid Hydrogen. Available online: https://www.ehs.ufl.edu/programs/lab/cryogens/hydrogen/ (accessed
on 12 May 2021).
23. H2 Tools Hydrogen Density at Different Temperatures and Pressures. Available online: https://h2tools.org/hyarc/hydrogen‐
data/hydrogen‐density‐different‐temperatures‐and‐pressures (accessed on 28 July 2021).
24. Tarasov, B.P.; Fursikov, P.V.; Volodin, A.A.; Bocharnikov, M.S.; Shimkus, Y.Y.; Kashin, A.M.; Yartys, V.A.; Chidziva, S.; Pasu‐
pathi, S.; Lototskyy, M. V Metal hydride hydrogen storage and compression systems for energy storage technologies. Int. J.
Hydrog. Energy 2021, 46, 13647–13657.
25. Antonelli, M.; Barsali, S.; Desideri, U.; Giglioli, R.; Paganucci, F.; Pasini, G. Liquid air energy storage: Potential and challenges
of hybrid power plants. Appl. Energy 2017, 194, 522–529, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.091.
26. Wijayanta, A.T.; Oda, T.; Purnomo, C.W.; Kashiwagi, T.; Aziz, M. Liquid hydrogen, methylcyclohexane, and ammonia as po‐
tential hydrogen storage: Comparison review. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2019, 44, 15026–15044, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.04.112.
27. Aziz, M.; Wijayanta, A.T.; Nandiyanto, A.B.D. Ammonia as Effective Hydrogen Storage: A Review on Production, Storage and
Utilization. Energies 2020, 13, 3062, doi:10.3390/en13123062.
28. Sun, Z.; Lu, X.; Nyahuma, F.M.; Yan, N.; Xiao, J.; Su, S.; Zhang, L. Enhancing Hydrogen Storage Properties of MgH2 by Transi‐
tion Metals and Carbon Materials: A Brief Review. Front. Chem. 2020, 8, 552, doi:10.3389/fchem.2020.00552.
29. Juangsa, F.B.; Irhamna, A.R.; Aziz, M. Production of ammonia as potential hydrogen carrier: Review on thermochemical and
electrochemical processes. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2021, 46, 14455–14477, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.01.214.
30. Fujiwara, H.; Ono, H.; Onoue, K.; Nishimura, S. High‐pressure gaseous hydrogen permeation test method ‐property of poly‐
meric materials for high‐pressure hydrogen devices (1). Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2020, 45, 29082–29094,
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.07.215.
31. Shafiee, S.; McCay, M.H. Different reactor and heat exchanger configurations for metal hydride hydrogen storage systems—A
review. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2016, 41, 9462–9470, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.133.
32. Sakintuna, B.; Lamari‐Darkrim, F.; Hirscher, M. Metal hydride materials for solid hydrogen storage: A review. Int. J. Hydrog.
Energy 2007, 32, 1121–1140, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.11.022.
33. Di Profio, P.; Arca, S.; Rossi, F.; Filipponi, M. Comparison of hydrogen hydrates with existing hydrogen storage technologies:
Energetic and economic evaluations. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2009, 34, 9173–9180, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.09.056.
34. He, T.; Cao, H.; Chen, P. Complex Hydrides for Energy Storage, Conversion, and Utilization. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, e1902757,
doi:10.1002/adma.201902757.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 27 of 30
35. Semelsberger, T.A. Fuels—Hydrogen Storage|Chemical Carriers. In Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources; Garche, J., Ed.;
Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2009; pp. 504–518, ISBN 978‐0‐444‐52745‐5.
36. Weidenthaler, C.; Felderhoff, M. Complex Hydrides. In Handbook of Hydrogen Storage; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010; pp. 117–
157.
37. Andersson, J.; Grönkvist, S. Large‐scale storage of hydrogen. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2019, 44, 11901–11919,
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.063.
38. Berenguer‐Murcia, Ángel; Marco‐Lozar, J.P.; Cazorla‐Amorós, D. Hydrogen Storage in Porous Materials: Status, Milestones,
and Challenges. Chem. Rec. 2018, 18, 900–912, doi:10.1002/tcr.201700067.
39. Weitkamp, J.; Fritz, M.; Ernst, S. Zeolites as Media for Hydrogen Storage. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Zeolite
Conference, Montreal, QC, Canada, 5–10 July 1993.
40. Langmi, H.; Ren, J.; North, B.; Mathe, M.; Bessarabov, D. Hydrogen Storage in Metal‐Organic Frameworks: A Review. Electro‐
chim. Acta 2014, 128, 368–392, doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2013.10.190.
41. Xia, Y.; Yang, Z.; Zhu, Y. Porous carbon‐based materials for hydrogen storage: Advancement and challenges. J. Mater. Chem. A
2013, 1, 9365–9381, doi:10.1039/c3ta10583k.
42. García‐Holley, P.; Schweitzer, B.; Islamoglu, T.; Liu, Y.; Lin, L.; Rodriguez, S.; Weston, M.H.; Hupp, J.T.; Gómez‐Gualdrón, D.A.;
Yildirim, T.; et al. Benchmark Study of Hydrogen Storage in Metal–Organic Frameworks under Temperature and Pressure
Swing Conditions. ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 748–754, doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.8b00154.
43. Aakko‐Saksa, P.T.; Cook, C.; Kiviaho, J.; Repo, T. Liquid organic hydrogen carriers for transportation and storing of renewable
energy—Review and discussion. J. Power Sour. 2018, 396, 803–823, doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.04.011.
44. Hurskainen, M.; Ihonen, J. Techno‐economic feasibility of road transport of hydrogen using liquid organic hydrogen carriers.
Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2020, 45, 32098–32112, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.08.186.
45. Rao, P.C.; Yoon, M. Potential Liquid‐Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) Systems: A Review on Recent Progress. Energies 2020,
13, 6040, doi:10.3390/en13226040.
46. Niermann, M.; Beckendorff, A.; Kaltschmitt, M.; Bonhoff, K. Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC)—Assessment based on
chemical and economic properties. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2019, 44, 6631–6654, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.01.199.
47. Klell, M. Storage of Hydrogen in the Pure Form. In Handbook of Hydrogen Storage; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010; pp. 1–37.
48. Moreno‐Blanco, J.; Petitpas, G.; Espinosa‐Loza, F.; Elizalde‐Blancas, F.; Martinez‐Frias, J.; Aceves, S.M. The storage performance
of automotive cryo‐compressed hydrogen vessels. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2019, 44, 16841–16851,
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.04.189.
49. Yanxing, Z.; Maoqiong, G.; Yuan, Z.; Xueqiang, D.; Jun, S. Thermodynamics analysis of hydrogen storage based on compressed
gaseous hydrogen, liquid hydrogen and cryo‐compressed hydrogen. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2019, 44, 16833–16840,
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.04.207.
50. Gürsu, S.; Sheriff, S.A.; Vezirocğlu, T.N.; Sheffield, J.W. Review of slush hydrogen production and utilization technologies. Int.
J. Hydrog. Energy 1994, 19, 491–496.
51. Ohira, K. 3‐Slush hydrogen production, storage, and transportation. In Compendium of Hydrogen Energy; Gupta, R.B., Basile, A.,
Veziroğlu, T.N., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2016; pp. 53–90, ISBN 978‐
1‐78242‐362‐1.
52. Jin, T.; Li, Y.; Liang, Z.; Lan, Y.; Lei, G.; Gao, X. Numerical prediction of flow characteristics of slush hydrogen in a horizontal
pipe. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2017, 42, 3778–3789, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.09.054.
53. Park, Y.M. Literature research on the production, loading, flow, and heat transfer of slush hydrogen. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2010,
35, 12993–13003, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.04.074.
54. Juangsa, F.B.; Aziz, M. Integrated system of thermochemical cycle of ammonia, nitrogen production, and power generation. Int.
J. Hydrog. Energy 2019, 44, 17525–17534, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.05.110.
55. Preuster, P.; Alekseev, A.; Wasserscheid, P. Hydrogen Storage Technologies for Future Energy Systems. Annu. Rev. Chem. Bio‐
mol. Eng. 2017, 8, 445–471, doi:10.1146/annurev‐chembioeng‐060816‐101334.
56. Godula‐Jopek, A.; Jehle, W.; Wellnitz, J. Hydrogen Storage Technologies: New Materials, Transport and Infrastructure; Godula‐Jopek,
A., Jehle, W., Wellnitz, J., Eds.; Wiley‐VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2012; ISBN 9783527326839.
57. Heisenberg, W. Mehrkörperproblem und Resonanz in der Quantenmechanik. Zeitschrift für Physik 1985, 38, 456–471,
doi:10.1007/978‐3‐642‐61659‐4_28.
58. Bonhoeffer, K.F.; Harteck, P. Experimente über Para‐und Orthowasserstoff. Naturwissenschaften 1929, 17, 182.
59. Giauque, W.F.; Johnston, H.L. Symmetrical and antisymmetrical hydrogen and the third law of thermodynamics. Thermal
equilibrium and the triple point pressure. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1928, 50, 3221–3228.
60. Brickwedde, F.G.; Scott, R.B.; Taylor, H.S. The Difference in Vapor Pressures of Ortho and Para Deuterium. J. Chem. Phys. 1935,
3, 653–660, doi:10.1063/1.1749571.
61. Institute of Slush Hydrogen What’re Slush Hydrogen and Slush Nitrogen? Available online: https://slush‐ish‐nitro‐eng‐
lish.com/technology1.html (accessed on 13 March 2021).
62. Difference Between Difference between Ortho and Para Hydrogen. Available online: https://www.differencebetween.com/dif‐
ference‐between‐ortho‐and‐para‐hydrogen/ (accessed on 13 March 2021).
63. Pritchard, D.K.; Rattigan, W.M. Hazards of Liquid Hydrogen. Health Safety Executive: Buxton, UK, 2010. Available online:
https://www.hse.gov.uk/research/rrpdf/rr769.pdf (accessed on 13 March 2021)
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 28 of 30
64. Krasae‐In, S.; Stang, J.H.; Neksa, P. Development of large‐scale hydrogen liquefaction processes from 1898 to 2009. Int. J. Hydrog.
Energy 2010, 35, 4524–4533, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.02.109.
65. Dewar, J. Liquid hydrogen: Preliminary note on the liquefaction of hydrogen and helium. Science 1898, 8, 3–6.
66. Aasadnia, M.; Mehrpooya, M. Large‐scale liquid hydrogen production methods and approaches: A review. Appl. Energy 2018,
212, 57–83, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.033.
67. Chang, H.‐M.; Ryu, K.N.; Baik, J.H. Thermodynamic design of hydrogen liquefaction systems with helium or neon Brayton
refrigerator. Cryogenics 2018, 91, 68–76, doi:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2018.02.007.
68. Barron, R.F. Cryogenic systems. In Monographs on Cryogenics; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1985.
69. Nandi, T.; Sarangi, S. Performance and optimization of hydrogen liquefaction cycles. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 1993, 18, 131–139,
doi:10.1016/0360‐3199(93)90199‐k.
70. Timmerhaus, K.D.; Flynn, T.M. Cryogenic Process Engineering; International Cryogenics Monograph Series; Springer: Berlin/Hei‐
delberg, Germany, 2013; ISBN 9781468487565.
71. Staats, W.L.; Smith, J.L.; Brisson, J.G. Analysis of a Supercritical Hydrogen Liquefaction Cycle; Massachusetts Institute of Technology:
Cambridge, MA, USA, 2008; pp. 721–730.
72. Nair, J.; Kumar, S.; Menon, R.S.; Goyal, M.; Ansari, N.A.; Chakravarty, A.; Joemon, V. Helium refrigeration system for hydrogen
liquefaction applications. Mater. Sc. Eng. Conf. Ser. 2017, 171, 12029.
73. Ilyn, M.; Bartashevich, M.I.; Andreev, A.V.; Tereshina‐Chitrova, E.; Zhukova, V.; Zhukov, A.; Gonzalez, J. Magnetocaloric effect
in single crystalNd2Co7. J. Appl. Phys. 2011, 109, 083932, doi:10.1063/1.3563583.
74. Pecharsky, V.K.; Gschneidner, K.A. Magnetocaloric Effect. In Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics; Bassani, F., Liedl, G.L.,
Wyder, P., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2005; pp. 236–244, ISBN 978‐0‐12‐369401‐0.
75. Norizan, A.; Rashid, M.; Rahman, A.; Azhar, M.A.; Din, M.F.; Zahir, M.; Ishak, M.T.; Asnida, N. Compound as refrigerant for
magnetic refrigerator application Study on Gadolinium and LaFe11. 5Si1. 5 Compound as Refrigerant for Magnetic Refrigerator
Application. AIP Conf. Proc. 2018, 1930, 020037.
76. Numazawa, T.; Kamiya, K.; Utaki, T.; Matsumoto, K. Magnetic refrigerator for hydrogen liquefaction. Cryogenics 2014, 62, 185–
192, doi:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2014.03.016.
77. Institute of Slush Hydrogen The World’s First Hydrogen Liquefaction by Magnetic Refrigeration. Available online: http://slush‐
ish‐mag‐english.com/technology2.html (accessed on 16 May 2021).
78. Fradkov, A.; Troitskii, V. Liquefier with two‐stage conversion to obtain 98 per cent parahydrogen. Cryogenics 1965, 5, 136–137,
doi:10.1016/0011‐2275(65)90004‐4.
79. Keeler, R.N.; Weitzel, D.H.; Blake, J.H.; Konecnik, M. A Kinetics Study of Ortho‐Para Hydrogen Conversion. In Proceedings of
the Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 15–17 August 1961; pp. 511–517.
80. Donaubauer, P.J.; Cardella, U.; Decker, L.; Klein, H. Kinetics and Heat Exchanger Design for Catalytic Ortho‐Para Hydrogen
Conversion during Liquefaction. Chem. Eng. Technol. 2019, 42, 669–679, doi:10.1002/ceat.201800345.
81. Avouris, P.; DeMuth, J.E.; Schmeisser, D. Observation of Rotational Excitations of H2 Adsorbed on Ag Surfaces. Phys. Rev. Lett.
1982, 48, 199–202, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.48.199.
82. Niki, K.; Kawauchi, T.; Matsumoto, M.; Fukutani, K.; Okano, T. Mechanism of the ortho‐para conversion of hydrogen on Ag
surfaces. Phys. Rev. B 2008, 77, 201404.
83. Fukutani, K.; Yoshida, K.; Wilde, M.; Diño, W.A.; Matsumoto, M.; Okano, T. Photostimulated Desorption and Ortho‐Para Con‐
version of H2H2 on Ag Surfaces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2003, 90, 96103.
84. Andersson, S.; Harris, J. Observation of Rotational Transitions for H2,D2, and HD Adsorbed on Cu(100). Phys. Rev. Lett. 1982,
48, 545–548, doi:10.1103/physrevlett.48.545.
85. Svensson, K.; Andersson, S. Fast Ortho‐Para Conversion of H2H2 Adsorbed at Copper Surface Step Atoms. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2007,
98, 96105.
86. Palmer, R.E.; Willis, R.F. Rotational states of physisorbed hydrogen on graphite. Surf. Sci. 1987, 179, L1–L5.
87. Kim, J.H.; Karng, S.W.; Oh, I.‐H.; Nah, I.W. Ortho‐para hydrogen conversion characteristics of amorphous and mesoporous Cr
2 O 3 powders at a temperature of 77 K. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2015, 40, 14147–14153, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.08.105.
88. Hartl, M.; Gillis, R.C.; Daemen, L.; Olds, D.P.; Page, K.; Carlson, S.; Cheng, Y.; Huegle, T.; Iverson, E.B.; Ramirez‐Cuesta, A.; et
al. Hydrogen adsorption on two catalysts for the ortho‐ to parahydrogen conversion: Cr‐doped silica and ferric oxide gel. Phys.
Chem. Chem. Phys. 2016, 18, 17281–17293, doi:10.1039/C6CP01154C.
89. Das, T.; Kweon, S.‐C.; Choi, J.‐G.; Kim, S.Y.; Oh, I.‐H. Spin conversion of hydrogen over LaFeO3/Al2O3 catalysts at low temper‐
ature: Synthesis, characterization and activity. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2014, 40, 383–391, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.10.137.
90. Das, T.; Nah, I.W.; Choi, J.‐G.; Oh, I.‐H. Synthesis of iron oxide catalysts using various methods for the spin conversion of
hydrogen. React. Kinet. Mech. Catal. 2016, 118, 669–681, doi:10.1007/s11144‐016‐1035‐4.
91. Schmauch, G.E.; Singleton, A.H. Technical Aspects of Ortho‐Parahydrogen Conversion. Ind. Eng. Chem. 1964, 56, 20–31,
doi:10.1021/ie50653a003.
92. Sullivan, N.; Zhou, D.; Edwards, C. Precise and efficient in situ ortho—Para‐hydrogen converter. Cryogenics 1990, 30, 734–735,
doi:10.1016/0011‐2275(90)90240‐d.
93. Boeva, O.A.; Odintzov, A.A.; Solovov, R.; Abkhalimov, E.V.; Zhavoronkova, K.N.; Ershov, B.G. Low‐temperature ortho–para
hydrogen conversion catalyzed by gold nanoparticles: Particle size does not affect the rate. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2017, 42, 22897–
22902, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.187.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 29 of 30
94. Wilhelmsen, Øivind; Berstad, D.; Aasen, A.; Nekså, P.; Skaugen, G. Reducing the exergy destruction in the cryogenic heat ex‐
changers of hydrogen liquefaction processes. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2018, 43, 5033–5047, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.01.094.
95. US Department of Energy DOE Technical Targets for Hydrogen Delivery. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuel‐
cells/doe‐technical‐targets‐hydrogen‐delivery (accessed on 26 June 2021).
96. Cardella, U.; Decker, L.; Klein, H. Roadmap to economically viable hydrogen liquefaction. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2017, 42, 13329–
13338, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.01.068.
97. Cardella, U.; Decker, L.; Sundberg, J.; Klein, H. Process optimization for large‐scale hydrogen liquefaction. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy
2017, 42, 12339–12354, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.03.167.
98. Bracha, M.; Lorenz, G.; Patzelt, A.; Wanner, M. Large‐scale hydrogen liquefaction in Germany. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 1994, 19,
53–59, doi:10.1016/0360‐3199(94)90177‐5.
99. Shimko, M.; Gardiner, M. Innovative Hydrogen Liquefaction Cycle; Gas Equipment Engineering Corporation: Milford, CT, USA,
2008
100. Zhang, S.; Liu, G. Design and performance analysis of a hydrogen liquefaction process. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 2021, doi:
10.1007/s10098‐021‐02078‐z.
101. Matsuda, H.; Nagami, M. Study of Large Hydrogen Liquefaction Process Available online: http://www.enaa.or.jp/WE‐
NET/ronbun/1997/e5/sanso1997.html (accessed on 1 June 2021).
102. Quack, H. Conceptual design of a high efficiency large capacity hydrogen liquefier. AIP Conf. Proc. 2002, 613, 255–263.
103. Fuura, T.; Tsunokaka, S.; Hirotani, R.; Hashimoto, T.; Akai, M.; Watanabe, S.; Al., E. Development of LH2 Vehicle Tank Boil‐Off
Gas Recovery System Using Hydrogen Storage Alloys. In Proceedings of the 15th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Yoko‐
hama, Japan, 27 June–2 July 2004.
104. Hedayat, A.; Hastings, L.J.; Bryant, C.; Plachta, D.W. Large scale demonstration of liquid hydrogen storage with zero boiloff.
AIP Conf. Proc. 2002, 613, 1276–1283, doi:10.1063/1.1472155.
105. Reijerkerk, C. Potential of cryogenic hydrogen storage in vehicles. In Proceedings of the National Hydrogen Association Con‐
ference, Washington, DC, USA, 29 March–1 April 2005.
106. Xu, X.; Xu, H.; Zheng, J.; Chen, L.; Wang, J. A high‐efficiency liquid hydrogen storage system cooled by a fuel‐cell‐driven re‐
frigerator for hydrogen combustion heat recovery. Energy Convers. Manag. 2020, 226, 113496, doi:10.1016/j.encon‐
man.2020.113496.
107. Tietze, V.; Luhr, S.; Stolten, D. Bulk Storage Vessels for Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen. In Hydrogen Science and Engineering:
Materials, Processes, Systems and Technology; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2016; pp. 659–690.
108. Godula‐Jopek, A.; Jehle, W.; Wellnitz, J. Storage of Pure Hydrogen in Different States. In Hydrogen Storage Technologies; Wiley:
Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2012; pp. 97–170.
109. Hedayat, A.; Hastings, L.J.; Brown, T. Analytical modeling of variable density multilayer insulation for cryogenic storage. AIP
Conf. Proc. 2002, 613, 1557–1564.
110. Xue, X.; Wang, S.; Cui, C.; Wang, J.; Zhou, Y. Thermal performance study for hybrid SOFI and MLI system used in space. AIP
Conf. Proc. 2014, 1573, 716–719.
111. Wang, P.; Ji, L.; Yuan, J.; An, Z.; Yan, K.; Zhang, J. Modeling and optimization of composite thermal insulation system with
HGMs and VDMLI for liquid hydrogen on orbit storage. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2020, 45, 7088–7097,
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.12.110.
112. Deng, B.; Yang, S.; Xie, X.; Wang, Y.; Bian, X.; Gong, L.; Li, Q. Study of the thermal performance of multilayer insulation used
in cryogenic transfer lines. Cryogenics 2019, 100, 114–122, doi:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2019.01.005.
113. Zheng, J.; Chen, L.; Cui, C.; Guo, J.; Zhu, W.; Zhou, Y.; Wang, J. Experimental study on composite insulation system of spray
on foam insulation and variable density multilayer insulation. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2018, 130, 161–168, doi:10.1016/j.ap‐
plthermaleng.2017.11.050.
114. Tseng, C.‐J.; Yamaguchi, M.; Ohmori, T. Thermal conductivity of polyurethane foams from room temperature to 20 K. Cryogenics
1997, 37, 305–312, doi:10.1016/s0011‐2275(97)00023‐4.
115. Wang, P.; Liao, B.; An, Z.; Yan, K.; Zhang, J. Measurement and calculation of cryogenic thermal conductivity of HGMs. Int. J.
Heat Mass Transf. 2019, 129, 591–598, doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.09.113.
116. Liu, Z.; Li, Y.; Xie, F.; Zhou, K. Thermal performance of foam/MLI for cryogenic liquid hydrogen tank during the ascent and on
orbit period. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2016, 98, 430–439, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.12.084.
117. Huang, Y.; Wang, B.; Zhou, S.; Wu, J.; Lei, G.; Li, P.; Sun, P. Modeling and experimental study on combination of foam and
variable density multilayer insulation for cryogen storage. Energy 2017, 123, 487–498, doi:10.1016/j.energy.2017.01.147.
118. Plachta, D.W.; Christie, R.J.; Carlberg, E.; Feller, J.R. Cryogenic Propellant Boil‐Off. Am. Inst. Phys. 2008, 985, 1457.
119. Abdelaal, H.; Sadik, M.; Bassyouni, M.; Shalabi, M. A new approach to utilize Hydrogen as a safe fuel. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy
2005, 30, 1511–1514, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.07.007.
120. Aprea, J.L. New standard on safety for hydrogen systems in spanish: Keys for understanding and use. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy
2008, 33, 3526–3530, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.02.066.
121. Ramamurthi, K.; Bhadraiah, K.; Murthy, S.S. Formation of flammable hydrogen–air clouds from hydrogen leakage. Int. J. Hy‐
drog. Energy 2009, 34, 8428–8437, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.07.104.
122. Houf, W.; Schefer, R.; Evans, G.; Merilo, E.; Groethe, M. Evaluation of barrier walls for mitigation of unintended releases of
hydrogen. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2010, 35, 4758–4775, doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.02.086.
Energies 2021, 14, 5917 30 of 30
123. Züttel, A.; Remhof, A.; Borgschulte, A.; Friedrichs, O. Hydrogen: The future energy carrier. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys.
Eng. Sci. 2010, 368, 3329–3342, doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0113.
124. Deluchi, M. Hydrogen vehicles: An evaluation of fuel storage, performance, safety, environmental impacts, and cost. Int. J.
Hydrog. Energy 1989, 14, 81–130, doi:10.1016/0360‐3199(89)90001‐3.
125. Hansen, O.R. Hydrogen infrastructure—Efficient risk assessment and design optimization approach to ensure safe and practical
solutions. Process. Saf. Environ. Prot. 2020, 143, 164–176, doi:10.1016/j.psep.2020.06.028.
126. Verfondern, K.; Dienhart, B. Experimental and theoretical investigation of liquid hydrogen pool spreading and vaporization.
Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 1997, 22, 649–660.
127. Liu, Y.; Liu, Z.; Wei, J.; Lan, Y.; Yang, S.; Jin, T. Evaluation and prediction of the safe distance in liquid hydrogen spill accident.
Process. Saf. Environ. Prot. 2021, 146, 1–8, doi:10.1016/j.psep.2020.08.037.
128. EIGA. Safety in Storage, Handling and Distribution; EIGA: Brussels, Belgium, 2019; p. 24.
129. Health and Safety Executive DSEAR Regulations. Available online: https://www.hse.gov.uk/fireandexplosion/dsear‐regula‐
tions.htm (accessed on 18 May 2021).
130. Health and Safety Executive ATEX and Explosive Atmospheres. Available online: https://www.hse.gov.uk/fireandexplo‐
sion/atex.htm (accessed on 18 May 2021).
131. The Stationery Office the Control of Major Accident Hazards (Amendment) Regulations 2005. Available online:
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/1088/contents/made (accessed on 18 May 2021).
132. Rivkin, C.; Burgess, R.; Büttner, W. Hydrogen Technologies Safety Guide; Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI):
Oak Ridge, TN, USA, 2015; p. 67.
133. National Fire Protection Association NFPA 2: Hydrogen Technologies Code. Available online: https://www.nfpa.org/codes‐
and‐standards/all‐codes‐and‐standards/list‐of‐codes‐and‐standards/detail?code=2 (accessed on 2 January 2021).
134. National Fire Protection Association NFPA 55: Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code. Available online:
https://www.nfpa.org/codes‐and‐standards/all‐codes‐and‐standards/list‐of‐codes‐and‐standards/detail?code=55 (accessed on
2 January 2021).
135. Compressed Gas Association [P‐28] OSHA Process Safety Management and EPA Risk Management Plan Guidance Document
for Bulk Liquid Hydrogen Systems. Available online: https://portal.cganet.com/Publication/Details.aspx?id=P‐28 (accessed on
2 January 2021).
136. SAE Liquid Hydrogen Storage for Aviation. Available online: https://www.sae.org/standards/content/as6679/ (accessed on 2
January 2021).
137. Chinese Standard GB/T 34583‐2017 (GBT 34583‐2017). Available online: https://www.chinesestandard.net/PDF/Eng‐
lish.aspx/GBT34583‐2017 (accessed on 2 January 2021).
138. Chinese Standard GB/T 34584‐2017 (GB/T34584‐2017). Available online: https://www.chinesestand‐
ard.net/PDF.aspx/GBT34584‐2017 (accessed on 2 January 2021).
139. Chinese Standard GB/T 29729‐2013 (GB/T29729‐2013). Available online: https://www.chinesestand‐
ard.net/PDF.aspx/GBT29729‐2013 (accessed on 2 January 2021).