Energies 15 08631 v2
Energies 15 08631 v2
Energies 15 08631 v2
Review
Selection and Dimensioning of Energy Storage Systems for
Standalone Communities: A Review
Maria Symeonidou and Agis M. Papadopoulos *
Abstract: The European Union’s energy and climate policies are geared on reducing carbon dioxide
emissions and advancing sustainable energy, focusing on a faster propagation of renewable energy
sources to decarbonize the energy sector. The management of locally produced energy, which
can be implemented by a microgrid capable of either being linked to the main grid or operating
independently, is equally crucial. Additionally, it seems that electricity storage is the only practical
way to manage energy effectively within a microgrid. Energy storage is hence one of the main
technological parameters upon which future energy management has to be based. Especially during
crisis periods (such as the COVID-19 pandemic or the ongoing energy crisis), storage is a valuable
tool to optimize energy management, particularly from renewables, in order to successfully cover
demand fluctuation, hence achieving resilience, while at the same time reducing overall energy costs.
The purpose of the paper is to analyze and present, in brief, the state-of-the-art of the energy storage
systems that are available on the market and discuss the upcoming technological improvements of
the storage systems and, in particular, of batteries. The analysis will focus on the storage systems
that can be used within a stand-alone community such as a microgrid, but not limited to it. In the
analysis, short- and long-term storage options are discussed, as well as varying storage capacities of
the different technologies. The analysis is based on contemporary optimization tools and methods
used for standalone communities. Understanding the state-of-the-art of energy storage technology is
Citation: Symeonidou, M.;
Papadopoulos, A.M. Selection and
crucial in order to achieve optimum solutions and will form the base for any further research.
Dimensioning of Energy Storage
Systems for Standalone Communities: Keywords: energy storage system; batteries; standalone communities; microgrids; mini-grids; energy
A Review. Energies 2022, 15, 8631. management; optimization; tools
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228631
Prior to the European Green Deal, the Paris Agreement had already made it plain that
governments must reduce emissions globally as quickly as possible to achieve a climate-
neutral world by the middle of the century to meet the long-term temperature aim of an
increase of no more than 2 ◦ C. To achieve this, it is necessary to unite all countries around
the shared goal of launching ambitious initiatives to fight climate change and prepare for
its consequences. It was also emphasized that it is only possible to fully grasp the notion of
technology development and transfer for enhancing climate change resilience and lowering
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) if technical advancements work in accordance with those
scopes. The significance of technology frameworks as a means of directing efforts to reduce
environmental pollution is also being emphasized [4,5].
Furthermore, the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals provide a com-
prehensive description of the objectives that must be met, in order to improve human
well-being and environmental survival, in addition to the aims and goals that have been
defined in accordance with GHG reduction and environmental pollution restriction. The ap-
peal calls for action from all nations, including those with low, medium, and high incomes,
in order to advance prosperity and preserve the environment. It is understood that address-
ing practices and technological improvements toward a carbon-neutral environment is of
great importance [6,7].
Finally, the ongoing energy crisis, which can end up as the worst event since the oil
crisis of 1973, has hit particularly in Europe, as gas prices have reached unprecedented
levels, while at the same time, oil prices have followed, albeit to a lesser extent. However,
the real threat lies in shortages in the supply of natural gas, which poses a real threat for
power generation in the coming winter while leading many energy providers at the edge
of bankruptcy and presenting a major risk for most industrial sectors [8].
Still, one must keep in mind that this crisis stems from a combination of events, starting
with the COVID-19 pandemic, which has created intense uncertainties both in the energy
sector and in the global economy. The economic slowdown led to a collapse in energy
demand in 2020, with oil prices being extremely low, while this decline was corrected by
the “reopening” of global economic activity [8]. In Europe, energy costs for households
have already increased by 20–30% in 2021, to an average of EUR 1450 annually, while in
2022, they are expected to increase by a further 20–40% to EUR 1850, with predictions that
they will continue to rise in 2023 [9]. At the same time, industrial consumers will also
receive a big blow as the price increases in electricity reached 20% and in natural gas 15%
in 2021, and a further increase of 70 and 100%, respectively, is predicted in 2022, while in
2023, it is expected to bring further increases in gas prices [10].
As it is understood, in addition to the need for RES systems to become less cost-
intensive, integrating energy storage systems into their operation is equally important
because, unlike fossil fuels and particular renewable, the yield from wind and solar en-
ergy is directly related to weather conditions, making energy output less predictable and
non-dispatchable. Combining algorithms and mathematical programming with technology
breakthroughs allows for considerable progress in integrated system layout and dimen-
sioning, along with the previously less appealing environmental advantages of reduced
carbon dioxide emissions and energy availability for demand response. Energy storage
systems (ESS) present in that sense an answer to these issues, because they allow for excess
energy to be stored during times of strong solar radiation and/or prevailing winds and
low demand and then release it when the load calls for it. These systems include batteries,
the use of which has seen significant growth in recent years, and which are expected to
further do so in the years to come, due to their perfect suitability for this use and the drastic
decline in their cost.
2. Standalone Communities
The technology of power grids operating outside the core network (mini-grids), is
constantly developing, enabling a shift from remote central station units to a more local,
distributed generation scheme. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 3 of 28
(IRENA) [11], these networks can be categorized in several ways. Table 1 shows a cate-
gorization according to the applications, users and the individual parts of their systems,
while in Table 2, the separation was made based on the size, capabilities and complexity of
the system.
Table 1. Categorization of systems based on applications, users and individual segments [12].
Stand-Alone Grids
DC AC AC/DC AC
Solar DC solar home AC solar home Nano-grid Microgrid
System Full-grid
Lighting etc. systems systems Pico-grid Mini-grid
Lighting and
Lighting and Lighting and Appliances and
Applications Lighting All uses All uses
Appliances Appliances Emergency
Systems
Residential Residential Community Community Commercial
User
Community Community Commercial Commercial Industry
Generation
Generation Generation Generation Generation
Storage Generation
Key Storage Storage three-phase three-phase
Lighting single-phase
Component Lighting DC special distribution distribution and
Regular AC distribution
Cell charger appliances and controller transmission
appliances
Table 2. Network separation based on system size, capabilities and complexity [12].
much lower power (<100 kW) production units, the direct supply of the energy produced
to the distribution network, provided of course that it is at distribution voltage, and the
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Since the contaminants that these Rankine cycles produce will also be absorbed, they are
non-polluting processes.
Microgrids are independent. A microgrid can be disconnected from the main network
and operate independently. This autonomous operating capacity allows consumers to be
uninterruptedly supplied with electricity even when a storm or some other event causes
damage to the central power grid. Although they have this capability, they usually remain
connected to the host network, unless they are in a remote area where either there is no
network or there is but it is unreliable. Thus, as long as the main network is functioning
normally, it and the microgrid are in a kind of symbiotic relationship [17].
Microgrids are “smart”. This property of theirs is due to the existence of a controller,
which is the central “brain” of the total system, and its role is to manage all the individual
elements of the microgrid, such as the various energy sources, batteries, and energy systems
of buildings, with a high degree of complexity. The controller regulates the operation of the
various energy sources by modulating the use of any of them or a combination of them,
in order to achieve the goals, set by the users, which may concern the achievement of
lower prices, cleaner energy, greater reliability or anything else. For example, an advanced
controller can monitor, in real time, changes in the electricity prices of the core network,
which are constantly changing based on supply and demand. If it is economically appropri-
ate, it can choose to buy energy from the grid to serve consumers instead of, for example,
using the energy produced by the photovoltaic system’s photovoltaics. Thus, the electricity
generated for example by photovoltaics could charge the batteries of the microgrid and be
utilized later, when the energy of the grid becomes expensive [17].
The advantages that microgrids can bring are therefore easily recognizable:
• They have a smaller environmental impact, compared to conventional grids, due to
reduced emissions of gases and particles, as losses are smaller.
• They reduce the distance between production and demand, leading to an improvement
in the voltage profile, reduction of losses and costs in transmission and distribution,
reduction of investments in transmission and distribution systems and reduction of
power congestion in transmission and distribution.
• They improve power quality and reliability by decentralizing production, better
matching of energy supply and demand, reducing the impact of large outages on
transmission and production and reducing downtime, and improving the time to
restart production using the power of small producers.
• They lead to cost savings, through the use of efficient cogeneration of heat and power
and the integration of many small producers, in order to increase local production and
reduce the cost of distribution and transmission losses.
• They enable profits from participation in the electricity markets, both by enabling
power purchases when prices are lower and selling when prices are higher, but also
by providing ancillary services, acting as distributed generation units [11].
However, there are also certain disadvantages, which are challenges that have to be
overcome, such as:
• The high investment costs of RES systems, although this has dropped drastically lately.
• The possible technical difficulties from the inexperience of controlling a large number
of small producers.
• The lack of standards regarding the operation and protection of microgrids.
• Legal and managerial issues; due to lack of legislation and regulations on the operation
of microgrids, that have an impact on licensing and connecting.
• Issues of the energy market, such as regulating the price of energy provided by the
microgrid during its autonomous operation [11].
Some of these issues may be solved by converting existing networks and developing
new smart grids. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) [18], a smart grid
is defined as “the electrical network that uses digital and other advanced technologies
to monitor and manage the transfer of energy from all production sources to meet the
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 6 of 28
changing electrical loads of consumers. Smart grids coordinate the needs and capabilities
of all generators, network operators, consumers and all those involved in the electricity
market to operate all parts of the system as efficiently as possible, minimizing costs and
environmental impacts, while maximizing system reliability, flexibility and stability.” In
Europe, they are given the descriptions: flexible, accessible, reliable and economically
attractive [11].
In existing intelligent networks, only localized protection systems and energy control
centers are applied. However, to achieve the desired level, processors and sensors should
be installed on each device, substation and production unit, which will be accompanied by
operating systems that will work together and communicate with each other, forming a
large computing platform. The applications and experiences of the microgrid can help in
this transformation [11].
‐ Storage
- form form
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of energy. The most
common forms are presented in Figure 2 and are analyzed below:
common forms are presented in Figure 2 and are analyzed below:
Thermal storage systems are categorized into low and high temperatures depending on
whether the operating temperature of the storage medium is less than or greater than
the room temperature. More specifically, TES systems are divided into industrial cooling
(<−18 ◦ C), domestic cooling (0–12 ◦ C), domestic heating (25–50 ◦ C) and industrial heating
systems (>175 ◦ C) [18].
Compressed air. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) systems find application
in large-scale storage projects. With the exception of the reversible hydroelectric sys-
tems, no other method has the ability to store such large amounts of energy for long
periods. The power of such an energy storage system can start from 50 MW and exceed 300
MW [24]. They are complex, large scale facilities, since they consist of the power section,
the compression section, controls, auxiliary systems and, more importantly, they require an
underground airtight reservoir for the storage of the compressed air [20,25–28].
Pumped storage system. Today, the most reliable solution for storing the generated
energy on a large scale is provided by pumped storage systems and mainly by reversible
hydroelectric systems, whose energy conversion units are reversible, that is, they can
function either as turbines (production phase) or as pumps (storage phase). The excess
energy that occurs during the hours of low load and high-RES production is used to pump
water into the upper reservoir and is therefore stored in the form of dynamic energy. They
are usually large-scale facilities of hundreds of MW installed power, although one can also
find small scale plants, especially in insular systems. The cost per energy unit stored is in
the latter case quite high [18,29–31].
Magnetic Energy. It is used mainly to smooth out fluctuations in the network voltage
and boost power at peak hours, but also with the prospect of application to RES is the
superconduction magnetic energy storage system (SMES). In a superconducting magnetic
energy storage system, energy is stored in the magnetic field generated by the DC flow
in a superconducting material coil. The stored energy can be attributed to the AC system
when conditions require it. The problem with SMES is the need for cooling to cryogenic
temperatures, by using liquid helium or nitrogen, which is costly [32–35]. In addition, their
energy density is low, and, in the case of large superconducting magnetic energy storage
systems, the resulting magnetic field can also have a significant environmental impact.
On the plus side, they feature a very short time delay during charging and discharging.
Power is available almost instantaneously, the very high-power supply being available for
a short period. They have a long life cycle and are therefore suitable for applications that
require stable, complete recycling and continuous operation rates. The energy efficiency of
a superconducting magnetic energy storage system can become more than 97% [18].
Supercapacitor. The supercapacitor is an electrochemical capacitor and contains
components associated with both a battery and a capacitor. Accordingly, the voltage of an
element is limited to a few volts. Depending on the technology of the materials used for
the manufacture of electrodes, supercapacitors can be classified into: (a) electrochemical
double layer capacitors (ECDL), (b) pseudocapacitors and (c) hybrid capacitors (hybrid
capacitors).
ECDL supercapacitors are usually the least expensive in their manufacture and are
currently the most widespread types of supercapacitors. Similar to a battery, they are based
on electrostatic action [36–39]. However, since no chemical reaction occurs, the effect is
easily reversible with minimal degradation to high loading or overcharging, and the typical
shelf life is hundreds of thousands of cycles. In addition to the high resistance to large
charges, the fact that no chemical reaction takes place means that supercapacitors can be
easily charged and discharged in seconds, much faster than batteries. At the same time,
neither heat nor hazardous substances are released during charging. Energy efficiency
is very high and ranges from 85% to 98%. The limiting factor in terms of service life
with lifespans of up to 12 years are reported. Another limiting factor is the high rate of
self-discharge, reaching a level of 14% of the nominal energy each month [18].
Additionally, the hybrid capacitors are a combination of pseudo-capacitors and double-
layer supercapacitors, with one electrode using an electric double-layer mechanism and the
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 9 of 28
Energy Density
Discharge Time Cycles of Lifetime (w/lt) Efficiency
Energy Storage Power Specific Energy Energy Rate of Time of Cycles of Self Discharge
System [MW] (Wh/kg) Efficiency (%) Discharge (h) Response Lifespan Per Day (%)
Flywheel 0–1.65 5–80 80–90 0–0.01 <1 cycle 104–107 100
Thermal 50–250 80–200 14–18 1–24 – 3–5 years 0.05–1
Compressed 5–350 30–60 41–75 1–24 sec–min >10,000 0
Air
Hydrogen 0–50 400–1000 35–42 <12 <1/4 cycle >1000 0
transfer occurs from the electrode with the lowest potential (anode) to the electrode with
the highest potential (cathode) through the load, due to the existing potential difference. On
the contrary, when charging, the ions of the reaction are transferred from the cathode to the
anode through the separator. The separator, in which the electrolyte is placed, electrically
isolates the electrodes, but allows for the movement of ions [28,117–119].
Table 6 presents the main battery categorization.
Lithium-Ion
There are many types of lithium-ion batteries on the market, mostly for use in small-
scale storage applications. They are a relatively new technology that is quickly acquiring
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 12 of 28
market share in several industries. Although their initial cost is considerable, it is steadily
decreasing, which encourages their spread in the market. Most have an anode made of
pure carbon graphite, a lithium salt electrolyte, and a cathode of lithium oxide (LiMO2,
LiCoO2 , or LiNiO2 ) (LiPF6 ). Lithium-ion batteries are more energy-efficient (99–100%) and
have a longer life cycle (500–2000 cycles) than other kinds of batteries [87,88]. With the
greatest electrochemical potential and the best energy density in battery designs (up to
250 Wh/kg), lithium is the lightest of all the metals [50,51]. Additionally, they do not need
maintenance since their self-discharge rate is modest (5%), and they are not affected by
the memory phenomenon. As a result, they do not need any planned total discharges to
maintain them in top condition. Some of the disadvantages include a safety circuit need, a
restricted capacity for stress resistance, and a shorter life cycle at high temperatures. Every
array has a circuit that prevents any drops in the peak voltage of individual elements while
charging or discharging. To avoid lithium metal plating owing to overload, temperature,
maximum charge and discharge currents, and temperature are all controlled [125–127].
One of the most successful Li-ion systems uses nickel, manganese, and cobalt as the
cathode (NMC). Similar to Li–manganese, these systems may be adapted to function as
power cells or energy cells. For instance, the NMC in an 18,650 cell under moderate load
conditions has a capacity of roughly 2800 mAh and is capable of producing 4 to 5 A [128]. A
silicon-based anode’s capacity may be boosted to 4000 mAh and higher, but doing so comes
at the expense of a decreased loading capability and a shorter cycle life. The anode expands
and shrinks with charge and discharge, rendering the cell mechanically unstable, which is a
drawback of silicon added to graphite [129]. Lithium nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide (NCA),
which is mostly employed in electric cars, serves as the cathode material for lithium-ion
batteries. Lithium nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide (NCA) has a high nickel content, which
increases the capacity of batteries and increases the amount of distance that can be covered
on a single charge [129]. The practical charge storage capacity of NCA ranges between
180 and 200 mAh/g [130,131]. The two materials, NCA and NMC, have comparable high
energy densities and performance, as well as similar structures, electrochemical behavior,
and performance. Cobalt and lithium are expected to each weigh 4.5 to 9.5 and 11.6 kg,
respectively, in the NCA battery [130,131].
Due to their low cost and usage as storage devices, alkali metal ions such as lithium
(Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K) ions have been extensively exploited for the creation
of rechargeable batteries during the past few decades. In each of these, lithium-ion batteries
(LIBs), sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), and other high-energy storage devices can potentially be
replaced by K-ion batteries (KIBs), which work through electrochemical reactions. Because
potassium is abundant in the Earth’s crust and because graphite-based anodes function
well in KIBs on a commercial level, KIBs are of interest to scientists. One of the main
benefits of KIBs over alkali and alkali metals (Li, Na, and Mg) is that K-ions generate
smaller solute ions. This is in contrast to Li and Na ions. As a result, dissolved K ions have
higher transport numbers and ionic conductivities than Li and Na ions [132,133].
It has been demonstrated that the intercalation of K ions into graphitic carbon materials
occurs spontaneously, and that in particular, the cycling test of the intercalated K ions into
graphitic carbon has shown that with a reversible capacity of 246 mAh g−1 , KIBs perform
better than LIBs and SIBs. The graphitic carbon anode changes significantly in volume
during K-ion intercalation and de-intercalation, and its kinetics and cycle stability are lower
in KIBs than in LIBs with the same anode [134,135].
However, there are critical reports of lithium mining from salt deserts. Lithium
extraction inevitably degrades the soil and intensifies water scarcity and biodiversity loss
while being harmful to ecosystem functions, contributing to global warming. Lithium salt
pans are typically found in arid areas. In these places, access to water is key to the livelihood
of local communities as well as to the preservation of the minimum local flora and fauna.
About 2.2 million liters of water (500,000 gals gallons) are needed to produce one ton of
lithium, resulting in conflicts related to access to water by local communities [136,137].
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 13 of 28
On the part of experts, it is not yet clear to what extent the increasing drought is related
to lithium mining. Unfortunately, the underground water flows in the Atacama Desert
of Chile have not been sufficiently studied to have safe conclusions about how mining
(of lithium and copper in the region) are factors influencing the microclimate alongside
tourism, intensive agriculture and the climate crisis. Certainly, lithium production does not
require drinking water; however, the extraction of “salt water” can mobilize or lower the
level in groundwater, leading to an influx of fresh water into the salt deserts [136,137].
Lead–Acid
Rechargeable batteries are the most popular kind of battery since they are safe, depend-
able, and have a low purchase frequency. Lead dioxide (PbO2 ) serves as their cathode, while
lead (Pb) serves as their anode, and sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) serves as their electrolyte [19,54].
The low rate of discharge (5%) and the battery’s capacity to operate at a variety of tem-
peratures are two benefits of the technology [113,124]. However, they also have some
drawbacks, such as a lower energy density (30–50 Wh/kg), higher maintenance needs, a
shorter life cycle (200–300 cycles with 80% DOD), lower efficiency (90%), slower charging
(8–16 h), and particularly, the use of toxic building materials that make these batteries
harder to recycle than other types [138]. Cars, hoisting and lifting equipment, shipping,
and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems all meet these requirements. Additionally,
they have been the most popular PV storage system up to this point [139,140].
Nickel–metal hydride (NiMH)
Alkaline batteries, which include nickel–cadmium and nickel–metal hydride batter-
ies, have characteristics in common. The energy density of the second kind of battery
(60–120 Wh/kg) is 30–40% greater than that of the first type [130,141,142]. While the charg-
ing time is extended to 2–4 h, the life cycle is reduced to 300–500 cycles. The memory
phenomenon, which is a problem with many battery types because it reduces availability
and usage, has less of an impact on them. Finally, this style uses primarily recyclable,
non-toxic materials [142]. These are different-sized rechargeable disposable batteries that
are used to swap out non-rechargeable ones in computers, medical equipment, and other
devices. They may also be used in renewable energy applications [141].
Nickel–cadmium (NiCd)
The current battery design features a positive electrode made of nickel hydroxide
and a negative electrode made of cadmium hydroxide. The electrolyte is an aqueous
solution of potassium hydroxide and lithium hydroxide. They have a lower energy density
(45–80 Wh/kg) than lead acid batteries while having a higher energy density. One of
their downsides is increased discharge (approximately 20%), which is accompanied by
low voltage in each cell. The usage of hazardous components is one more of this battery
type’s inherent drawbacks [141]. Applications for this battery type include power tools,
communication equipment, and medical devices. They are ideal for renewable energy
systems, but they are infrequently employed because of their high initial cost, costing up to
four times as much as lead acid batteries and twice as much as lithium ion ones [142].
Flow Batteries
The most common sort of battery is an electrochemical cell, which works by moving
chemical energy between two chemical components dissolved in liquids on opposite sides
of a membrane. While each liquid circulates in its own area, the membrane serves as a
conduit for ion exchange, which is followed by the movement of an electric current. The
Nernst equation confirms cell voltage, which in practical applications may range from
1.0 to 2.43 volts. A flow battery may be used as a fuel cell or as a rechargeable battery by
collecting used fuel and pumping in fresh fuel, with the fuel regeneration being powered
by an electric power source [143,144]. Although it has several technical advantages over
conventional rechargeable batteries, including the potential for separate liquid tanks and
almost limitless battery life, the present implementations are less potent and need more
intricate electronics. There have been many kinds of flow cells constructed, including
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 14 of 28
redox, hybrid, and membraneless flow cells. Regular batteries and flow cells vary primarily
in that energy is stored in the electrode material in the former while being stored in
the latter’s electrolyte. Long life cycles, greater safety due to non-flammable materials,
adaptable architecture, and quick reaction to energy demands are some of its benefits [145].
Additionally, they create less pollutants. The battery’s poor energy density and low charge
and discharge rates are further downsides that raise the cost of ownership. The standards
for their use in RES systems, standalone systems, electric vehicles, and power conversion
technologies are met, however [145].
Table 8. State-of-the-art of the optimization methods and research findings based on energy storage
systems in standalone communities.
Table 8. Cont.
Table 8. Cont.
Table 8. Cont.
for a rational production and use of energy. Research in the direction of disengagement
from fossil fuel-based production units is necessary for the development of models aimed
at reducing the environmental and economic impacts they bring. At the same time, opti-
mization in the field of energy management is a process of utmost importance for the best
possible design of the systems that already exist and those that are being developed. In this
sense, optimizing energy demand is appropriate not only for the operation of standalone
communities but also for conventional grids managing electricity. The gathered research
indicates that optimization methods can result in significant improvements, as most of
the studies result in cost and emission reduction. More specifically, energy costs can be
decreased for a standalone community using optimization methods, as the energy demand
and production can be managed properly through demand side management, leading
to the aforementioned reductions. Additionally, energy savings is a core parameter, as
through the optimizations, the systems losses can be minimized, for optimized demand
and production. Continuing, energy storage systems are the milestone leading to both
emission and cost reduction. Even though their initial cost seems to be increased, the life
cycle cost and the life cycle assessments used to the studies indicate that for a standalone
community, energy storage systems can effectively be used. For that reason, several studies
have focused on their proper dimensioning and better type selection. The studies conclude
that lithium-ion batteries continue to be the most efficient type of energy storage systems
for standalone communities. However, improvements are constantly being made for losses
minimization and degradation of the storage systems. Finally, system stability, load control,
energy efficiency and better communication of a standalone system are also some of the
main advantages that optimization methods result in.
Additionally, it is also worth examining the most recent review papers that deal with
energy storage systems (Table 9), the components and the techniques of energy storage, the
management of energy and the integration of them in a standalone community.
battery storage capacity was close to 16 GW, the majority of which was added over the
previous five years. Installed capacities rose significantly in 2021, jumping by 60% over
2020 as more than 6 GW of storage capacity was installed. This is the second year in a
row that installations have grown at such a pace. With increases on the gigawatt scale, the
United States, China, and Europe took the top three spots in the market. In comparison
to 2020, the mix of grid-scale battery technologies remained mostly stable in 2021. The
bulk of the newly installed capacity continues to be stored in lithium-ion batteries, which
are still the most popular kind [208]. This increase in capacities is expected to have an
impact on the costs of batteries, since economies of scale will lead to further reductions of
investment cost per energy unit stored. The smaller applications, for buildings and clusters
of buildings, will also benefit from this development.
An IRENA survey conducted in 2019 [194] estimated that the prices of batteries
will experience a price reduction of 54–61% by 2030. More specifically, for lithium-ion
battery storage systems, prices between 245–620 USD/kWh are expected. This decline in
combination with the possible reduction of the cost of photovoltaics, the decrease in the
sale price of photovoltaic energy in the grid, the increase in the pricing of imported energy
from the grid and the possible imposition of taxes (e.g., CO2 emission tax), is expected
to lead to the massive use of this technology in the future. Based on the findings of this
paper, the technical and financial data, the state-of-the-art of the energy storage and the
optimization methods used, one can conclude that battery storage systems seem to be
the most effective option for usage in standalone communities. When combined with
demand side management, a reliable, resilient and flexible energy provision system is
perfectly feasible.
5. Conclusions
Standalone communities are part of most energy scenarios for a sustainable future.
They can be isolated, such as for example insular systems, or integrated in the main
grids, such as for example energy communities. In both cases, energy storage is crucial
for an effective and efficient operation. As discussed in this paper, there are various
storage options and technologies, and they have been categorized and presented within the
main characteristics of them, the advantages, the disadvantages and the specific technical
characteristics of each of them.
Most recent studies dealing with energy storage optimization methods met in stan-
dalone communities, as presented in the paper, adopt optimization methods that use
criteria that include life cycle levelized energy costs, environmental impact, capacity sizing
and energy management. Additionally, the aspects of circular economy are an upcoming
topic that should be emphasized, as they can eventually determine the effectiveness of
storage systems in a holistic way.
As it can be concluded by the study, energy requirements are expected to continue
to increase, and at the same time, a concentration of loads appear in large urban centers,
away from production locations. This has turned the focus toward the building sector,
which is proving to be an important consumer of electricity, but also a potential producer.
Thus, methods are developed to reduce the required operating energy of each building, and
green energy production facilities are formed on or in its surrounding area. The most easily
applicable and efficient energy source for these conditions is solar energy, with photovoltaic
becoming the first choice in almost all cases. The two emerging problems are the fact that it
is not possible to always supply solar-generated electricity and that the introduction of a
great number of small producers in the electrical distribution system can cause instabilities
in the operation of the core network in the very near future.
The solution to these problems is the adoption of storage systems, on the level of
buildings and buildings’ clusters, allowing for the storage of excess energy production and
the reduction of peak demands to the core network. Batteries are ideally suited for this
purpose, given the great development they have undergone in recent years, a development
that is estimated to continue in the coming years, both in terms of performance and of
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 20 of 28
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.S. and A.M.P.; methodology, M.S. and A.M.P.; valida-
tion, M.S. and A.M.P.; formal analysis, M.S. and A.M.P.; investigation, M.S. and A.M.P.; resources,
M.S. and A.M.P.; data curation, M.S. and A.M.P.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S. and A.M.P.;
writing—review and editing, M.S. and A.M.P.; project administration, M.S. and A.M.P.; All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
AC Alternating Current
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage
CED Cumulative Energy Demand
DC Direct Current
DOD Depth of Discharge
DSM Demand Side Management
ECDL Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors
ESS Energy Storage System
EV Electric Vehicles
Energies 2022, 15, 8631 21 of 28
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