DE LA CRUZ, MARY JOYCE G.

BSCE – 4 CE461 – M5
CHAPTER 2
ORIGIN OF SOIL AND GRAIN SIZE
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks. soils may be classified into several groups, depending
Physical properties of soil are dictated by the size, on their mode of transportation and deposition:
shape, and chemical composition of the grains. Rocks 1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and
can be divided into three basic types: igneous, deposition of glaciers
sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle shows 2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and
the formation cycle of the different types of rocks and deposited along streams
the processes associated with them. 3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed by the 5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
solidification of molten magma ejected by either fissure 6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its
eruption or volcanic eruption from deep within the original place by gravity, such as during landslides
earth’s mantle. Intrusive igneous rocks or plutons are
sometimes formed when magma ceases its mobility The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by
below the earth’s surface and cools. Bowen’s reaction weathering may become compacted by overburden
principle describes the sequence by which new pressure. They fill the spaces between particles and
minerals are formed as magma cools. Reactions that are form sedimentary rock. Rocks formed in this way are
classified under this principle are grouped into two: called detrital sedimentary rocks. All detrital rocks have
(1) discontinuous ferromagnesian reaction a clastic texture.
series – the minerals formed are different in
their chemical composition and crystalline SEDIMENTARY ROCK also can be formed by chemical
structure processes. Rocks of this type are classified as chemical
(2) continuous plagioclase feldspar reaction sedimentary rock. These rocks can have clastic or
series – the minerals formed have different nonclastic texture. Some examples of sedimentary rocks
chemical compositions with similar crystalline include limestone, chalk, dolomite, gypsum, and
structures anhydrite.
Common types of igneous rocks formed are granite,
gabbro, and basalt. Sedimentary rock may undergo weathering to form
sediments or may be subjected to the process of
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by metamorphism to become metamorphic rock.
mechanical and chemical processes into smaller pieces.
Mechanical weathering may be caused by the Metamorphism is the process of changing the
expansion and contraction of rocks from the continuous composition and texture of rocks (without melting) by
gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate heat and pressure. Examples of metamorphic rock are
disintegration. Other physical agents that help gneiss, phyllite, schist, marble, and quartzite.
disintegrate rocks are glacier ice, wind, the running
water of streams and rivers, and ocean waves. In Rock-Forming Minerals, Rock and Rock Structures
chemical weathering, the original rock minerals are There are large structures built several centuries ago
transformed into new minerals by chemical reaction. around the world with, or in/on rock, that are still intact
The minerals formed at higher temperatures in Bowen’s and undergoing partial weathering. The Parthenon,
reaction series are less resistant to weathering than built on the Acropolis in Athens, Greece and the Corinth
those formed at lower temperatures. The clay minerals, Canal in Greece.
which are a product of chemical weathering of
feldspars, ferromagnesian, and micas, give the plastic Soil-Particle Size
property to soils. There are three important clay Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of
minerals: (1) kaolinite, (2) illite, and (3) montmorillonite. quartz, feldspar, and other minerals. Sand particles are
made of mostly quartz and feldspar. Silts are the
Transportation of Weathering Products microscopic soil fractions that consist of very fine quartz
The soils formed by the weathered products at their grains and some fake-shaped particles that are
place of origin are called residual soils. The transported fragments of micaceous minerals. Clays are mostly fake-
shaped microscopic and submicroscopic particles of It needs to be well recognized that the presence of clay
mica, clay minerals, and other minerals. Clays have minerals in a soil aggregate has a great influence on the
been defined as those particles “which develop engineering properties of the soil as a whole.
plasticity or the putty-like property of clays that contain
a certain amount of water when mixed with a limited Specific Gravity
amount of water” (Grim, 1953). Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the unit weight
of a given material to the unit weight of water. The
Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates composed specific gravity of solids of light-colored sand, which is
of two basic units: (1) silica tetrahedron and (2) alumina mostly made of quartz, may be estimated to be about
octahedron. Of the three important clay minerals, 2.65; for clayey and silty soils, it may vary from 2.6 to
kaolinite consists of repeating layers of elemental silica- 2.9.
gibbsite sheets in a 1:1 lattice.
Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Kaolinite occurs as platelets, each with a lateral Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size
dimension of 1000 to 20,000 Å and a thickness of 100 to range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a
1000 Å. The surface area of the kaolinite particles per percentage of the total dry weight. Two methods
unit mass is about 15 m2 /g. generally are used to find the particle-size distribution
Illite consists of a gibbsite sheet bonded to two silica of soil: (1) sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than
sheets—one at the top and another at the bottom. It is 0.075 mm in diameter, and (2) hydrometer analysis—
sometimes called clay mica. lllite particles generally for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.
have lateral dimensions ranging from 1000 to 5000 Å
and thicknesses from 50 to 500 Å. The specific surface Sieve Analysis
of the particles is about 80 m2 /g. In the U.S., for sandy and fine-grained soils, generally
Montmorillonite has a structure similar to that of sieve Nos. 4, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 140, and 200 are used.
illite—that is, one gibbsite sheet sandwiched between To conduct a sieve analysis, one must first oven-dry the
two silica sheets. Particles of montmorillonite have soil and then break all lumps into small particles. The
lateral dimensions of 1000 to 5000 Å and thicknesses of soil then is shaken through a stack of sieves with
10 to 50 Å. The specific surface is about 800 m2 /g. openings of decreasing size from top to bottom.
Besides kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite, other 1. Determine the mass of soil retained on each sieve
common clay minerals generally found are chlorite, (i.e., M1, M2,..., Mn) and in the pan (i.e., Mp).
halloysite, vermiculite, and attapulgite. 2. Determine the total mass of the soil: M1 + M2 + … +
The clay particles carry a net negative charge on their Mi + … + Mn + Mp = ∑ M.
surfaces. This is the result both of isomorphous 3. Determine the cumulative mass of soil retained
substitution and of a break in continuity of the structure above each sieve. For the ith sieve, it is M1 + M2 + … +
at its edges. In dry clay, the negative charge is balanced Mi.
by exchangeable cations like Ca21, Mg21, Na1, and K1 4. The mass of soil passing the ith sieve is ∑ M - (M1 +
surrounding the particles being held by electrostatic M2 + … + Mi ).
attraction. When water is added to clay, these cations 5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent
and a few anions float around the clay particles. This finer) is
configuration is referred to as a diffuse double layer.
Dipolar water, which has a positive charge at one side
and a negative charge at the other, is attracted both by
the negatively charged surface of the clay particles and The calculations are then plotted on semilogarithmic
by the cations in the double layer. graph paper with percent finer as the ordinate
The third mechanism to which water is attracted to clay (arithmetic scale) and sieve opening size as the abscissa
particles is hydrogen bonding, where hydrogen atoms in (logarithmic scale). This plot is referred to as the
the water molecules are shared with oxygen atoms on particle-size distribution curve.
the surface of the clay.
All the water held to clay particles by force of attraction Hydrometer analysis
is known as double-layer water. The innermost layer of It is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil
double-layer water, which is held very strongly by clay, grains in water.
is known as adsorbed water.
It is assumed that all the soil particles are spheres and
that the velocity of soil particles can be expressed by
Stokes’ law. Particle-Size Distribution Curve
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in
the particle-size distribution curve corresponding to
10% finer.
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This
parameter is defined as:
where D60 = diameter corresponding to
60% finer.

3. Coefficient of gradation
(Cc): This parameter is defined as:

The percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay-size

particles present in a soil can be obtained from the
particle-size distribution curve.

The particle-size distribution curve shows not only the

range of particle sizes present in a soil, but also the type
When a hydrometer is placed in the soil suspension at a of distribution of various-size particles.
time t, measured from the start of sedimentation it
measures the specific gravity in the vicinity of its bulb at
a depth L. The specific gravity is a function of the
amount of soil particles present per unit volume of
suspension at that depth. Also, at a time t, the soil
particles in suspension at a depth L will have a diameter
smaller than D as calculated in Eq. (2.6). The larger
particles would have settled beyond the zone of
measurement. Hydrometers are designed to give the
amount of soil, in grams, that is still in suspension. They
are calibrated for soils that have a specific gravity, Gs ,
of 2.65; for soils of other specific gravity, a correction
must be made.
The value of L (cm) for the ASTM 152H hydrometer can Particle Shape
be given by the expression: The particle shape generally can be divided into three
major categories:
1. Bulky - formed mostly by mechanical weathering of
rock and minerals. Geologists use such terms as angular,
subangular, subrounded, and rounded to describe the
shapes of bulky particles.
Sieve analysis gives the intermediate dimensions of a The angularity, A, is defined as:
particle; hydrometer analysis gives the diameter of an
equivalent sphere that would settle at the same rate as
the soil particle.
The sphericity of bulky particles is defined as:

2. Flaky - have very low sphericity—usually 0.01 or less.

These particles are predominantly clay minerals.
3. Needle shape - much less common than the other
two particle types. Examples of soils containing needle-
shaped particles are some coral deposits and
attapulgite clays

SUMMARY from Chapter 2

The origin of soil by weathering, the particle size
distribution in a soil mass, the shape of particles, and
clay minerals. Some important points include the
following:
1. Rocks can be classified into three basic categories: (a)
igneous, (b) sedimentary, and (c) metamorphic.
2. Soils are formed by chemical and mechanical
weathering of rocks.
3. Based on the size of the particles, soil can be
classified as gravel, sand, silt, and clay. According to the
Unified Soil Classification System, which is now
universally accepted, the grain-size limits of gravel,
sand, and fines (silt and clay) are as follows:
Gravel: 76.2 mm–4.75 mm
Sand: 4.75 mm–0.075 mm
Fines (silt and clay): <0.075 mm
4. Clays are fake-shaped microscopic and
submicroscopic particles of mica, clay minerals, and
other minerals.
5. Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates.
6. Clay particles carry a net negative charge on their
surfaces. When water is added, a diffuse double layer of
water is developed around the clay particles that is
responsible for providing plasticity to clay soils.
7. Mechanical analysis is a process of determining the
size range of particles present in a soil mass. It consists
of two parts—sieve analysis (for particles >0.075 mm)
and hydrometer analysis (for particles <0.075 mm)
8. In a sieve analysis:

9. In hydrometer analysis, the percent finer than a given

particle size (D) can be determined using the
hydrometer reading (L) and Eq. (2.6) at a given time.