PSY 432 - Neuroanatomy

Department of Psychology, 1P5 | DOC. CRISELLE ANGELINE C. PEÑAMENTE

MACROSCOPIC
OUTLINE
I Macroscopic
A Gross Neuroanatomy GROSS ANATOMY
● Cerebrum (Cerebral Hemispheres) - Study of the anatomical structure that is visible
● Lobes (gross) to the naked eye.
● Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area ● Cadaver - corpse – at the point of
● Fissures decomposition but preserved for dissection.
● Sulci and Sulcus
● Gyri and Gyrus GROSS NEUROANATOMY
B Microscopic Parts - The study of the different brain structures that
● Nuclei could be seen by the naked eye to include internal
● Ganglion parts that could be observed after a series of cuts
● Limbic System (slice) depending on the anatomical plane utilized
● Basal Ganglia and the parts that need to be seen
● Cerebellum
● Brainstem
● Cranial Nerves (I - XII)
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
● Spinal Cord OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
C Protection of the Brain and Spinal Cord ● From System (Nervous system)
● Meninges ● To Organ (Brain)
● Cerebrospinal Fluid ● To Tissue (Neural tissue, Ganglia)
● Ventricles ● To Cell (Neurons, Neuroglia)

II Special Functions
A Part 1
● Conduction and Transmission
● Resting Membrane Potential and Action
Potential
● Depolarization, Repolarization and
Hyperpolarization
● Absolute and Relative Refractory Period
● Spatial and Temporal Summation
● EPSP and IPSP
B Part 2
● Neurotransmitters (Excitatory and Inhibitory)
● Neurotransmitter Functions
● Saltatory Conduction
● Divergence
● Convergence
● Facilitation
● Lateral Inhibition CEREBRUM (CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES)

III Departmental Exams Answers ● Left Hemisphere

A Departmental Exam 3 - Sensory stimulus and Motor control of the right side
B Departmental Exam 4 of the body.
- Speech, language, and comprehension
- Analysis and calculations
- Time and sequencing
- Recognition of words, letters, and numbers
- In control of thoughts, emotion, reading, writing.
● Right Hemisphere
- Sensory stimulus and Motor control of the left side of
the body.
- Creativity
- Spatial ability
- Context/Perception

💭 - Recognition of faces, places, and objects

Technically, there are no left-brainers and right-brainers.
However, each hemisphere controls different parts of the body.
For instance, in stroke patients, lesions in the left hemisphere
will result in the paralyzation of the right side of the body.

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 LOBES ● The big space in the middle which separates the left
● Rounded projections or divisions and right hemisphere
○ Frontal ● Also called the great longitudinal fissure, the cerebral
○ Parietal fissure, the median, the interhemispheric fissure
○ Occipital
○ Temporal

CENTRAL / ROLANDO FISSURE

● Seen from superior view (above) and lateral view
(side)
● Separates posterior and anterior sections of the brain
● Between the Frontal lobe and the Parietal lobe

BROCA’S AREA AND WERNICKE’S AREA

● Areas responsible for language
● Important in pathology

BROCA’S AREA LATERAL / SYLVIAN FISSURE

● Anterior location ● Seen from lateral view (side)
● Controls speech and language production ● Separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and

💭 ○ Produces coherent speech

B as in “boka” or talkative
parietal lobes

WERNICKE’S AREA
● Posterior location
● Responsible for language comprehension
○ Speech processing and understanding

APHASIA
● General disorder in comprehension and expression of
SULCI AND SULCUS
language
● Usually caused by lesions ● Sulcus
○ may be caused by blockage of a certain ○ Another name for grooves or the spaces in the
blood vessel, causing a decrease in blood cerebral cortex
flow and oxygen supply. Without oxygen, the ○ We have several sulcus
surrounding tissues die and their functions ○ Small spaces; smaller than fissures but
diminish somewhat synonymous
● Broca’s Aphasia - expressive aphasia ○ Prominent sulcus are what we call fissures
○ Struggles to form complete sentences
○ Broken words - incomplete/incoherent 💭 These are the “kulubot” of the brain in Tagalog
sentences, phrases only.
GYRI AND GYRUS
💭 ○ Lesion in the Broca’s area
B as in “blah blah blah”; can’t speak properly or B
as in broken words.
●
●
Ridge on the surface of the brain; outpouching
Yung mismong wrinkling part of the brain
● Wernicke’s Aphasia - receptive aphasia
○ Difficulty in understanding speech

💭 ○ Word salad - jumbled words and its meaning

W as in “what?”; hindi na nakakaintindi.
MICROSCOPIC PARTS OF
THE MACROSCOPIC LECTURE

FISSURES
● Large, deep grooves in the brain NUCLEI
● Bigger in diameter and more prominent grooves ● In neuroanatomy, a nucleus (plural form: nuclei) is a
○ Not to be confused with sulci (smaller grooves) cluster of neurons in the central nervous system
● There are 3 major fissures in the brain ● Located deep within the cerebral hemispheres and
brainstem
LONGITUDINAL FISSURE ● The neurons in one nucleus usually have roughly
● Seen from the superior view (above) similar connections and functions.
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 ● In a healthy/good sample, we can see and identify ● Maintenance of balance and posture
them grossly because of discoloration. ● Coordination of voluntary movements
● Motor learning and cognitive functions
GANGLION 3 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CEREBELLUM
● Collection of neuronal bodies found in the voluntary ● Vestibulocerebellum
and autonomic branches of the peripheral nervous ○ Located at the ends, also called
system (PNS) flocculonodular
● Ganglia can be thought of as synaptic relay stations ○ Balance, postural adjustments, coordination
between neurons. of eye movements
● The information enters the ganglia, excites the neuron ● Spinocerebellum
in the ganglia and then exits. ○ Control of muscle tone and coordination
● Cerebrocerebellum
LIMBIC SYSTEM ○ Motor planning, learning, and memory
● The part of the brain involved in our behavioral and ○ Biggest subdivision of the Cerebellum.
emotional responses, especially when it comes to
behaviors we need for survival: feeding, reproduction
and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses.
● Paul Broca
○ Coined the term limbic system on 1878,
○ originally, it was termed as Le grand lobe
limbique or limbic system.
● It is an aggregation of brain structures generally
located:
○ lateral to the thalamus
○ underneath the cerebral cortex
○ above the brainstem
● Parts of the limbic system unanimously agreed upon
by the scientific community:
○ Amygdala (Anger or fear)
○ Hippocampus (Learning and memory)
○ Cingulate Gyrus (A gyrus that can process
emotions and regulate pain)

BASAL GANGLIA
● The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical
nuclei responsible primarily for motor control, as
well as other roles such as motor learning, executive
functions and behaviors, and emotions
● Group of nuclei situated deep within and centrally at
the base of the Forebrain
○ Usually have a robust connections with the
Cerebral Cortex and Thalamus in addition to
other areas of the brain
● Involved in planning, modulation of movement BRAINSTEM
(fine-tunes voluntary motor activity), memory,
● The brainstem is the structure that connects the
motivation, and reward processing
cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and
cerebellum.
● It is composed of three sections in descending order:
the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
● Stalk-like portion of the brain
● Functions:
- Sends and receives messages to and from
the body
- To regulate generally balance breathing,
heartbeat, and etc.
CEREBELLUM
● The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a structure that is MIDBRAIN
located at the back of the brain, underlying the ● the smallest portion of the brainstem (about 1.5 cm)
occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex ● The branistem’s most cranial structure.
○ Somewhat similar to the brain structure-wise o Between the diencephalon (includes the thalamus,

💭
but is posteriorly located hypothalamus, etc.) and pons (caudally)
● Approximately 10% of the brain’s volume, however it Remember the directional terms: cranial (above), caudal
contains 50% of the total number of neurons in the (below)
brain. ● 3 main parts of the midbrain:
- colliculi
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBELLUM - tegmentum
- cerebral peduncles.
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 - Two bulging fiber tracts
- "Little feet of the cerebrum" CN II - OPTIC
● Sensory nerve
● Transmits visual information
PONS ● The optic nerve contains only afferent (sensory) fibers,
● The pons is the portion of the brainstem between the and like all cranial nerves is paired
midbrain above and the medulla oblongata below. ● Visual Cortex
- Pons (Latin “bridge”) - bridge between the midbrain o Posteriorly located
and the medulla o Processes visual information
- Resembles a bridge that connects the two cerebellar
hemispheres CN III - OCULOMOTOR
● The transverse section of pons subdivides into two areas:
● Motor nerve
ventral and the dorsal.
● Innervates the muscles in the eye (extraocular muscles):
● Functions:
o levator palpebrae superioris
- Unconscious processes (sleep-wake cycle and
o superior rectus
breathing)
- Carries some sensations in the face and the head in o inferior rectus
general. o medial rectus
o inferior oblique
MEDULLA OBLONGATA ● It allows movement of the eye muscles, constriction of the
pupil, focusing the eyes and the position of the upper
● The medulla oblongata is the connection between the
eyelid.
brainstem and the spinal cord, carrying multiple
● It works with other cranial nerves to control eye
important functional centers.
movements and support sensory functioning
● It comprises the cardiovascular-respiratory regulation
system, descending motor tracts, ascending sensory
tracts, and origin of cranial nerves IX, X, XI, and XII. CN IV - TROCHLEAR
● Vital in the processes: ● Motor nerve
- Heartbeat ● SMALLEST cranial nerve
- Breathing ● has the Longest intracranial course as it is the only nerve
- Blood pressure to have a dorsal exit from the brainstem.
● Partners with oculomotor in controlling the eye muscles
o In charge with the Superior Oblique muscle of the eye

CN V - TRIGEMINAL
● Mixed nerve: both Sensory and Motor
● Its primary function is to provide sensory and motor
innervation to the face.
● Exits near the ear
● consists of 3 divisions on either side that extend to
different territories of the face.
o ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve or CN 5
(V1): top part of the head until the tip of the nose
CRANIAL NERVES o maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve or CN 5
● Set of 12 paired nerves in the back of our brains
(V2): nostrils and below, until the upper lip
● Sends important electrical signals between the brain,
o mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve or CN 5
the face, the neck, and the torso
(V3): lower lip
● Helps us taste, smell, hear, feel, move, blink, make
facial expressions
● These are nerves within the brain responsible for
taking in sensations and sometimes motor
responsibilities.

CN I - OLFACTORY
● Sensory nerve
● SHORTEST cranial nerve
● Has easiest access to the brain, specifically the prefrontal
cortex (handles higher cognitive function)
o This is why smell is linked with memory formation,
storage, and retrieval
● Cranial nerve I is a special somatic afferent nerve which
innervates the olfactory mucosa within the nasal cavity. CN VI - ABDUCENS
● It carries information about smell to the brain. ● Motor nerve
● Fila Olfactoria ● Helps CN 3 (Oculomotor) and 4 (Trochlear) in controlling
o The many branches of the olfactory nerve the eye movement (extraocular motor functions)
o passes from the nasal cavity through the cribriform ● Innervates the lateral rectus muscle
plate of the ethmoid bone.
CN VII - FACIAL
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● Mixed innervations: sensory and motor CN XII - HYPOGLOSSAL
● carries nerve fibers that control facial movement and ● Motor
expression ● Responsible for the movement of most of the muscles in
● also carries nerves that are involved in taste to the the tongue
anterior 2/3 of the tongue and produces tears (lacrimal ● Starts in the medulla oblongata and moves down into the
gland). jaw, where it reaches the tongue
● 5 divisions: ● Helps in chewing and swallowing
o Temporal
o Zygomatic
o Buccal
o Mandibular
o Cervical

Spinal Cord
● The second half of the central nervous system
● The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure
made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the
medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar
CN VIII - VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR region of the vertebral column (backbone).
● Sensory nerve ● It has 5 parts (most functional are the first three):
● 2 divisions: - Cervical (neck)
o Vestibular division: primarily responsible for - Thoracic (chest)
maintaining body balance and eye movements - Lumbar (lower back)
o Cochlear division: responsible for hearing - Sacrum
● Each nerve has distinct nuclei within the brainstem. - Coccyx Bone (part of the vertebral column
● Nerves from the pons → passes through acoustic meatus that was said to be a part of an ancestral tail
→ divides to the vestibular and cochlear part but was discarded due to evolution)
● Division of the Spinal Cord
CN IX - GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL - 31 Segments:
➔ 8 cervical
● Mixed nerve: both Sensory and motor nerve ➔ 12 thoracic
● provides motor, parasympathetic and sensory information ➔ 5 lumbar
to your mouth and throat. ➔ 5 sacral
● helps raise part of your throat, enabling swallowing. ➔ 1 coccygeal
● Innervates the Stylopharyngeus muscle - The segments consists of 31 pairs spinal
nerves with their respective spinal root
CN X - VAGUS ganglia (the receiving area for sensory and
● Mixed nerve: both Sensory and motor (both afferent and motor information).
efferent fibers) - Spinal nerves contain the motor, sensory,
● LONGEST cranial nerve and autonomic fibers.
o Extends from the brain to the large intestine or the - These nerves exit through the intervertebral
colon foramen - The hole that serves as a
● Also Innervates: Heart, lungs, kidney, spleen, liver, stomach passageway for the spinal cord to
connect with the brain for nerve endings
CN XI - SPINAL ACCESSORY and blood vessels as well, located in a
● Motor bone structure.
● For head movement
● supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius WHAT PROTECTS THE BRAIN AND
muscles, which have the following functions: THE SPINAL CORD?
o Rotation of head away from the side of the contracting
sternocleidomastoid muscle. MENINGES
o Tilting of the head toward the contracting ● Meninges are three layers of membranes that cover
sternocleidomastoid muscle. and protect your brain and spinal cord.
o Flexion of the neck by both sternocleidomastoid ● 3 layers:
muscles. - Dura mater (outermost, closest to skull)
● Sternocleidomastoid muscle - Arachnoid mater (middle)
o Long, thick muscle from behind the ear until clavicle - Pia mater (innermost, closest to brain tissue)

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 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID NERVE CONDUCTION
● Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless body fluid ● The passage of an electrical charge along the neural
found within the tissue that surrounds the brain and body.
spinal cord of all vertebrates. ● Changes in the internal polarity of the neuron beginning
● Produced by specialized ependymal cells in the at the body of the neuron (soma) and propagating towards
choroid plexus of the ventricles of the brain and the proximal part of the axon.
absorbed in the arachnoid granulations o Until after a certain event triggers conduction of the
● Cerebrospinal fluid acts like a cushion that helps electrical charge towards the terminal axon.
protect your brain and spinal cord from sudden
impact or injury. NERVE TRANSMISSION
○ Vital functions: ● Post axon hillock activation
■ Support o Located at the synaptic cleft
■ Shock absorber o After the electrical impulse reaches the end of the
■ Homeostasis whole length of the neuron
■ Nutrition ● Electrical charge travels throughout the entire axon unless
■ Immune function facilitated by saltatory conduction.
● The fluid also removes waste products from the ● Reaches terminal knob where certain activities are
brain and helps your central nervous system work triggered.
properly. ● Synaptic activities ensues
● Adults have 150mL of CSF: 125mL is within the o When the electrical charge reaches the terminal
subarachnoid space, 25mL is in the ventricles knob/button, it will trigger a chemical reaction
● Most production of CSF is in the Lateral ventricles, facilitating the release of certain neurotransmitters into
3rd and 4th are contributory the synaptic cleft and will be received by the receiving
neuron— this process is called synapse
VENTRICLES
● Open spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid THE DYNAMIC CELL
● The cerebral ventricular system is made up of 4 ● The living cell is a dynamic entity
ventricles: o There are always constant changes happening
○ that include 2 lateral ventricles (1 in each because of the multiple and different processes that
cerebral hemisphere), usually take place inside and outside of it.
○ the third ventricle in the diencephalon, o The neuron is a very dynamic cell because of its
○ the fourth ventricle in the hindbrain. special function and it is a living cell
Inferiorly, it is continuous with the central
canal of the spinal cord.
● In relation to CSF: The CSF will circulate from the
ventricles.
○ It starts inside both the lateral ventricles,
then goes to the third ventricle, then to the
fourth ventricle.
○ From the fourth ventricle, most of the CSF
will pass into the subarachnoid space and
then the space from within the lining, or the
meninges of the brain.
○ Although, some of the CSF also passes in
the central canal of the spinal cord. All of it
will come back and circulate.
● Movement of CSF:
○ Lateral ventricles → third ventricle → fourth
ventricle

POLARITY
● Refers to the electrical charge of the environment and not
the direction

Polarity
TERMS DEFINITION
Polar Neutral charge or maybe slightly
positive or negative depending on the
presence of ions or other particles

NERVOUS SYSTEM SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Extracellular Electrical charge of the fluid outside the
polarity cell that is usually positive
PART 1

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 Intracellular Electrical charge of the fluid inside the 4. Repolarization. (Falling Action)
polarity cell is usually negative. 5. Refractory Period. (Falling Deeper Action)
6. Resting State. (End/Resolution)
When the inside of the plasma
membrane has a negative charge
compared to the outside, the neuron is
said to be polarized

Maintenance Promoted by the different dynamic

of the polarity processes happening

INTRACELLULAR VS EXTRACELLULAR
● Intracellular (inside the cell) polarity of the neuron is
negatively charged because of the following:
1. large proteins that are negatively charge and could
not leave the inside of the membrane POLARIZATION
2. influx and efflux of charged ion particles such as K+ ● The process of changing the polarity whether to become
(Potassium) and Na+ (Sodium) and Cl (Chloride) more negative or more positive from its present polarized
3. The sodium-potassium pump state
● In an active neuronal condition, the series of changes that
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL occurs to a nerve cell that leads to an activation of its
● The state of the neuron where as if nothing is happening, function
however dynamic conduction might be occurring
● During this period the neuron is in a dynamic state despite DEPOLARIZATION
the term resting ● Also means a loss of polarity.
● The resting membrane potential is always negative 70 ● There is a loss of the difference in charge between the
millivolts (-70mv) (Constant!!) inside and outside of the plasma membrane of a nerve cell
due to a change in permeability and migration of sodium
ACTION POTENTIAL ions to the interior.
● A state of the neuron where transmission of electrical ● Any change in membrane potential tending to make the
charge is happening inside less negative (or more positive) is called
● Rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a depolarization.
membrane. The membrane voltage, or potential, is
determined at any time by the relative ratio of ions, REPOLARIZATION
extracellular to intracellular, and the permeability of each ● The process by which the neuron regains its negative
ion. resting membrane potential.
● Threshold (of Excitation): The level that a depolarization ● Repolarization starts between +30 and +40 mV. In this
must reach for an action potential to occur. In most neurons range, voltage gated sodium channels will close and
the threshold is around -55mV to -65mV. voltage-gated potassium channels will open

ALL OR NONE PRINCIPLE HYPERPOLARIZATION

● Change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more
negative.
○ at a particular spot on the neuron's membrane
● It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus
required to move the membrane potential to the action
potential threshold
● Any change in membrane potential tending to make the
inside even more negative is called hyperpolarization

● Whether we can generate an action potential or not.

● Half an action potential is NOT POSSIBLE.
● Generation of an Action Potential: RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD
1. Stimulus. (Exposition) ● The relative refractory period is the interval of time during
2. Depolarization. (Rising Action) which a second action potential can be initiated, but
3. Action Potential. (Climax, Peak) initiation will require a greater stimulus than before.
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● Refractory periods are caused by the inactivation gate of ● Changes in the membrane potential are recorded by the
the Na+ channel. microelectrodes in the cell or the IPSP.
● Second response after the absolute refractory period.
TEMPORAL SUMMATION
ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD ● when multiple subthreshold EPSPs from one neuron occur
● The absolute refractory period is the brief interval after a close enough in time to combine and trigger an action
successful stimulus when no second shock, however potential at the axon hillock.
maximal, can elicit another response. ● At least 2 simultaneous stimuli that cause EPSP.
● Comes after the relative refractory period.

POST SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS SPATIAL SUMMATION

● when progressively larger numbers of primary afferent
(presynaptic) neurons are activated simultaneously, until
sufficient neurotransmitter is released to activate an action
potential
● 2 simultaneous stimuli at different locations that cause
EPSP because they add together. .

PART 2

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
● when multiple subthreshold EPSPs from one neuron occur
close enough in time to combine and trigger an action
potential at the axon hillock.
● Chemicals/substances in the body that are similar to
hormones that are made up of usually:
● Proteins / monoamines (amino acids),
● Amines (one amino acid that are combined with other
chemical substances such as catecholamines and
indolamines),
● Ester (a fatty acid derivative; not an acid)

NEUROTRANSMI
TTER
Ester Acetylcholine Depression, Alzheimer’s
● This is where the neurotransmitters are being disease, dementia
released which is the result of a synapse or a stimulus
Amino Glycine Seizures, Neural
in that initial or first or the pre-synapse neuron into the
Acid GABA degeneration, Cognitive
synaptic cleft which will be sense by the post-synapse
Glutamate dysfunction, Stroke,
neuron or the neuron next to it.
Aspartate Depression, Huntington
disease, Chronic fatigue
EPSP Amines Epinephrine Schizophrenia,
● Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (Catechol Norepinephrine Depression, Addison’s
● the change in membrane voltage of a postsynaptic cell amine’s) Dopamine disease, Palpitation,
following the influx of positively charged ions into a cell Parkinson’s disease,
(typically Na+) as a result of the activation of ligand- High blood pressure
sensitive channels.
Amines Serotonin Schizophrenia,
● a postsynaptic potential that makes the postsynaptic
(Indolami Histamine Depression, Anxiety,
neuron more likely to fire an action potential.
ne’s) OCD, Immune system
● Generation starts an impulse arriving in the synaptic
disorder, Parkinson’s
terminal causing the release of neurotransmitters in the
disease, seizure
synaptic cleft.
● The molecules bind transmitter-gated ion channels found in
the postsynaptic membrane. (If Na+ enters the postsynaptic EXCITATORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS
membrane, the membrane will become depolarized) ● Excitatory neurotransmitters “excite” the neuron and cause
● Changes in the membrane in membrane potential are it to “fire off the message,” meaning, the message
recorded by microelectrode in the cell or the EPSP. continues to be passed along to the next cell.
● Example: Glutamate, Aspartate, Nitric Oxide
IPSP
● Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS
● A kind of synaptic potential that makes a postsynaptic ● Inhibitory neurotransmitters block or prevent the
neuron less likely to generate an action potential. chemical message from being passed along any farther.
● Generation results in an impulse arriving in the presynaptic ● Modulatory neurotransmitters influence the effects of other
terminal which causes the release of neurotransmitters. chemical messengers.
● The molecules bind to transmitter-gated ion channels in the ● Examples: Glycine, Gamma Aminobutyric acid (GABA),
postsynaptic membrane. (If Cl- enters the postsynaptic cell Serotonin, Dopamine
through the open channels, the membrane will become
hyperpolarized)
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 FUNCTIONS OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

SALTATORY CONDUCTION
● (from Latin saltus 'leap, jump') is the propagation of action
potentials along myelinated axons from one node of
Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity
of action potentials.
● The uninsulated nodes of Ranvier are the only places along
the axon where ions are exchanged across the axon
membrane, regenerating the action potential between
regions of the axon that are insulated by myelin, unlike
electrical conduction in a simple circuit.
● Roles of Nodes of Ranvier is for Saltatory Conduction for
faster synapse.

DIVERGENCE
● Divergence allows one neuron to communicate with many
other neurons in a network.
● Synaptic divergence entails the distribution of synapses
from an individual neuron onto multiple postsynaptic
partners or partner types. (releasing synapses)

CONVERGENCE
● Convergence allows a neuron to receive input from many
neurons in a network.
● Synaptic convergence involves multiple neurons or
neuronal cell types providing input onto a common
postsynaptic partner. (receiving synapses)

FACILITATION
● Synaptic facilitation is a form of short- term plasticity that
enhances synaptic transmission for less than a second.
● Facilitation is a ubiquitous phenomenon thought to play
critical roles in information transfer and neural processing.
● It is a transient increase in synaptic strength, occurring
TYPE, PRECURSORS AND CLASSIFICATIONS when two or more action potentials invade the presynaptic
terminal in close succession.
● An increase in the effect of a presynaptic neuron on a
postsynaptic neuron caused by a third neuron that makes
an axoaxonic synapse with the presynaptic neuron near
its terminal bouton.

LATERAL INHIBITION
● the phenomenon in which a neuron's response to a
stimulus is inhibited by the excitation of a neighboring
neuron.
● is the capacity of an excited neuron to reduce the activity of
its neighbors.
● Lateral inhibition disables the spreading of action potentials
from excited neurons to neighboring neurons in the lateral
direction.

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 7. The trochlear nerve is one of the ocular motor nerves that
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM ANSWERS controls eye movement. The trochlear nerve is the third cranial
nerve or CN III.
● This is based on the answers provided, so feel free to
change any that you think is suspicious. A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM 3 C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
1. Fissure and sulci are different because of the area where
8. The nucleus is a cluster of neurons in the central nervous
they are located. The gyri are produced from the folds created
system. The basal nuclei of the brain comprises the caudate
by both the fissure and sulci.
nucleus, putamen and the insula.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
2. Gross Anatomy is the study of anatomical structure that is
9. The central fissure is the deep groove that separates the two
invisible to the naked eye. Gross Neuroanatomy is the
cerebral hemispheres of the brain. The central fissure is a
scientific study of mental processes such as attention,
prominent sulcus that runs down the middle of the lateral
language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity,
surface of the brain, separating the frontal lobe from the
and reasoning.
parietal lobe.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
3. Dentate gyrus lies between the fimbria of the hippocampus
10. The central sulcus forms the boundary between the frontal
and the parahippocampal gyrus. It also includes four layers of
and the parietal lobes on the lateral and medial surfaces of the
nervous tissue that have a pyramidal shape.
cerebral hemispheres. The central sulcus is also known as the
sulcus of reynaldo.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
4. The parietal lobe is responsible for regulating spatial
abilities. The temporal lobe is the area responsible for
11. Meninges are the three layers of membranes that cover
interpreting information in the form of sounds from the ears.
and protect your brain and spinal cord. The arachnoid mater is
the outer layer which is closest to the skull.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
5. The function of neuroglial cells is to ensure structural
support, nourishment, and neuron protection. The neuroglial
12 .The cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless body fluid that
cells are a major source of tumors due to their ability to divide
surrounds the brain and spinal cord of all vertebrates. The
by mitosis.
cerebrospinal fluid is produced by specialized ependymal cells
in the choroid plexus of the ventricles of the brain.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
6. The lobes refer to the curved, usually somewhat rounded
projection or division of a bodily organ or part. The temporal
13. The interstitial fluid acts like a cushion that helps protect
lobe is responsible for transmitting visual information to other
your brain and spinal cord from sudden impact or injury. The
brain regions.
interstitial fluid also removes waste products from the brain and
helps your central nervous system work properly.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
*D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE

10
14. The cranial nerve five (CN V) is also known as the 21.The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum
abducens nerve. The cranial nerve is one of the nerves of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum. The brainstem is
responsible for the extraocular motor functions of the eye,along composed of three sections in descending order: the midbrain,
with the oculomotor nerve (CN III) and the trochlear nerve (CN pons, and medulla oblongata.
IV). A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
*B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE 22.The brainstem is responsible for sending messages to the
rest of your body to regulate balance, breathing, heart rate and
15.The cerebellum, also known as the medium brain, is a more. The brainstem is also the part that connects the brain
structure that is located at the back of the brain, underlying the and the spinal cord.
occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex. The A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
cerebellum accounts for approximately 10% of the brain’s B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
volume. *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
*B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE 23.The spinal cord divides into 31 segments: cervical (C1 to
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE C9), thoracic (T1 to T11),lumbar (L1 to L6), sacral (S1 to S4),
and coccygeal. The spinal nerves contain the motor, sensory,
16.The cerebrocerebellum, spinocerebellum and and autonomic fibers.
vestibulocerebellum are the three functional areas of the A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
cerebellum. The vestibulocerebellum is the largest division, *B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
formed by the lateral hemispheres. C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
*A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE 24.The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE nervous tissue. The spinal cord extends from the medulla
oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral
17.The cerebrocerebellum is involved in planning, movements column.
and motor learning. The cerebellum approximately contains A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
over 50% of the total number of neurons in the brain. B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE 25.The hypoglossal nerve is the eleventh cranial nerve or CN
XI. The hypoglossal nerve is responsible for the movement of
18.The basal ganglia are connected to the cerebral cortex and most of the muscles in your tongue.
thalamus in addition to other areas of the brain. The basal A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
ganglia are involved in voluntary motor activity, planning, *B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
modulation of movement, memory, eye movements, reward C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
processing, and motivation. D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE 26.The spinal accessory nerve is responsible for the
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE movement of the neck particularly for flexion and tilting of the
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE neck, as well as rotation of the head. The sternocleidomastoid
muscles are involved when flexing the neck.
19.The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
behavioral responses necessary for survival such as feeding, B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
reproduction, and fight-or-flight response. In 1878, Paul Broca *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
was the first to name this general region as the brain le grand D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
lobe limbique.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE 27.The vagus nerve, also known as CN X, is the longest
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE cranial nerve in the body. The vagus nerve is involved in both
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE motor and sensory functions in the afferent and efferent
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE regards.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
20.A ganglion is a collection of neuronal bodies found in the B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
voluntary and autonomic branches of the peripheral nervous *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
system (PNS). The ganglia can also be thought of as the D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
synaptic relay stations between neurons.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE 28. The ganglion is a collection of neuronal bodies found in the
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE PNS. Basal ganglia refer to a group of subcortical nuclei
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE responsible for sensory functions of the body.
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE *A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
11
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE 37. Which of the following supplies the superior salivatory
nuclei of the CN VII.
29.Cerebellum is divided into three areas namely the sagittal A. The Anterior two-thirds of the tongue and palate.
hemisphere, anterior lobe hemisphere, and posterior lobe *B. The submandibular gland and nasal gland.
hemisphere. It is also called the little brain because of C. The lacrimal gland only.
its size relative to the cerebrum D. The auricular muscles and stylohyoid muscles.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE E. NOTA
*B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE 38. Which of the following cranium bones have pairs.
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE A. Frontal bone
*B. Parietal bones
30. Pterion is the thinnest part of the anterior wall of the skull. C. Occipital bone
The nucleus ambiguus is situated deep within the reticular D. Sphenoid bone
formation. E. None Of The Above
A. First statement is true, the second statement is false.
*B. First statement is false, the second statement is true. 39. The following are the nuclei that make up the vestibular
C. Both statements are true. nuclear complex, EXCEPT:
D. Both statements are false. A. Medial Vestibular Nucleus
B. Inferior Vestibular Nucleus
31. Cranial Nerve that arises from the hypoglossal nucleus of C. Lateral Vestibular Nucleus
the Medulla. *D. Posterior Vestibular Nucleus
A. CN X E. Superior Vestibular Nucleus
B. CN I
*C. CN XII 40. What is the deep depression in the midline bounded on
D. CN IX either side of the crus cerebri located at the anterior aspect of
E. CN II the midbrain.
*A. Interpeduncular fossa
32. Which of the following is the longest cranial nerve. B. Hypophyseal fossa
A. CN I C. Cranial fossa
B. CN II D. Pterygoid fossa.
*C. CN X E. None Of The Above
D. CN IX
E. CN V 41. Which of the following lobes is the Broca speech area
located?
33. Which of the following is the longest intracranial nerve. A. Parietal Lobe
A. CN X *B. Frontal Lobe
*B. CN VI C. Occipital Lobe
C. CN IV D. Temporal Lobe
D. CN III E. None Of The Above
E. CN IX
42. Part of the brain that includes the greater parts of the
34. All are defined as the overall function of the limbic system, superior, middle, and inferior frontal gyri.
EXCEPT: *A. Prefrontal cortex
A. Homeostatic mechanisms for preservation of the individual B. Brodmann 22
and preservation of the species. C. Vestibular area
B. Emotional behavior (including fear, rage, pleasure, and D. Hypothalamus
sadness) and feelings. E. None Of The Above
C. Memory.
D. Matching up sensory input with autonomic-endocrine drives 43. Which Brodmann area/s functions to relate the visual
and putting it into the context of the situation. information received by the primary visual area to past visual
*E. None Of The Above experiences that enables an individual to recognize and see.
A. Brodmann 9 and 10
35. The corticomedial and central nuclear complex receives B. Brodmann 41 and 42
inputs from the following sources: C. Brodmann 43
A. olfactory bulb *D. Brodmann 18 and 19
B. thalamus E. None Of The Above
C. hypothalamus
D. brain stem nuclear groups concerned with visceral function 44. This is an area of the cortex that is thought to be important
*E. All Of The Above for planning or coordinating the articulatory movement
necessary for speech.
36. Which nuclei of CN VII distribution supplies the sublingual A. Primary sensory area
salivary gland and palatine gland. B. Vestibular area
A. Motor nucleus *C. Insula
*B. Superior Salivatory nucleus D. Secondary broca speech motor area
C. Lacrimal nucleus E. None Of The Above
D. Sensory nucleus
E. None Of The Above 45. Which of the following are not the function of the
cerebellum.
12
A. Maintenance of balance and posture 3. The cell as a dynamic entity is based on its ability to move
B. Coordination of voluntary movements from place to place. – false
C. Motor learning A generic cell basically has a nucleus and organelles inside a
D. Cognitive function contained medium enveloped by a cell membrane. – true
*E. None Of The Above A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
*B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
46. Part of the brain that handles unconscious processes such C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
as the sleep wake cycle and breathing. D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
A. Medulla oblongata
B. Hypothalamus 4. All or none principle when applied to a neuron means that
C. Pituitary gland the neuron will be in a resting membrane potential state. –
*D. Pons false
Nerve conduction occurs when the electrical charge travels
47. The medulla oblongata is comprised of the following, along the length of the axon during an action potential. - true
EXCEPT: A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
*A. Ascending motor tracts *B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. Descending motor tracts C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
C. Cardio-respiratory regulation system D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
D. Origin of CN IX, X, XI, XII
E. None Of The Above 5. The positive charge or the negative charge represents the
polarity within any area of the
48. The following are vertebral bones EXCEPT: nervous cell. – TRUE
A. Sacrum The presence of large proteins that are negatively charge are
B. Thoracic responsible for the negative polarity of the intracellular
*C. Cervix compartment. - true
D. Coccyx A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
49. The ventricular cavity of the brain that is in the brainstem *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
area. D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
A. 1 st ventricle
B. 2 nd ventricle 6. Saltatory conduction occurs in the gray area of the brain
C. 3 rd ventricle where large unmyelinated nerve fibers are located. - false
*D. 4 th ventricle During the rapid conduction of electrical stimulus along the
axon, the myelin sheath helps to insulate the electricity so that
50. Which of the following are considered as membrane layers no grounding occurs. – false
that cover and protect A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
the brain and spinal cord. B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. Periosteum C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
*B. Pia mater *D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
C. Gray mater
D. Dural venous sinus 7. The threshold level of polarity equivalent to negative fifty-five
E. None Of The Above millivolts must be reached in order for the neuron to go back to
its resting membrane state. – false
The neuron during its resting state creates a refractory period
DEPARTMENTAL EXAM 4 that will result in a higher than required stimulus for it to be
triggered. - false
1. During nervous conduction, the intracellular fluid polarity of A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
the neuron begins to increase its negativity from its previous B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
resting state polarity. –TRUE C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
The electrical stimulus travels through the whole length of the *D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
axon reaching the terminal knobs where transmission ends,
and synaptic reaction begins. - TRUE 8. Depolarization occurs when the negative polarity of the
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE intracellular compartment of a neuron starts gaining positivity in
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE a rapid manner. – true
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE During hyperpolarization, the intracellular polarity becomes
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE more negative in relation to its resting polarity. - true
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
2. The extracellular compartment is more negatively charged B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
compared to the intracellular compartment during the resting *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
state of the neuron. – false D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
The constant movement of the electrically charged ion in and
out of the cell along with the other ion channels contributes to 9. The neuron is in a state of depolarization during the relative
the maintenance of electric charge within the neuron. - True refractory period. – false
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE The electrical charge inside the neuron is very near to its
*B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE resting membrane state creating an absolute refractory period.
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE - false
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
13
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE 16. The catecholamines are mostly hormones responsible for
*D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE the sympathetic reaction of the body to stress. - true
Dopamine as a catecholamine is solely an excitatory
10. The post synapses are located in the neuron that are going neurotransmitter. – false
to transmit the stimulus by releasing the neurotransmitters from *A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
its terminal knobs. – false B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
The post synapses polarity then changed as a consequence of C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
the neurotransmitters attaching to the receptors that led to the D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
influx and efflux of electrically charged ionic particles. - true
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE 17.The deficiency of serotonin as a neurotransmitter is mostly
*B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE associated with mood disorder more specifically, depression. –
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE true
D. if 1st and 2 Dopamine as a neurotransmitter is more associated with a
nd statements are BOTH FALSE neurologic condition called Parkinson’s disease. - true
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
11. During EPSP, the presynaptic neuron releases B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
neurotransmitters in the synapse to trigger the *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
opening and closing of the ion channels of the post synaptic D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
neuron. – true
The polarity of the intracellular compartment of the post 18. Convergence is a good example of spatial summation. –
synaptic neuron during EPSP becomes more negative true
compared to its previous state. - true Divergence is a good example of temporal summation. - false
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE *A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE

12. The hyperpolarized state of the neuron is the inhibiting 19. There are multiple synaptic connections placed on a
condition that is a consequence of an IPSP. - true presynaptic neuron during convergence.
During IPSP, the negatively charged particle particularly the -false
chlorine ions are removed from the intracellular compartment In divergence, there are multiple connections created by a post
leading to a more negative polarity. – false synaptic neuron. - false
*A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE *D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE

13. In temporal summation, the frequency of the stimulation of 20. Dr. Penamante is the prettiest medical doctor in the faculty
the neuron is brought about by the length of time the neuron is roster of the College of Science.– true
exposed to the stimulation. – true Dr. Gonzaga is the handsomest medical doctor in the faculty
The continuous stimulation of one or two presynaptic neuron roster of the College of Science. - true
can lead to the post synaptic neuron reaching its threshold of A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
excitement. - true B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE *C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE 21. A 1. Unmyelinated fibers conduct impulses much faster
than myelinated fibers. – true
14. The number of presynaptic connections that All parts of the neuron has myelin. - false
simultaneously stimulate the post synaptic neuron is the *A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
determining factor in spatial summation. – true B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
The polarity of the postsynaptic neuron changes drastically C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
during spatial summation as multiple presynaptic neurons D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
triggers it. - true
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE 22. Neurotransmitters are produced in the soma. - false
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE Neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminals - true
*C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE *B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
15. Excitatory neurotransmitters triggers a depolarizing effect D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
on the postsynaptic neuron. –True
An inhibitory neurotransmitter triggers a repolarizing effect on 23. Influx of negatively charged ions like potassium makes the
the presynaptic neuron. - false neuron more negative. The net influx of negative charge is
*A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE called IPSP.
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE *B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE
14
24. A single EPSP can significantly affect the membrane
potential. During Repolarization both Na and K gates are open.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
*B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE

25. The resting membrane potential of a neuron ranges from -

65 to -70.
As positively charged ions flow in the cell it makes the cells
more positive therefore more polar.
A. if 1st statement is TRUE and 2nd statement is FALSE
B. if 1st statement is FALSE and 2nd statement is TRUE
C. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH TRUE
*D. if 1st and 2nd statements are BOTH FALSE

15
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