EMI EMC Reduction Techniques

Journal of ELECTRONIC MATERIALS, Vol. 49, No.
5, 2020
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-020-07979-1
Ó 2020 The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPING ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE MATERIALS
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Measurement

and Reduction Techniques
PHALGUNI MATHUR1 and SUJITH RAMAN 1,2
1.—Department of E & I, Bharathiar University (BU), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. 2.—e-mail:
[email protected]
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is one of the biggest challenges faced

during the production of any electronic device. The effect on the performance
of the instrument due to these inevitable interferences must be carefully
measured to understand and quantify the electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) of the instrument under test. If the EMI profile of the system does not
meet the accepted standards, then it becomes necessary to take measures to
reduce the influence of these unwanted interferences so that the equipment
can be used in the real world. Unfortunately, research and studies on EMI and
EMC have not received their due attention from the scientific community.
Moreover, the literature available for this area of research is scattered where
different sources provide information on one or more (but not all) aspects of
EMI/EMC while ignoring the others. With the objective of encompassing this
extremely significant area of research in its entirety, this review presents both
EMI measurement techniques and EMI reduction techniques in detail. EMI
measurement techniques are presented under two sections that deal with
emission testing and immunity testing, respectively. Herein, EMI reduction
techniques are presented under four sections, where electromagnetic shield-
ing has been given special attention under which various methods used by the
scientific community to measure the shielding effectiveness of a material or
microwave absorber and its application in EMI reduction are illustrated. This
is followed by EMI filters, circuit topology modification and spread spectrum.
This review can help students and young scientists in this area to get an idea
of the ways to conduct EMI tests as well as the ways that can be employed to
reduce the EMI of the system, depending on the application.
Key words: electromagnetic interference (EMI), EMI testing,

shielding effectiveness, microwave absorber
in itself, the biggest hurdle that any electronic

INTRODUCTION
hardware engineer or manufacturer faces is to
Most of the present day electronic applications develop high-speed multifunctional devices that
make use of miniaturized compact devices that are not only compact but are also electromagneti-
enclose hundreds and thousands of passive and/or cally compatible. Electromagnetic compatibility
active components to perform multiple operations (EMC) is a measure of immunity that the device
simultaneously. Although arranging such a large possesses against the undesired interferences pre-
number of components on a device with dimensions sent in its electromagnetic environment.1 Moreover,
not more than a few centimeters is a huge challenge apart from being susceptible to these spurious
noises, an electronic device is capable of generating
or radiating these noise signals in the environment
that can hamper the working of nearby electronic
(Received October 11, 2019; accepted January 28, 2020; systems. In order to estimate a device’s immunity
published online February 18, 2020)
2975
2976 Mathur and Raman
and the amount of interference it can potentially in order to avoid harmful effects of EMI as well as to
generate in its environment, the electromagnetic block any spurious radiation or harmful coupling
interference (EMI) associated with it must be that might contribute to involuntary interferences.
measured. EMI leads to the obstruction or degra- The production flow of an electronic device
dation of the performance of any electrical equip- involves numerous steps, as shown in Fig. 1, start-
ment by inducing unwanted currents and voltages ing from the initial investigation and research to the
in its circuitry.2 Such interferences can prove to be mass production. During the compliance testing
fatal for the system itself and are usually due to a phase, the device is required to clear several EMI
number of reasons that can be categorized as tests that are based on a number of international
follows: and national standards set by individual coun-
tries.6–8 These tests are quite expensive; therefore,
A. Natural Sources Cosmic rays, solar flares, snow,
if the product fails at this stage then the entire cycle
storms, rain, and thunder are a few examples of
must be repeated which leads to an unprecedented
the natural phenomena that contribute to EMI
increase in the cost of production. However, if
generation in electronic circuits. The interfer-
economical pre-compliance EMI testing is per-
ence arising due to these sources is one of the
formed at each step of product development, then
main causes of EMI in radio systems.3 Systems
the probability of failing the aforementioned tests
involved in space applications, aerospace appli-
decreases drastically. Also, it is easier and more
cations, ground-based radar, radio astronomy
affordable to troubleshoot and solve the issues
and telecommunication applications are most
related to EMI if they are encountered in the early
affected due to these sources of interference.
stages of product development. This highlights the
Since man has no control over these events,
importance of EMI measurements in the early
extra care must be taken while designing the
phases of any electronic device manufacturing.
electronic circuitry.
The type of test and the standard to be met vary
B. Man Made Sources This category can be further
according to the intended application of the product.
divided into two sub-categories as follows:
In case of significant EMI in the circuitry, several
(a) Involuntary Sources The constituent com- methods can be employed to enhance the immunity
ponents of a circuit can interfere with the of the system such as enhancing the shielding
working of another component in the circuit effectiveness using various conductive materials or
or other nearby devices through conduction microwave absorbers,9,10 making use of EMI fil-
(via wires and cables) or radiation (via ters,11,12 optimizing the layout of the circuit13 etc.
electromagnetic fields). Some common Although EMI/EMC plays a very important role
sources of involuntary man-made interfer- in electronic engineering, research and development
ence are mobile phones, laptops, radios, in this area is still insufficient when compared to
medical equipment, X-ray machines, micro- other aspects of electronic engineering and product
wave ovens, power cables, ignition systems, development. Moreover, the literature available for
air conditioners, hair dryers, automobile this area is spread out. Most sources do not discuss
vehicles, thermostats and many more.4 EMI/EMC in totality thereby making it difficult for
Almost all electronic systems experience young researchers to fully understand the structure
as well as cause the interference due to of this field. In this review, efforts have been made
these sources. to address this problem by comprehensively dis-
(b) Voluntary Sources In hostile situations cussing the measurement techniques along with
as that of a war, radars are made to emit ways to mitigate the EMI associated with an
high power to cause fatal interference electronic system. This paper is organized into two
within enemy radars and communication sections. The first section focuses on EMI measure-
systems in order to neutralize them.3 ment techniques where EMI emission and immu-
nity testing methods are discussed elaborately. The
second section deals with EMI reduction techniques
where electromagnetic shielding, EMI filters, circuit
topology modification and spread spectrum are
Efforts to mitigate the effects of EMI on electronic discussed.
systems began during the Second World War. Until
the 1960s, ways to reduce EMI were solely con- EMI MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
cerned with defence applications. With the rapid EMI testing can be done either as compliance
growth of computer technology during the 1970s testing (by strictly following the instructions men-
and 1980s, the paralyzing effects of EMI were tioned in the authorized standards) or pre-compli-
encountered in civilian applications after which it ance testing (developing newer in-house
was taken very seriously by the scientific and techniques). The test beds of all pre-compliance
engineering communities.5 All modern day elec- setups must imitate the compliance test setup as
tronic devices are thus required to be well shielded closely as possible in terms of hardware, software
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Measurement and Reduction Techniques 2977
Fig. 1. Electronic product development flowchart.
Fig. 2. EMI measurement techniques.
and technique used. There are three main compo- conducted emission. If the coupling channel is of
nents that aid in the occurrence of EMI viz., radiating type then radiated emission takes place.
emitter/source that acts as the source of unwanted These components could be different systems lead-
interferences, receiver/susceptor that reacts to these ing to intersystem EMI or they could be different
interferences and a coupling channel that trans- sub-systems of a bigger system leading to intrasys-
ports the interference from the source to the tem EMI.4 Based on the above categories, EMI
receiver.14 If the coupling channel is conducting in measurements/tests are categorized as shown in
nature, then EMI is said to have occurred due to Fig. 2.
Emission Testing OATS environment, distances of 30 m were

accepted. Such a huge test setup was vulnerable to
Nearly every electronic instrument acts as a
harsh weather conditions and ambient radio noises
electromagnetic polluter due to intentional or unin-
that would heavily hamper the accuracy of the
tentional conducted or radiated emissions originat-
measurements. With the advancement of technol-
ing from it. These unwanted emissions originating
ogy and the development of more sophisticated data
from power cables, wires, resistors, capacitors, op-
processing algorithms, it is now possible to carry out
amps etc., can go up to the GHz range and can be
these tests at distances of 3 m or 10 m.18 Currently,
conducted through ac power systems (in the case of
researchers are contemplating the idea of using the
conducted emission) or through antennas (in the
distance of 5 m between the EUT and the receiving
case of radiated emission). Therefore, every elec-
antenna. The work is still in the initial phase,
tronic instrument must undergo emission testing in
therefore, the OATS measurement setup with a 5-m
order to keep the electromagnetic environment
distance has not been standardized yet. The size of
clean and usable for other licensed applications.
the EUTs permissible for OATS testing depends on
The emitter in these types of tests is the equipment
EUT and antenna separation and is specified in
under test (EUT). As mentioned, emission testing
standards such as CISPR. 16 EMI due to radiated
can be done for radiated or conducted emissions.
emissions from the EUT is measured by the receiv-
The following sub-sections illustrate different test
ing antenna for both vertical and horizontal polar-
beds/measurement setups to estimate EMI due to
izations. The measured field strength is then
the above mentioned unwanted emissions.
compared with the maximum field strength as
mentioned in the standard which determines
Radiated Emission Testing
whether the EUT has failed or cleared the test.
A conventional measurement setup for radiated The radiated emission testing of immensely pop-
emission EMI (RE EMI) testing is shown in Fig. 3. ular multiple input multiple output (MIMO) sys-
Standard radiated emission testing is done within tems can be indirectly done using over-the-air
the frequency band of 30 MHz–1 GHz (correspond- (OTA) measurements. The primary objective of
ing wavelengths are 10 m and 0.3 m, respec- OTA tests is to assess the radiation performance of
tively).15 One of the most common methods for the MIMO system; however, the resulting metric
radiated emission testing for large instruments is can also be used to determine the deterioration in
done at an open area test site (OATS). This type of the receiver sensitivity that is caused by spurious
setup usually consists of a theoretically infinite noise signals generated within the MIMO system.
metallic ground plane, a receiving antenna con- One of the most cost-effective and accurate methods
nected to an EMI receiver or spectrum analyzer via to perform OTA testing is known as the two-stage
cables and the EUT, usually kept at a distance of method. In the first stage, all possible three-dimen-
3 m or 10 m (unless specified differently) from the sional radiation patterns are obtained in a standard
receiver.16 The distance is measured from the anechoic chamber for all polarizations. In the
nearest outer surface of the EUT to the receiver second stage, all the obtained patterns are appro-
antenna.17 Such a large distance between the EUT priately combined using the desired base station
and the receiver is primarily chosen to make certain emulator and channel model.19 The resultant
that the measurements are taken in the far field matrix is then used to determine the RE EMI
region where radiated field is more stable as com- associated with the MIMO system.
pared to that in the near field or Fresnel region. In However, for smaller prototypes, these measure-
fact, during the initial days of EMI testing in an ments are done in special chambers such as an
Fig. 3. Radiated emission test set-up in an anechoic chamber (modified and redrawn using the data available in15).
Fig. 4. Radiated emission testing chambers (a) Anechoic Chamber, adapted with permission from Ref. 21, (b) Reverberation Chamber, adapted
with permission from Ref. 23, (c) GTEM cell, adapted with permission from Ref. 25.
Vick carried out these tests in an anechoic

chamber, for electrically large EUTs in order to
estimate their directivity to correlate the radi-
ated emissions for similar EUTs under different
test conditions.27 Gao et al. suggested that RE
EMI emanating from the battery management
system (BMS) of an electric vehicle could render
serious damage to the on-board circuitry as well
as the operation of a nearby electrical vehicle.
They carried out a diagnostic test of an electric
vehicle to identify the major sources of emission
peaks exceeding the standard limits. The dis-
tance between the EUT (electric vehicle) and
the receiving antenna was 10 m and the testing
was done in an SAC as shown in Fig. 5.28
2. GTEM Cell In addition to an anechoic chamber,
Fig. 5. An example of a test setup to measure radiated emissions in
GTEM cells are also used to conduct emission
an anechoic chamber (adapted with permission from Ref. 28). tests for EMI measurements. GTEM cell is a
tapered two conductor transmission line whose
characteristic impedance is required to be kept
constant at 50X.29 The smaller end of the GTEM
anechoic chamber,20,21 or reverberation cham- cell acts as the input/output (I/O) port while the
ber22,23 or a gigahertz transverse electromagnetic inner walls of the flared end are covered with
cell (GTEM cell).24,25 Some typical examples of RF absorbers. The I/O port of GTEM is con-
these chambers are shown in Fig. 4. nected to the spectrum analyzer or a network
analyzer.30 The measurement setup for radi-
ated emission testing using a GTEM cell is
1. Anechoic Chamber The walls and floor of an shown in Fig. 6. Palczynska measured the
anechoic chamber are fully or partially (for a emissions due to a portable power bank using
semi-anechoic chamber) covered with micro- a GTEM cell and then extrapolated the results
wave absorbers in order to absorb undesired to obtain equivalent OATS field strength using
interferences that can hamper electromagnetic the equation31:
measurements. Park et al. carried out RE tests
in a semi-anechoic chamber (SAC) to estimate j g0 k0 j
the interferences due to a cable connected to a EmjdB ¼ 20logðgm Þ þ 20log
j 2pe0y j
mobile instrument by measuring the common- ! ð1Þ
mode current and radiated transfer function Vx þ Vy þ Vz2
2 2
þ 10log þ 120
associated with the cable.26 In 2017, Dina et al. Zc
measured the radiated emissions from a laptop
in a SAC. The authors used an IEC 61000-4-3 where EmjdB , maximum electric field strength; gm ,
standard measurement setup and compared variable dependent on the antenna and geometry of
their results against EN 55022 (CISPR 22) the EUT to be used in the OATS setup; k0 , wave
standard. The analysis was done for the fre- number; g0 , free-space impedance; e0y , field in TEM
quency range of 30 MHz–1 GHz. Wang and mode; Zc , characteristic impedance; Vx ; Vy and Vz ,
Fig. 6. Measurement setup for EMI testing using a GTEM cell (modified and redrawn using the data available in Ref. 25).
output voltages in three orthogonal directions along

which the EUT is sequentially oriented.This was
done in order to make sure that the results obtained
are in compliance with the standards. Chua et al.
reported the measured radiated emission test
results of an IC against the international standard
IEC 61967-2. According to this standard, the IC
board must be mounted on the wall port of GTEM
cell.32 The biggest advantage that the GTEM cell
provides when compared to OATS or anechoic
chamber setups is that it is much more affordable
and compact (hence easy to maintain). Moreover,
GTEM cells can provide reasonably accurate results
from 0 Hz to 20 GHz.30
3. Reverberation Chambers (RC) An RC is a
metallic enclosure with a high quality factor
Fig. 7. Measurement setup for EMI emission testing using a
(Q) that most commonly contains a transmit- reverberation chamber (adapted with permission from Ref. 22).
ting antenna, a receiving antenna and EUT.
Its metallic boundary gives rise to standing
waves that, in turn, create an inhomogeneous
electric field inside the chamber. One or mul- Conducted Emission Testing
tiple metallic paddles called stirrers are placed
inside the chamber. The orientation of the Conducted emission testing is done to estimate/
stirrers could be controlled to modify the determine the noise, generated due to a sudden
boundary conditions of the chamber such that change in voltage or the current in the circuitry of
the electric field becomes statistically homoge- the equipment, being emitted through the power
neous.33 A standard reverberation EMC testing lead into the peripheral/loaded devices.36 The
facility is shown in Fig. 7.22 The biggest unwanted noise could have a fatal effect on the
advantage of using a reverberation chamber connected devices and may lead to the malfunction
for EMI testing is that it gives more accurate of the equipment. Some popular methods employed
and reliable results in a shorter span of time for conducted emission testing are37:
when compared to its counterparts, especially 1. Line impedance stabilization network (LISN)
in radiated immunity testing.34 This is because 2. 1X method
the EUT, unlike in the anechoic chamber, is 3. Probes
subjected to an external field from all direc-
tions simultaneously. Hence, the need to (a) Current probe
mechanically rotate the EUT in the desired (b) Voltage probe
directions for measurements is eliminated.
However, the information about the directivity 4. Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) cell
and polarization is compromised. Since, there
is no need to put expensive microwave and RF 1. Line Impedance Stabilization Network
absorbers in the chamber, this method is (LISN) When an LISN is placed between
highly economical.35
4. Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) Cell A

TEM cell was first developed by Crawford
in 1974 and is a major facility that is used for
emission testing.41 It is, in fact, a version of a
GTEM cell that works on frequencies from
0 Hz to several MHz. Basically, it is a
transmission line which is tapered at both
ends for impedance matching.42 For con-
ducted emission testing, the EUT is placed
inside the cell which is connected to a port of
50X impedance and a spectrum analyser on
the other port. The EUT radiates the noise
within the cell which is propagated to the
terminals. The EUT is connected to the LISN
which is connected to the power supply. The
RF port of an LISN is terminated with 50X.37
Fig. 8. Measurement setup for EMI conducted emission testing

using a line impedance stabilization network (LISN) (modified and
redrawn using the data available in Ref. 37).
Immunity Testing
Immunity testing is the exact opposite of emission
testing. While in emission testing the noise radi-
the EUT and power source, the noises due to ating from the EUT was measured, immunity
variations in the ac power source impedance testing refers to the process of subjecting the
can be eliminated.38 An LISN provides a EUT to an electromagnetically hostile environment
stable impedance at single frequency to the and then assessing the presence or absence of any
EUT. The noise voltage is then measured modification in the performance of the EUT. If any
following the methodology illustrated in change in the functioning of the EUT is perceived,
CISPR 25, 2010.37 The RF port of the LISN then it is quantified and compared against inter-
is connected to the measurement receiver national or national standards as per the require-
that gives the noise voltage.36 A typical ment. If the instrument fails to pass these tests
measurement setup for conducted emission then it is rendered incapable of performing effi-
testing using an LISN is shown in Fig. 8. ciently in the real world. In this sub-section,
This method can provide accurate results up techniques used in immunity measurements for
to 100 MHz; therefore, it cannot be used in pre-compliance or compliance EMI testing are
high-frequency circuits. explained under two different classes, namely
2. 1X The 1X noise measurement, presented in continuous and transient.
IEC 61967-4, involves the estimation of con-
ducted emission noise by measuring the Continuous Source Immunity Testing
voltage drop across the external resistances
that are placed in series with the pins of the Continuous immunity testing is aimed at deter-
EUT.39 The accuracy of this method spans in mining if the EUT will function as intended when it
the gigahertz range. However, this method is exposed to continuous noise sources such as the
loses feasibility if the EUT has a large cosmic microwave background, solar radiation,
number of pins. broadcast stations, motor vehicles, magnetic fields.4
3. Probes Probes provide a more direct method Continuous source immunity testing is done for a
to compute the conducted emission from the few or several minutes. This category of testing can
EUT. Current probes work on the principle of be further categorized into magnetic field, radiated
current transformer with the power lead of and conducted immunity testing.
the EUT acting as a primary coil and the 1. Magnetic Field Immunity The cables and wires
probe itself acts as a secondary.36 The probe of an electrical instrument give rise to magnetic
consists of a wire coiled around a ferrite core. fields that can attack magnetically sensitive
Voltage probes are also used to measure components such as relays and monitors of the
noises due to conducted emissions. A small parent circuit and instruments present in close
resistance is connected to the voltage probe proximity. Hence, it becomes extremely impor-
and an oscilloscope with high sensitivity. The tant to check whether a device can withstand
voltage across the resistor is ascertained and such adversities. IEC/EN61000-4-8 is the stan-
then, using FFT, is transformed into the dard most commonly used to carry out the
current spectrum.40 mentioned test. The setup consists of a signal
generator connected to a loop antenna or cient and accurate to assess the performance of
Helmholtz coil. The EUT sits within the the equipment in the real world scenario. The
antenna/coil in order to be exposed to a contin- author pointed out some issues regarding the
uous magnetic field.43 Other standards also reliability of test levels, angle of incidence and
used for magnetic field immunity testing are polarization of the field inside the chamber/cell,
IEC/EN61000-4-9, IEC/EN61000-4-10 etc.44,45 susceptibility of the equipment towards certain
In 2018, Yang et al. proposed a test setup that frequencies and negligence towards the factors
incorporated the use of a two-coil system such as ageing and corrosion. He proposed a
instead of Helmholtz coil. They were able to checklist of the factors that must be taken into
prove that the two-coil system had similar account while performing these tests.53 In the
results as the Helmholtz coil system with same year, Tang et al. also realized the inaccu-
reduced mass and lower electrical dissipation.46 racies in the standard RI testing for medical
2. Radiated Immunity (RI) RI testing is done to equipment and proposed a technique to check
assess the tolerance of an instrument against the tolerance level of medical instruments
the electromagnetic energy present in its free-
space environment. IEC 61000-4-3 is the stan-
dard most commonly used for radiated immu-
nity. RI tests are usually done in OATS,
anechoic chambers, GTEM cells and reverbera-
tion chambers.47–51 The measurement setup
involves an RF signal generator that provides
a continuous electromagnetic signal at different
frequencies, a power amplifier to amplify the
generated signal, a transmitter antenna, such
as a log-periodic antenna, or a biconical anten-
na, to transmit the generated signal into the
chamber/cell and create a uniform field envi-
ronment, an EM field sensor to monitor the field
strength within the chamber/cell, a table on
which the EUT is placed, an EUT and a
monitoring system that can monitor the health
of the EUT. The preferred distance between the
antenna and EUT is 3 m or 10 m.52 For each
face of the EUT facing the transmitter antenna,
its performance is repeatedly assessed for dif-
ferent frequencies, different signal strengths,
appropriate modulations and different polariza-
tions of the antenna. A typical measurement
setup for RI testing is shown in Fig. 9.
In 2009, Armstrong showed that RI testing as Fig. 10. Block diagram for EMI conducted immunity testing (modified
specified by the standards might not be suffi- and redrawn using the data available in Ref. 55).
Fig. 9. Measurement setup for EMI radiated immunity testing (modified and redrawn from the data available on https://www.laplace.co.uk/iec
61000-4-3/).
against the radiations due to mobile phones.54 electrostatic discharge (ESD), electrical fast tran-
3. Conducted Immunity (CI) Radiated emissions or sient (EFT), surge, pulsed magnetic field and volt-
induced inductance and capacitance due to the age variations.
bending of power cables can be picked up by
cables and connectors of an electronic system as 1. Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) ESD refers to
spurious RF voltages and currents. These cur- a sudden transfer of a large quantity of
rents can then propagate to other system com- charge from one potential to another in a
ponents as conducted interference and can very short duration of time (a few nanosec-
cause degradation in the overall performance onds), causing the generation of an intense
of the system. IEC-61000-4-6 is one of the electric field. This electric field can cause
widely accepted standards for CI testing and it temporary or permanent damage to nearby
is done in the frequency range of 150 kHz– electronic systems.61 A general example of
80 MHz. A block diagram of CI testing is shown ESD is the shock that a person would feel
in Fig. 10.55 The setup includes an RF signal when touching a metallic object. While hu-
generator that simulates the interference sig- mans can withstand that type of EM energy,
nals. These signals are then coupled to the EUT, most electronic equipment and integrated
in common mode with respect to ground plane circuits (ICs) cannot.62 ESD can occur due to
via an amplifier and an injecting device such as factors such as improper insulation or defec-
a coupling/decoupling network (CDN),56 EM tive grounding in the circuit of the instru-
clamp57 or a BCI probe.58 The performance of ment. It can hamper or interfere with the
the EUT is then analyzed using a spectrum operations of an electronic device in three
analyzer or any other monitoring system.55 ways63:
Because of certain limitations such as the Direct contact discharge
physical dimensions of the EUT, it is not always Discharging through an air gap
possible to use the above mentioned injection Indirect discharging through a vertical
devices to conduct these tests. Cakir et al. plane
proposed an alternative method to measure
the conducted immunity of a device by measur-
ing the impedances of test loops using two
current probes.59 IEC 61000-4-2 is the internationally accepted
system level standard for immunity testing of an
electronic device against ESD64 and the required
test voltage levels for contact discharge and air
discharge immunity testing, prescribed by it are
Transient Source Immunity Testing shown in Table I.63 X can take any value above,
Even though transient sources of electromagnetic below or in between the specified values. X strictly
interference such as lightning, EM pulses, electro- depends upon the equipment specification. If the
static discharge, voltage fluctuations, fast switching test voltage required is much greater than the
and relaying take place for a tiny duration of time, specified voltages, then additional appropriate
they can have a catastrophic effect on system equipment might be required for ESD immunity
performance. Electronic systems on board an air- testing. Standard IEC 61000-4-2 states that contact
plane or spaceship, or equipment used in meteorol- discharge is sufficient to check the immunity of an
ogy to monitor storms, tornadoes, etc. are some electronic system while indirect discharge immu-
examples of potential casualties of transient EMI. nity testing is done only when it is specifically
Checking the system’s tolerance in these events, required. Air discharge immunity testing is more
therefore, becomes extremely crucial.60 Since tran- complicated as reproducibility is not guaranteed by
sient sources release a large amount of EM energy it.63,65
for a small duration of time (not more than a few Schematic of measurement setup for ESD immu-
milliseconds), the immunity testing of a system nity testing is shown in Fig. 11.66 It consists of a
against them is done in the time domain.4 In this reference ground plane on which the non-conduct-
sub-subsection, transient source immunity testing ing table is placed. The top of this table is partially
is discussed under five conditions, namely, or fully covered with a horizontal conducting sheet
Table I. Test levels and voltages for ESD immunity test
Test level 1 (kV) 2 (kV) 3 (kV) 4 (kV) X
Contact discharge voltage 2 4 6 8 Special

Air discharge voltage 2 4 6 15 Special
Fig. 11. Measurement setup for ESD immunity testing (modified and redrawn using the data available on https://www.atecorp.com/compliance-
standards/iec/iec-61000-4-2).
to facilitate direct contact ESD testing. The EUT is relays, the EFT/B immunity test is one of the
placed on the horizontal conducting sheet with a most important tests that the instrument
insulator sheet in between. A vertical coupling sheet should clear. IEC 61000-4-4 is the standard
is placed at a distance of 10 cm from EUT, on the that specifies the setup and method to carry
insulator, to take measurements for indirect dis- out EFT/B immunity testing.77
charge. An ESD gun is placed opposite from the The method of EFT/B testing is quite straight
EUT to simulate the discharge and is connected to forward. Single pulse transients of a rise
the reference ground plane via low loss cables. The time of 5 ns and a duration of 50 ns and a
reference ground plane is connected to both hori- burst of short pulses for a duration of 15 ms
zontal and vertical conducting plane via two 470X with repetition rate of 5 kHz (or 0.75 ms with
bleeder resistors. According to IEC 61000-4-2 stan- repetition rate 100 kHz) with a time interval
dard, the optimum temperature of the lab should be of 300 ms are applied for 1 min on each line
15 C–35 C and the relative humidity should fall to be tested in each polarity.78 The waveform
between 30% and 60%.67 transients are applied in a common mode so
The test procedure involves the application of that is each line is fed simultaneously. Volt-
discharge from the ESD gun to the EUT at an age requirements depend upon the product
interval of 1 s. The ESD gun can be placed directly and the type of line to be tested and are
in contact with the EUT for direct measurements or specified by the product standards.79Another
behind the vertical conducting plane for indirect standard that lays out the details of EFT/B
measurements. immunity testing is IEC 62228. Many studies
Nagai et al. used the indirect ESD test method to have been conducted to investigate the
measure the EMI due to ESD between the human adverse effect of fast transients on controller
body and a wearable biosensor by treating the area networks (CANs) using this stan-
human body as an equivalent receiving antenna.68 dard.80–83 According to this test, EFT/B
However, studies have suggested that the standards transients are injected through capacitance
specified by IEC 61000-4-2 are inadequate to deter- coupling and the immunity is determined by
mine the adverse effects of ESD on the functioning measuring the voltages and currents.
of wearable devices, and hence new standards are Wu et al. used a non-standardized test
required for such equipment.69–74 based on Langer EMV Technik to conduct
an EFT/B immunity test on two microcon-
2. Electrical Fast Transient/Burst (EFT/B) troller units with different architectures.
When an inductive load such as a motor, Langer EMV Technik is based on the use
relay, or solenoid is switched from one state of probes to inject the fast transient noise
to another then a short pulse or a burst of into the EUT. Their measurement setup is
short pulses of currents and voltages is shown in Fig. 12.84 Zhang et al. also con-
generated and is known as electrical fast ducted some non-standardized EFT/B immu-
transient/burst (EFT/B).75 These pulses have nity tests to examine the effect of EFT/B on
the lowest rise time, ranging from nanosec- multilayered ceramic capacitors. They used
onds to milliseconds, as compared to other high voltage (HV) relays to simulate and
pulsed EMI noises. Moreover, they have a inject the short pulses to the capacitors. HV
high repetition rate along with low energy differential probes and a oscilloscope were
and can cause permanent damage to the ICs used to measure the voltage across the
and other circuit components.76 Since most capacitor generated during the applied
modern electrical instruments consist of dig- pulsed noises.85
ital circuitry usually containing switches and
the supply voltage apparently disappears for

a short interval and then reappears in its
original form. As the name suggests, voltage
variations happen when the supply voltage
becomes higher or lower than the rated
voltage.92 These anomalies in the supply
voltage can deeply hamper the power quality
factor of the electronic system. They may
induce short circuiting and even explosion.
Devices such as a UPS aim at mitigating this
phenomenon.93 Since the compactness of an
electronic system is preferred, having an
additional device to stabilize voltage fluctua-
tions is not always ideal. Therefore, the
electronic systems must be inherently sus-
ceptible to these voltage variations.
The desired lab conditions during the test are
quite flexible as long as the electromagnetic
Fig. 12. Measurement setup based on Langer EMV Technik environment does not interfere with the
(adapted with permission from84).
EUT’s operations. the test setup includes a
generator that simulates the voltage varia-
3. Surge Spurious overvoltages and currents tions connected to the EUT via good quality,
generated due to bulk capacitive load switch- low EMI cables. A generator/simulator is
ing and lightning constitute surge interfer- required to provide a peak inrush current of
ence noises. These interferences can prove to 500 A for an average of 230 V mains. The
be fatal for the electronic system.86 Surges significance of inrush current lies in the fact
are relatively low frequency and high energy that it is often the biggest factor that causes
transient noises with rise time on the order of serious damages to electronic systems as far
a few microseconds and a duration of about a as voltage variations are concerned. During
few tens of microseconds.87 IEC 61000-4-5 is the test, each of the above mentioned voltage
the standard that specifies the test conditions stresses are applied three times with a gap of
and methods to measure the immunity of an 10 s. After each group of test, a full func-
electronic system from these transients.88,89 tional test of EUT is conducted to check if any
Two generators are used to simulate surges degradation in the performance has hap-
in main power line of the EUT via a decou- pened.
pling network and I/O line via decoupling
and protection network (Zener diodes, varac-
tors etc.). The maximum repetition rate of
surges applied to the setup depends on the EMI REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
device; however, on average 10 surges are If the instrument under consideration fails any of
applied at each level with a time interval of the EMI tests discussed before, then a number of
not more than 1 min. Also, as a precaution, ways can be adopted to reduce the associated EMI
the EUT and other components used during and make the instrument compatible with the real-
the test are physically isolated so as to avoid world electromagnetic environment. This section
the adverse effect of flashovers.79 Usually, a presents these techniques under four subsections
single electrical system undergoes this test at viz. electromagnetic shielding, EMI filters, circuit
a time; however, in 2016 D. W. Harberts topology modification and spread spectrum. Special
proposed that if seven samples are tested emphasis has been given to electromagnetic shield-
simultaneously then the accuracy of the test ing as it is probably the most popular method
doesn’t diminish and much time in the large- incorporated in the product design.
scale production cycle is saved.90
(iv) Voltage Dips, Interruptions and Variations Electromagnetic Shielding
EN 61000-4-11 is the standard to test the
tolerance of the electronic system to voltage One of the most popular methods to reduce EMI
dips, interruptions and variations that can and its effect on an electronic system is the use of
occur due to the imperfections in the distri- electromagnetic shields. These shields, as shown in
bution systems.91 A voltage dip refers to a Fig. 13, are enclosures made of conductive materi-
sudden drop in the ac supply voltage for a als such as metals, conductive polymers, metama-
short duration of time, followed by the terials, and ferrites that encase an electronic
restoration of the original waveform. On the component and heavily attenuate the interfering
other hand, voltage interruptions occur when noises associated with it. When the EMI field
Fig. 13. Electromagnetic shielding.
impinges on the shield then a major portion of this

field gets either reflected or absorbed and a very
small portion gets transmitted. The combined effect
of all these phenomenon is addressed as the EMI
shielding effectiveness (EMI SE) of the structure,
which is the ratio of EM power before the shielding
effect to the EM power after the shielding effect in
decibels94:

Prx
SE ¼ 10 log ð2Þ
Prx0
where Prx is the power intercepted by the receiver in
the absence of the shield and Prx0 is the power
intercepted by the receiver when the shield is placed
between the receiver and the transmitter (noise
source). Permeability, conductivity, permittivity etc.
are the properties of the material that, along with
factors such as the frequency at which the mea-
surement must be done, the polarization and angle
of incidence of the impinging wave, near-filed or far-
field application, govern its EMI SE. There are
numerous techniques to measure the EMI SE of a
particular EMI shielding system, some of which are
enumerated below:
Fig. 14. Coaxial transmission line fixture used in an ASTM ES7-83
Coaxial Transmission Line Method setup (modified and redrawn using the data available in Ref. 104).
Dual TEM Cell Method
Rectangular Waveguide Method
Nested Reverberation Chamber Method
Shielded Box Method material with respect to plane waves falling nor-
Shielded Room Method mally over its surface. Two well-known standards
Free-Space Method have been developed based on this technique,
namely, ASTM ES783 and ASTM D493510.95
According to the first method, a torus-shaped sam-
Coaxial Transmission Line Method ple is placed at the center of a coaxial cell which is
tapered at both ends to match 50X impedance as
This method is probably the most preferred shown in Fig. 14. The inner and outer diameters of
technique to measure the SE of an isotropic planar the sample are matched with the diameters of the
inner and outer conductor of the coaxial fixture The above technique was upgraded by replacing
which are 4.35 cm and 9.9 cm, respectively. The the tapered coaxial transmission line cell with a
input and output powers are measured using a flanged coaxial transmission line as shown in
network analyzer and substituted in (2) to compute Fig. 15. In this method, SE determination is done
the shielding effectiveness of the material. Analyt- in two steps. In the first step, a disc-shaped sample
ically, the calculation of SE of the sample is based on of diameter 13.3 cm is placed at the center of the
the fact that the TEM wave propagating in the test fixture and S21 is obtained using the vector
coaxial transmission line mimics the far-field inci- network analyzer. The second step gives the refer-
dent plane wave while the sample acts as a load. ence transmission coefficient by placing the torus-
The EMI SE of the sample is then computed using shaped sample matching the dimensions of the
the following formula96: outer flange and a disc-shaped sample matching the
dimensions of the inner conductor. The two pieces of
Z0
SE ¼ 20 log1 þ ð3Þ sample are coupled capacitively. Non-conductive
2ZL screws are used to join the flanged coaxial line
together. Conductive switches are avoided as the
where Z0 and ZL are the characteristic impedance of contact resistance created by them is coupled in
the coaxial transmission line and impedance pre- series with the load impedance, while that due to
sented by the load, respectively. This expression is non-conductive switches is coupled in parallel with
applicable when a perfect contact between the the load impedance. Therefore, the effect of contact
transmission line walls and sample is established. resistance is minimized in this method.
However, practically achieving a perfect contact is Repeatability is the biggest advantage of this
extremely difficult. Such imperfections lead to the method. The coaxial transmission line methods
generation of a contact resistance ZCR in series with provide very good results for frequency range of
ZL , which participates in SE determination as 30 MHz–1.5 GHz. However, efforts have been made
follows: to enhance this frequency range up to 18 GHz.95,97

Z0

SE ¼ 20 log1 þ ð4Þ Dual TEM Cell Method
2ðZL þ ZCR Þ
While the coaxial transmission line method can
The technique to measure the SE of a material is calculate shielding effectiveness of a material using
very simple but lacks accuracy and is not repeat- far-field source simulation, the dual TEM cell
able as the ZCR may vary for different tests. Because method can calculate the shielding effectiveness of
of these reasons, the standard ASTM ES7-83 that a material using near-field sources. Near-field cal-
was based on this technique was withdrawn in culations are done mainly to determine the strength
1988. However, this technique is still very popular of the shield against certain EMI emissions taking
to make some crude lab estimations regarding the place in close proximity.98 Conventionally, this
SE of a material. method is used to assess the SE of a material
within 1 MHz–1000 MHz frequency range. A dual
TEM cell consists of two rectangular coaxial trans-
mission lines tapered at each end for 50X impedance
and placed on top of each other. At the interface of
the two rectangular transmission lines, there is a
rectangular slot to hold the sample as shown in
Fig. 16. One of the two cells can act as a driving cell
(here, the lower cell) through which the energy is
coupled to the receiving cell (here, the upper cell)
via the aperture that is covered with the sample.
Fig. 15. Flanged coaxial transmission line fixture used in an ASTM Fig. 16. Schematic of shielding effectiveness measurement using a
D4935-10 setup (modified and redrawn using the data available in dual TEM cell setup (modified and redrawn using the data from
Ref. 103). Ref. 99).
Since the energy is coupled asymmetrically, the rectangular waveguide does not support TEM wave
status of a normal electric field component and mode, (12) must be modified accordingly. For a wave
tangential magnetic field component can be ana- propagating in TE10 mode in a waveguide with the
lyzed individually that in turn helps in calculating dimensions of the longer and shorter edge denoted
the shielding effectiveness of the material as by a and b, respectively, then the shielding effect of
described in.98 Practically, EMI SE of the sample the panel is expressed as100:
is computed using the equations below99:
ðc þ jb Þ2
0
S23 ðunloadedÞ SE ¼ 1 M 0 e2cd edc ð11Þ
SEðdBÞ ¼ 20 log j4b0 c
S23 ðloadedÞ ð5Þ
ðforward coupling modeÞ where,

c jb0 2
S13 ðunloadedÞ M0 ¼ ð12Þ

SEðdBÞ ¼ 20 log c þ jb0
S13 ðloadedÞ ð6Þ
where b0 is the propagation constant in the free
ðbackward coupling modeÞ space. One of the highlights of using this technique
is that contact resistance does not play any signif-
jS23 þ S13 jðunloadedÞ icant role in the computations as reflection and
SEðdBÞ ¼ 20 log transmission characteristics are considered unlike
jS23 þ S13 jðloadedÞ ð7Þ in the coaxial transmission line methods. The error
ðelectric coupling modeÞ arising due to the gap between the sample and the
walls can be easily eradicated using air-gap error
correction techniques that are already available in
jS23 S13 jðunloadedÞ
SEðdBÞ ¼ 20 log the literature. Therefore, the need for an absolutely
jS23 S13 jðloadedÞ ð8Þ perfect contact between the sample and the waveg-
ðmagnetic coupling modeÞ uide is more relaxed in this method as compared to
the transmission line methods. Also, depending on
The presence of contact resistance between the the size of the waveguide, the EMI SE of a material
sample and the fixture along with the upper fre- could be analyzed over a broad spectrum of fre-
quency limitations due to higher order resonances quency. The aperture dimensions of commonly used
are the main disadvantages of this method. How- waveguides for various microwave frequency bands
ever, the straightforward methodology employed to are shown in Table II. The main disadvantage of
determine SE in the near-field scenario makes this using this technique is that a free-space wave (TEM
method one of the most preferred for the EMI mode) cannot be utilized, so the results obtained are
applications. not closely related to the far-field scenarios.96
Rectangular Waveguide Method Nested Reverberation Chamber Method

Wilson et al. proposed that rectangular waveg- This method involves a setup that consists of a
uides operating in TE10 mode could replace the smaller reverberation chamber with a window on
coaxial transmission lines to determine the SE of a one of the walls placed inside a bigger reverberation
material. For this technique, the material had to be chamber. The window of the smaller reverberation
shaped according to the waveguide dimensions just chamber is covered by the sample such that one side
as is in the case of the coaxial transmission line of the sample lies inside the smaller chamber while
explained above. The mathematical aspect of this the other side faces the outer chamber. The outer
technique can be understood by first considering the chamber usually consists of one transmitting
SE of a rectangular panel of thickness d for TEM antenna and one receiving antenna. The smaller
wave, given as: chamber consists of one receiving antenna as shown
in Fig. 17. Both chambers are equipped with
ðg þ g Þ2
0 s movable stirrers. The stirrers help in creating a
SE ¼ 1 Me2cd edc ð9Þ
4g0 gs near isotropic environment within the chamber. the
EMI SE of the sample is given by101:
where
2 Pinner
SEðdBÞ ¼ 10 log þ CF ð13Þ
g0 gs Pouter
M¼ ð10Þ
g0 þ gs
where Pinner and Pouter denote the power received in
where g0 and gs are the intrinsic impedances of the the inner and outer chamber, respectively. CF is
free space and shield, respectively, while c denotes known as the correction factor or loss factor or test-
the propagation constant inside the shield. Since a fixture calibration factor that basically accounts for
Table II. Aperture dimensions of waveguides for various microwave bands
Microwave band (frequency range) Aperture dimension in inches (in mm)

a
UHF (0.3 GHz–1 GHz) 11:5 5:75 (292:1 146:05) to 23 11:5 (584:2 292:1)
L (1 GHz–2 GHz) 6:5 3:25 (165:1 82:55)
S (2 GHz–4 GHz) 2:84 1:34 (72:14 34:04)
C (4 GHz–8 GHz) 1:872 0:872 (47:55 22:15)
X (8 GHz–12 GHz) 0:9 0:4 (22:86 10:16)
Ku (12 GHz–18 GHz) 0:622 0:311 (15:8 7:9)
K (18 GHz–27 GHz) 0:42 0:17 (10:67 4:32)
Ka (27 GHz–40 GHz) 0:28 0:14 (7:11 3:56)
a
The aperture dimensions of other commercially available waveguides can be found in: https://www.everythingrf.com/tech-resources/wa
veguides-sizes.
2pVSu;inner
ru ¼ ð17Þ
kQu;inner Sl;outer
V represents the inner chamber’s volume, Sl;inner
and Su;inner denotes power density associated with
inner chamber in loaded and unloaded cases respec-
tively, whereas Sl;outer and Su;outer represent the
power density associated with outer chamber in the
loaded and unloaded conditions, respectively.
Qu;inner and Ql;inner represent the quality factor of
the inner chamber in the unloaded and loaded
Fig. 17. SE measurement setup using a nested reverberation scenarios, respectively. The biggest advantage of
chamber (modified and adapted from the data available in101). this method is that it can test the shielding capa-
bility of a sample in real-world conditions that are
the coupling inside the inner chamber. Mathemat- simulated inside the chamber. This is possible due
ically it is represented as102: to the flexibility in the orientation and polarization
! configurations of the antennas. The stirrers too can
Pr;inner change the field distribution in the chamber to
CF ¼ 10 log ð14Þ match with the fields present in the free-space
Pt;inner
environment.101
where Pr;inner and Pt;inner denote the received power Shielded Box Method
inside the inner chamber and the power radiated by
the transmitting antenna placed inside the inner This is a simple method usually done for compar-
chamber with the sample present at the aperture. ative testing of materials. This method involves the
Although the inclusion of CF enhances the reliabil- use of a metallic box with a small port mounted over
ity of this method, the accuracy of this method still one of the walls. An antenna acting as a receiver is
remains a concern. In the absence of a sample the fixed inside the box, while another antenna acting
SE should be 0 dB; however, (13) and (14) do not as a transmitter stays outside, as shown in Fig. 18.
corroborate this fact. Holloway et al. proposed to The received power is first measured with the port
take into account the effective cross sections, ru and left unloaded or open. Later, the port is covered with
rl , of the aperture both in the absence and presence the sample and again the received power is recorded
of the sample, respectively, in order to overcome this with the help of a VNA.103
problem. According to the proposed method102: This method is very simple to carry out; however,
the maximum frequency for which it gives accurate
rl results is 500 MHz only. Therefore, this method is
SE ¼ 10 log ð15Þ
ru not suitable for high frequency measurements.
where Shielded Room Method
2pVSl;inner In order to overcome the shortcomings of shielded
rl ¼ ð16Þ
kQl;inner Sl;outer box method, shielded room method was developed.
bandpass mode (center frequency , f > 0) or in

lowpass mode (center frequency, f ’ 0). Then, using
a discrete Fourier transform, fs21 g is transformed
back to frequency domain as:
fS21;T g ¼ DFTfs21 wðf Þg ð19Þ
where w(f) is the time gating window chosen to only
select the part of s21 related to straight line and
reject the diffracted and other unwanted compo-
nents. The shielding effectiveness is then calculated
as:

S21;ns
SEðdBÞ ¼ 20 log ð20Þ
jS21 j
where S21;ns is the transmission parameter mea-
sured without the sample and processed according
to the proposed algorithm.
Fig. 18. Shielding effectiveness measurement setup using a

shielded box (modified and redrawn using the data available in104). The frequency range and sample shape and size
used for each of the discussed techniques are
summarized in Table III.
This section would be incomplete without men-
According to this method, the sample and the tioning the Nicholson–Ross–Weir (NRW) method,
antennas are placed inside anechoic chamber while an indirect method used to mathematically deter-
the back-end components such as receiver, signal mine the EMI SE of a material directly from its S-
generator, and power supply are placed in multiple parameters as well as its complex dielectric param-
shielded rooms or enclosures to avoid any EMI eters, i.e., permittivity (m ) and permeability (lm ).
associated with them. The sample size is greatly The techniques mentioned above to determine the
increased to size of about 2.5 m2 . The working shielding effectiveness of a specimen are generally
principle is similar to the shielded box method.1,104 followed by the NRW method to compare the
This method is far more reliable and repeatable as measured EMI SE with that of the computed
compared to shielded box method. The only draw- one.106 This method is also used to measure m
back is that this method requires a very large and lm of the shielding material, thereby providing
sample to be tested. Fabricating such a large sample in-depth information about its dielectric profile. The
is usually a longer and more expensive process. determination of these properties using the NRW
method are based on the following equations107:
Free-Space Method
Rð1 T 2 Þ
This method involved two horn antennas typically S11 ¼ ð21Þ
placed facing each other with the MUT placed in ð1 R2 T 2 Þ
between. The shielding effectiveness is then mea- and
sured using (2). This method does not account for
diffracted and reflected fields; therefore, the mea- Tð1 R2 Þ
sured data is then usually treated with a time- S21 ¼ ð22Þ
ð1 R2 T 2 Þ
domain gating algorithm to get accurate results.105
Dvurechenskaya et al. proposed a time domain where jRj < 1 and is given by,
method to extract the shielding effectiveness of a sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
textile using the free-space method. According to S211 S221 þ 1 S211 S221 þ 1
the method proposed in the paper, the first step is to R¼ 1 ð23Þ
2S11 2S11
determine the time domain counterpart fs21 g of the
measured frequency domain transmission coeffi- By substituting this value of R in (21) or (22), T can
cient S21 using: be obtained as:
S11 þ S21 R
fs21 g ¼ IDFTfWðf ÞS21 ðf Þg ð18Þ T¼ ð24Þ
1 ðS11 S21 ÞR
where W(f) is the frequency window used to sup- According to the NRW method, lm is expressed as:
press side lobes. S21 is then applied to (18) in either
Table III. Sample geometry, frequency range and measured parameters associated with various EMI SE
measurement techniques
Technique Sample geometry Frequency range Parameters measured
Coaxial Trans- Torus and disc shaped sample 30 MHz–1.5 GHz but efforts Transmission coefficient for loaded and
mission Line matching the dimensions of have been made to enhance unloaded cases
Method inner and outer flanges the upper frequency limit to
respectively 18 GHz
Dual TEM Cell Rectangular slab shaped 1 MHz–1 GHz Transmission coefficients for loaded
Method sample matching the and unloaded cases
dimensions of the
rectangular slot
Rectangular Rectangular plate matching Broad frequency range Intrinsic impedance of the shielding
Waveguide the dimensions of the depending on waveguide material and the propagation
Method waveguide dimension constant inside it
Nested Rever- Samples with both electrically Depends on the sample size Received and transmitted powers of
beration large and electrically small both antennas as well as the
Chamber geometries effective cross sections of the
Method aperture in the loaded and unloaded
cases
Shielded Usually small disc-shaped Up to 500 MHz Received power for loaded and
Box Method samples matching the unloaded cases
dimensions of the port
Shielded Room Very large rectangular- or Up to 1 GHz but efforts have Received power for loaded and
Method circular-shaped samples been made to increase unloaded cases
with area of 2.5 m2 beyond 10 GHz
Free-Space Arbitrary shape No restriction; depends on the Transmission coefficients or power in
Method frequency limit of the VNA loaded and loaded cases
used
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1þR k20 k2mc Ref ¼ 1 S211 ð29Þ
lm ¼ ð25Þ
Xð1 RÞ k20 k2mc
S221
where k0 and kmc denote free-space wavelength and Abr ¼ ð30Þ
the cut-off wavelength, respectively. Here, X is 1 S211
expressed as108:
! pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
2
8:68d
rm xlm
2
ð31Þ
1 m lm 1 1 1 ME ¼ 1 10 10
¼ ¼ ln ð26Þ
X2 k20 k2mc 2pL T
where rm is the conductivity and d denotes the
where L is the sample length. On rearranging (26) thickness of the shield. On substituting (29), (30)
(m ) can be determined using the following and (31) in (28), the shielding effectiveness of a
expression: material can be obtained. However, for some par-
ticular conditions, shielding effectiveness can be
2 !
k20 1 1 1 calculated in a more straightforward fashion. For
m ¼ 2
ln ð27Þ instance, for electrically thin samples (thickness is
lm kmc 2pL T
much less than skin depth, d), SE can be calculated
The shielding effectiveness of a material can be using:

expressed as,106,109 1
SE ¼ 20 log 1 þ Z0 drm ð32Þ
jSEðdBÞj ¼ 10 logðRef Þ þ 10 logðAbrÞ þ 10 logðMEÞ 2
ð28Þ where Z0 is the free-space impedance. For electri-
cally thick samples, however, the shielding effec-
where Ref represents reflection loss, Abr represents tiveness can be obtained using109:
absorption loss and ME loss due to multipath effect.
rm 2
Multipath reflections become insignificant at fre-
SE ¼ 10 log þ 10 log ed=d ð33Þ
quencies greater than 1 GHz. These losses are 16x0 lm
computed using the following equations107,110:
Therefore, impedance on both sides of the shield is calcu-

lated. The SE of a gasket is then given by111,120
rm !
SE ¼ 10 log e2d=d ð34Þ gfreespace
16x0 lm
SE ¼ 20 log ð35Þ
ggasket
where 0 is the permittivity of the free space.
As mentioned, by using the NRW method, the where gfreespace and ggasket are the intrinsic
shielding effectiveness as well as other properties of
impedance of the free space and gasket, respec-
the material are also determined. This helps in
tively. This method is useful to take measurements
understanding the shielding mechanism of the
from dc to 18 GHz. The second method is known as
material that can be used to design and simulate
current injection in which the transfer impedance
the EMI shield.
Ztransfer is utilized to measure the SE of the gasket.
Apart from the above EMI SE measurement
techniques, the shielding effectiveness of the mate- Transfer impedance is the ratio of the voltage drop
rial depends on its structure and the way it is Vdrop , across the hinge or seam that holds the gasket
supposed to be used as a protective gear for the to the current density per unit length J on the side
equipment, against EMI radiation.111 Some of the of the gasket that faces the incoming incident field,
most popular electromagnetic shielding structures i.e.:
are listed as following: Vdrop
Ztransfer ¼ ð36Þ
1. Faraday Cage J
2. EMI Shielding Gaskets The SE of the gasket is then computed using the
3. Electromagnetic Absorbers expression:
4. EMI Shielding Textiles
d gfreespace
SE ¼ 20 log ð37Þ
2Ztransfer
1. Faraday Cage One of the first electromagnetic
shields was a Faraday cage.112 A Faraday cage where d is the thickness of the gasket. This method
is a hollow structure with a metallic screen or yields accurate results up to 2 GHz. One of the
wire mesh as walls that electrically separate the major drawbacks of this test is that the SE of the
equipment present inside to the one placed gasket is not measured directly. Therefore, the
outside the cage.112,113 For an electric field probability for error in the computation is high.
incident on the walls of a Faraday cage, the 3. Electromagnetic Absorbers Electromagnetic ab-
electrons in the walls mobilize in a manner that sorbers have been in use for a number of
cancels the electric field on the other side of the applications including health monitoring sys-
wall.114 Although this device was invented in tems, defense, radar cross section reduction
1836 by Michael Faraday, it has maintained etc.122 They are extensively used in EMI/EMC
relevance today in EMI shielding applica- technology too. They are one of the main
tions.114–119 One of the biggest disadvantages components in the EMI measurement setups
of using Faraday cages for EMI reduction is that including anechoic chambers and GTEM
these structures provide less shielding effi- cells.21,25 The most important parameter that
ciency.116 is considered while designing and analyzing
2. EMI Shielding Gaskets In applications where these absorbers is the reflection coefficient. In
foldable shields are employed, the gap between simple terms, reflection loss is nothing but the
each panel of the shield may act as a front for ratio of the field strength reflected from the
EMI radiation. Under such conditions, the shield to the field strength incident on it.111 If a
joints and hinges should be properly secured transmission line equivalent model is used to
so as to block any potential emission. To ensure analyze the performance of an absorber then
that EMI shielding gaskets are used. These the reflection coefficient R, is given by123:
structures mainly ensure that the current flow
ZI 1
throughout the shield remains unobstructed R ¼ 20 log ð38Þ
and continuous.120 IEEE Standard 1302 and ZI þ 1
SAE ARP 1705 rev. A standard (2006) are ZI , normalized input impedance is given by:
popular standards that layout the method and rffiffiffi
conditions to determine the shielding effective- l 2pft pffiffiffiffiffi
ness of EMI shielding gaskets.120,121 According ZI ¼ tanh j l ð39Þ
c
to the former standard, there are two ways that
can lead to the measurement of SE of gaskets. where l and are the permeability and permittivity
The first method is known as aperture attenu- of the absorber, t is the thickness of the absorber, c
ation in which the transmission line model of is the velocity of light and f is the frequency. The
the gasket is developed and the intrinsic absorption coefficient of the absorber is given by124:
1 1 groups to enhance EMI shielding effectiveness of a

A ¼ ðr þ x m ÞE2 þ xl lm H 2 ð40Þ system as shown in Table IV
2 2
4. EMI Shielding Textiles With the proliferation of
where r is the conductivity of the absorber, x is the electronic devices for biomedical applications such
angular velocity of EM wave, and l are the as pacemakers and implantable cardioverter
permittivity and permeability of the free space defibrillator (ICD), the need to shield them from
while m and lm are the permittivity and perme- external EMI in the environment has also gained
ability of the material. The transmission coefficient significant attention from the scientific commu-
T, of the absorber is then given by124: nity. EMI shielding textiles are proving to be the
best method to protect these devices from un-
T ¼1RA ð41Þ
wanted noise interferences. The advantages of
Materials such as ferrites,125 metamaterials,122,126 these materials is that they are relatively easy to
and carbon-nano tubes127 are often used to develop develop, are cost effective, light and flexible.152
EM absorbers. Jafarian et al. presented an X-band Materials such as composite yarns made up of a
microwave absorber for EMI shielding applications. mixture of fibers of steel, copper, etc., nonwoven
The absorber consisted of SrFe10 Al2 O19 /MWCNTs/ fabric, or conductive polymers are usually used to
polypyrrole and Ni0:5 Zn0:5 Fe2 O4 /MWCNTs/polypyr- develop EMI shielding fabrics.153 Koprowska
role composites. The authors computed the SE of the et al. prepared a textile material that was capable
absorber using the formula128: of exhibiting an EMI shielding effect using plasma
metallization process in which an SE of more than
SEtotal ¼ SEref þ SEabs ð42Þ 50 dB was achieved. The textile shield consisted of
a metallic film deposited over polypropylene non-
where wovens. The authors made use of the ASTM
1 D4935-99 method to carry out the testing.152 Tian
SEref ¼ 10 log ð43Þ et al. created a multilayered cotton-based fabric
1 jS11 j2 consisting of alternate layers of poly(sodium 4-
styrenesulfonate) (PSS) as a polyanion and chi-
and
tosan–graphene layer deposited over a pure cot-
1 jS11 j2 ton fabric.154 The maximum conductivity of the
SEabs ¼ 10 log ð44Þ material was determined to be 1:67 103 S/m
jS21 j2 while the SE was measured to be more than
SEref is the shielding effectiveness due to reflection 30 dB. Tan et al. were able to device a technique to
fabricate silver-coated cotton fiber (Ag@CF) in
and SEabs is the shielding effectiveness due to
nonwoven fabrics. The group was able to achieve
absorption. The thickness of the presented absorber
ultra-high EMI SE of about 71 dB when
was 3 mm and it could achieve a reflection coeffi-
1.61 vol.% Ag was deposited for 10 s on the surface
cient of 34.5 dB with matching frequency at
of cotton fibers and 111 dB when Ag was deposited
10.8 GHz and bandwidth of 3.05 GHz. Another
for 3 min.155 Most shielding fabrics rely on the
parameter of interest regarding the EMI shielding
reflection mechanism more than they rely on the
behavior of the absorbers is known as specific EMI
absorbing mechanism. These reflections, despite
shielding effectiveness (SSE). It is given as:
protecting the shielded equipment, allow harmful
SE radiation to travel elsewhere in the free space and
SSE ¼ ð45Þ pose serious threats to nearby equipment. If
density
absorbing materials are used to develop such
This parameter is useful to describe the shielding fabrics then challenges such as cost and thickness
characteristics of absorbers that are considered to are encountered. Keeping this issue in mind along
be used in bulk, e.g., in aerospace applications or with the corrosive nature of metals used in these
building materials. Yang et al. developed a carbon fabrics, Geng et al. recently proposed Ti3 C2 Tx
nanotube-polysterene foam composite with SSE coated cotton fabric as a promising solution. The
33.1 dB cm3 g1 .129,130 fabricated specimen was able to achieve average
Beeharry et al. proposed a radar absorber to reduce shielding effectiveness of 48.9 dB within the
EMI in radomes. The absorber consisted of a frequency range of 2–18 GHz.156
frequency selective surface (FSS) layer resting on
top of two layers of different substrates separated by
an air gap. The thickness of the absorber was 1/7.2
times the operating wavelength. The absorber oper- EMI Filters
ated over a frequency ranging from 4.8 GHz to The conducted emission noise generally comprises
11.1 GHz.131 Apart from these few mentioned of two noise components, differential mode (DM)
examples/materials, several other absorbing mate- and common mode (CM). DM noise is generated due
rials have been developed by various research to the normal flow of current in the loops formed by
Table IV. EMI absorbers
Shielding effective- Frequency Thickness

Material ness (dB) (GHz) (mm) References
75% Fly Ash þ20% Silica Fume þ0:6% multi-wall 8–57.1 1–18 10 132
carbon nanotube (MWNT)
Reinforced concrete composites (RCC) with a 3 wt.% 80 2.6 300 133
carbon nanotube
40% electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) in mortar 15–22 3–18 20 134
Poly(acrylonitrile-co-butadiene-co-styrene) (ABS) 44 and 83 8–12.4 3 135
with CNT filler (5% and 15%)
Poly(acrylonitrile-co-butadiene-co-styrene) (ABS) 9 and 34 8–12.4 3 135
with carbon black (CB) filler (5% and 15%)
Cellulose/Carbon Fiber (L=D ¼ 300) composite foam 60 0.03–1.5 – 136
Polypropylene (PP)/polyethylene (PE) blends filled 25 12 1 137
with 5 vol.% graphene nano-platelets:carbon nan-
otube (GNP:CNT) hybrid nanofiller
Carbon fiber stitched with Dyneema T90 thread 43.7 (Axial direction) 8–12 4 138
and 64.6 (Normal
direction)
Carbon fiber reinforced multilayered pyrocarbon-sil- 42 8.2–12.4 2 139
icon carbide ((PyC-SiC)n ) matrix (C/(PyC-SiC)n )
composite
Polypyrrole (PPy)/polydopamine (PDA)/silver nano- 48.4 8 > 0.095 140
wire (AgNW) composites
Polyaniline/cobalt-nickel (PANI/co-Ni) coatings de- 33.95–46.22 8.2–12.4 – 141
posited over lyocell fabrics
Carbon fiber deposited with magnetic material 40–50 12–18 0.4 142
(Nickel)
Mg-Y-Zr-Nd alloy 78–110 0.4–1.4 2 143
Highly flexible and ultra-thin Ni-plated nonwoven 72.7 0.03–1.5 1:075 103 144
carbon fabric/polycarbonate film
Ferromagnetic nanoparticles deposited over macrop- 45 12-18 1.4 145
orous epoxy-carbon fiber structures with a sacrifi-
cial polymeric mesh
Silicone rubber filled with 240 phr Ag-coated ceno- > 80 0.1–1.5 2.75 146
sphere particles
Nitrogen doped cobalt particle-embedded carbona- 33 18 4 147
ceous nanostructures
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) particles were coated 14–39 80-110 60 148
with copper
Cu/AgNWs/PI film 55–56 0.1–1.5 0.01 149
Fly ash cenospheres (FACs) + AZ91Mg alloy 75–90 0.03–1.5 3 150
11 wt.% Carbon nanocoils-11 wt.% CNT, poly- 20 0.5–3 3 151
urethane 78 wt.%
various components in the circuit. These loops separate these two unwanted signals. After their
might start behaving like small loop antennas separation, filters are introduced in the circuit.159
which radiate EMI noise. CM noise is generated One of the earliest papers that laid down the theory
due to parasitic impedances induced in the circuit of miniature EMI filters was first proposed in 1964
due to undesired voltage drops. This happens when by Schlicke where he suggested that thin film-based
the current gets leaked via a stray capacitance or ceramic low-pass filters were preferred to mitigate
inductance and returns back to the power supply EMI problems over their counterparts as these
line.157 If these noise signals reach the output filters were easy to fabricate and showed better
terminal of the circuit, then they get radiated into response at high frequencies.160 Since then much
their environment posing a threat to the nearby effort has been put into developing EMI filters that
equipment. A common way of countering the gen- can combat the adversities posed by EMI
erated CM and DM noises is to filter them out of the noises.161–166 In 2006, Nan et al. developed an
system using EMI filters.158 CM and DM noise EMI filter that consisted of a large high permeabil-
signals require different techniques to be filtered; ity loop (to suppress CM noise) and two smaller low
therefore, usually a noise separator is used to permeability loops (to suppress DM noises)
arranged transversely along the diameter of the the EMI reduction in PCB by modifying the area
larger loop. The filter was capable of suppressing and the location of the ground plane.175
both CM and DM noise.167 Another filter aimed at
reducing both types of noise signals was proposed Spread Spectrum Technique
by Maillet et al. in 2010. The filter was developed
Vidya et al. used a spread spectrum clock gener-
to be used to reduce EMI in motor drives that were
ator to reduce EMI in digital circuits. The authors
fed by a dc input. This filter consisted of two DM
focused on the clock used in these circuits as they
capacitors and one CM capacitor to bypass the
are the major contributors of noise signal generation
noise due to their low impedance along with one
due to their high frequency. In the spread spectrum,
high impedance CM choke with ferrite core to filter
the energy accumulated in the narrowband is
out the EMI noise. The authors were able to reduce
spread over a wider bandwidth using frequency
the interfering noise by 8 dB to 18 dB using this
modulation.176 Consequently, the value of peak
filter.168 Since conventional EMI filters are quite
energy is reduced which leads to low probability of
bulky, hybrid filters are used to reduce the pay-
EMI generation. In the mentioned paper, the
load. Hybrid filters comprise of an active filter
authors used delta-sigma modulation to reconfig-
(containing amplifiers and other active devices)
ure the clock signal.177
and a smaller passive filter.169–171 Goswami et al.
developed a DM active filter for boost power factor
CONCLUSION
correction AC/DC converter. The proposed filter
was able to reduce the EMI noise by 30–35 dB.171 This review paper starts with an elaborate dis-
Metallized film capacitors are also used to filter out cussion on the meaning and sources of EMI followed
unwanted EMI noise. These capacitors consist of by its historical background. The techniques gener-
thin layer of metal as electrodes separated by a ally used to measure the EMI under two broad
sheet of dielectric. Two of the most commonly used categories, namely, emission testing and immunity
dielectric materials for these capacitors are testing, are also presented in detail. There are two
polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate types of emissions considered for EMI measure-
(PET) while the metallic electrodes could be a thin ments, namely, radiated emission and conducted
film (thickness of the order of nanometers) of emission. Radiated emission testing is done in the
aluminium or zinc deposited over the dielectric or open-area test-site setup or in chambers such as
it could be made of Babbitt metal (a combination of anechoic chambers, GTEMs or reverberation cham-
zinc and tin) sprayed over the wound capacitor roll bers. Conducted emission testing is done to measure
in order to complete the circuit.172 The unique the EMI generated due to abrupt change in voltages
property of these capacitors that makes them and currents within the circuitry of the EUT. In
favorable for EMI filtering applications is that order to do this, methods such as LISN, 1X method,
they are able to withstand high voltages and probe method or TEM cell method is used. All these
exhibit self-healing property in the event of voltage EMI measurement methods are explained elabo-
breakdown. rately and the relevant internationally accepted
The main advantage of using a filter for EMI respective standards are mentioned in the text for
reduction is that they are easy to design, more cost further reading.
effective for smaller systems and easier to imple- Apart from EMI measurement techniques men-
ment. The biggest disadvantage of using filters is tioned above, this review also focuses on the general
that interferences whose characteristics (frequency, methods used to reduce the EMI due to an electronic
mode of transmission etc.) are different than the device. These methods include the use of electro-
characteristics of the system are detected and magnetic shields, EMI filters, changes in the circuit
removed. However, in case the interference has topology itself and the spread spectrum technique.
similar nature to the signals flowing in the circuit it Special attention is given to electromagnetic shield-
could possible survive the filtering process and ing as it is probably the most preferred EMI
continue to cause harm to the system.111 reduction technique. Various methods employed to
measure the shielding effectiveness of materials are
discussed theoretically as well as mathematically.
Circuit Topology
The review paper presents the topic of EMI in
If the components of the circuit are not arranged totality by including both, the measurement tech-
optimally then loop inductances, parasitic capaci- niques and the reduction techniques. Thus, it could
tances etc. can be generated giving rise to spurious be beneficial for both the established researcher and
noise signals. Therefore, it is extremely important new researcher to get a good knowledge about the
to assign a proper location to each and every electromagnetic interference.
component within the electronic system.173 Bhargav
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
et al. could reduce the EMI of DC-DC buck con-
verter after modifying the layout of the PCB by This work was financially supported by Univer-
optimizing the locations of FET, decoupling capac- sity Grants Commission (UGC), Govt. of India un-
itor and vias.174 Similarly, Lee et al. demonstrated der UGC-FRP (Faculty Recharge Program).
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Journal of ELECTRONIC MATERIALS, Vol. 49, No.

PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPING ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE MATERIALS

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Measurement

PHALGUNI MATHUR1 and SUJITH RAMAN 1,2

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is one of the biggest challenges faced

Key words: electromagnetic interference (EMI), EMI testing,

in itself, the biggest hurdle that any electronic

Fig. 1. Electronic product development flowchart.

Fig. 2. EMI measurement techniques.

Emission Testing OATS environment, distances of 30 m were

Vick carried out these tests in an anechoic

output voltages in three orthogonal directions along

4. Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) Cell A

Fig. 8. Measurement setup for EMI conducted emission testing

Table I. Test levels and voltages for ESD immunity test

Test level 1 (kV) 2 (kV) 3 (kV) 4 (kV) X

Contact discharge voltage 2 4 6 8 Special

the supply voltage apparently disappears for

Fig. 13. Electromagnetic shielding.

impinges on the shield then a major portion of this

Rectangular Waveguide Method Nested Reverberation Chamber Method

Table II. Aperture dimensions of waveguides for various microwave bands

Microwave band (frequency range) Aperture dimension in inches (in mm)

bandpass mode (center frequency , f > 0) or in

Fig. 18. Shielding effectiveness measurement setup using a

Technique Sample geometry Frequency range Parameters measured

Therefore, impedance on both sides of the shield is calcu-

1 1 groups to enhance EMI shielding effectiveness of a

Table IV. EMI absorbers

Shielding effective- Frequency Thickness

REFERENCES 31. B. Palczynska, in 2017 IEEE International Conference on

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