UNIT – I – INTRODUCTION

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 UNIT 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has two types of energy storage units, electricity and fuel.
Electricity means that a battery (sometimes assisted by ultracaps) is used to store the energy,
and that an electromotor (from now on called motor) will be used as traction motor.

Fuel means that a tank is required, and that an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE, from now
on called engine) is used to generate mechanical power, or that a fuel cell will be used to
convert fuel to electrical energy. In the latter case, traction will be performed by the
electromotor only. In the first case, the vehicle will have both an engine and a motor.

Depending on the drive train structure (how motor and engine are connected), we can
distinguish between parallel, series or combined HEVs. This will be explained in
paragraph 1.

Depending on the share of the electromotor to the traction power, we can distinguish
between mild or micro hybrid (start-stop systems), power assist hybrid, full hybrid and
plug-in hybrid. This will be explained in paragraph 2.

Depending on the nature of the non-electric energy source, we can distinguish between
combustion (ICE), fuel cell, hydraulic or pneumatic power, and human power. In the first
case, the ICE is a spark ignition engines (gasoline) or compression ignition direct
injection (diesel) engine. In the first two cases, the energy conversion unit may be
powered by gasoline, methanol, compressed natural gas, hydrogen, or other alternative
fuels.

Motors are the "work horses" of Hybrid Electric Vehicle drive systems. The electric traction
motor drives the wheels of the vehicle. Unlike a traditional vehicle, where the engine must
"ramp up" before full torque can be provided, an electric motor provides full torque at low
speeds. The motor also has low noise and high efficiency. Other characteristics include
excellent "off the line" acceleration, good drive control, good fault tolerance and flexibility in
relation to voltage fluctuations.

The front-running motor technologies for HEV applications include PMSM (permanent
magnet synchronous motor), BLDC (brushless DC motor), SRM (switched reluctance motor)
and AC induction motor.

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A main advantage of an electromotor is the possibility to function as generator. In all HEV
systems, mechanical braking energy is regenerated.

The max. operational braking torque is less than the maximum traction torque; there is
always a mechanical braking system integrated in a car.

The battery pack in a HEV has a much higher voltage than the SIL automotive 12 Volts
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battery, in order to reduce the currents and the I R losses.
Accessories such as power steering and air conditioning are powered by electric motors
instead of being attached to the combustion engine. This allows efficiency gains as the
accessories can run at a constant speed or can be switched off, regardless of how fast the
combustion engine is running.

Especially in long haul trucks, electrical power steering saves a lot of energy.

1. 1 TYPES BY DRIVETRAIN STRUCTURE

1.1.1 Series hybrid

In a series hybrid system, the combustion engine drives an electric generator (usually a three-
phase alternator plus rectifier) instead of directly driving the wheels. The electric motor is the
only means of providing power to the wheels. The generator both charges a battery and
powers an electric motor that moves the vehicle. When large amounts of power are required,
the motor draws electricity from both the batteries and the generator as shown in Fig 1

Series hybrid configurations already exist a long time: diesel-electric locomotives, hydraulic
earth moving machines, diesel-electric power groups, loaders.

Fig. 1: Structure of a series hybrid vehicle

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Series hybrids can be assisted by ultracaps (or a flywheel: KERS=Kinetic Energy
Recuperation System), which can improve the efficiency by minimizing the losses in the
battery. They deliver peak energy during acceleration and take regenerative energy during
braking. Therefore, the ulracaps are kept charged at low speed and almost empty at top
speed. Deep cycling of the battery is reduced, the stress factor of the battery is lowered.

A complex transmission between motor and wheel is not needed, as electric motors are
efficient over a wide speed range. If the motors are attached to the vehicle body, flexible
couplings are required.

Some vehicle designs have separate electric motors for each wheel. Motor integration into
the wheels has the disadvantage that the unsprung mass increases, decreasing ride
performance. Advantages of individual wheel motors include simplified traction control (no
conventional mechanical transmission elements such as gearbox, transmission shafts,
differential), all wheel drive, and allowing lower floors, which is useful for buses. Some 8x8
all-wheel drive military vehicles use individual wheel motors. As shown in Fig 2.

A fuel cell hybrid electric always has a series configuration: the engine-generator
combination is replaced by a fuel cell.

Fig. 2: Structures of a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle

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Weaknesses of series hybrid vehicles:

The ICE, the generator and the electric motor are dimensioned to handle the full power of
the vehicle. Therefore, the total weight, cost and size of the powertrain can be excessive.

The power from the combustion engine has to run through both the generator and electric
motor. During long-distance highway driving, the total efficiency is inferior to a
conventional transmission, due to the several energy conversions.

Advantages of series hybrid vehicles:

• There is no mechanical link between the combustion engine and the wheels. The engine-
generator group can be located everywhere.

• There are no conventional mechanical transmission elements (gearbox, transmission

shafts).

• Separate electric wheel motors can be implemented easily.

• The combustion engine can operate in a narrow rpm range (its most efficient range),
even as the car changes speed.

• Series hybrids are relatively the most efficient during stop-and-go city driving.

Example of SHEV: Renault Kangoo.

1.1.2 Parallel hybrid

Parallel hybrid systems have both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor
in parallel connected to a mechanical transmission as shown in Fig 1.3

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 Fig. 1.3: Structure of a parallel hybrid electric vehicle
Most designs combine a large electrical generator and a motor into one unit, often located
between the combustion engine and the transmission, replacing both the conventional starter
motor and the alternator (see figures above). The battery can be recharged during
regenerative breaking, and during cruising (when the ICE power is higher than the required
power for propulsion). As there is a fixed mechanical link between the wheels and the motor
(no clutch), the battery cannot be charged when the car isn’t moving.

When the vehicle is using electrical traction power only, or during brake while regenerating
energy, the ICE is not running (it is disconnected by a clutch) or is not powered (it rotates in
an idling manner).

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Operation modes:

The parallel configuration supports diverse operating modes as shown in Fig 1.4.

Fig. 1.4: Some typical modes for a parallel hybrid configuration

PE = Power electronics
TX = Transmission
a) electric power only: Up to speeds of usually 40 km/h, the electric motor works with only
the energy of the batteries, which are not recharged by the ICE. This is the usual way of
operating around the city, as well as in reverse gear, since during reverse gear the speed is
limited.

b) ICE power only: At speeds superior to 40 km/h, only the heat engine operates. This is the
normal operating way at the road.

c) ICE + electric power: if more energy is needed (during acceleration or at high speed), the
electric motor starts working in parallel to the heat engine, achieving greater power

d) ICE + battery charging: if less power is required, excess of energy is used to charge the
batteries. Operating the engine at higher torque than necessary, it runs at a higher
efficiency.

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e) regenerative breaking: While braking or decelerating, the electric motor takes profit of
the kinetic energy of the he moving vehicle to act as a generator.

Sometimes, an extra generator is used: then the batteries can be recharged when the vehicle is
not driving, the ICE operates disconnected from the transmission. But this system gives an
increased weight and price to the HEV as shown in fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.5: A parallel HEV can have an extra generator for the battery (left) Without
generator, the motor will charge the battery (right)

Weaknesses of parallel hybrid vehicles:

• Rather complicated system.

• The ICE doesn’t operate in a narrow or constant RPM range, thus efficiency drops at low
rotation speed.

• As the ICE is not decoupled from the wheels, the battery cannot be charged at standstill.

Advantages of parallel hybrid vehicles:

• Total efficiency is higher during cruising and long-distance highway driving.

• Large flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power

• Compared to series hybrids, the electromotor can be designed less powerful than the ICE,
as it is assisting traction. Only one electrical motor/generator is required.

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Example of PHEV:

Honda Civic. Honda's IMA (Integrated Motor Assist) uses a rather traditional ICE with
continuously variable transmission, where the flywheel is replaced with an electric motor.

Influence of scale: a Volvo 26 ton truck (12 ton own weight, 14 ton max load) equipped with
200 kg of batteries can drive on pure electric power for 2 minutes only! Because of space
constraints, it is not possible to build in more batteries.

1.1.3 Combined hybrid

Combined hybrid systems have features of both series and parallel hybrids. There is a double
connection between the engine and the drive axle: mechanical and electrical. This split power
path allows interconnecting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity.

Power-split devices are incorporated in the powertrain. The power to the wheels can be either
mechanical or electrical or both. This is also the case in parallel hybrids. But the main
principle behind the combined system is the decoupling of the power supplied by the engine
from the power demanded by the driver.

Fig. 1.6: Simplified structure of a combined hybrid electric vehicle

In a conventional vehicle, a larger engine is used to provide acceleration from standstill than one
needed for steady speed cruising. This is because a combustion engine's torque is minimal at
lower RPMs, as the engine is its own air pump. On the other hand, an electric motor exhibits
maximum torque at stall and is well suited to complement the engine's torque deficiency at low
RPMs. In a combined hybrid, a smaller, less flexible, and highly efficient engine can be used.
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It is often a variation of the conventional Otto cycle, such as the Miller or Atkinson cycle.
This contributes significantly to the higher overall efficiency of the vehicle, with regenerative
braking playing a much smaller role as shown in Fig. 1.6.

At lower speeds, this system operates as a series HEV, while at high speeds, where the series
powertrain is less efficient, the engine takes over. This system is more expensive than a pure
parallel system as it needs an extra generator, a mechanical split power system and more
computing power to control the dual system as shown in Fig.1.7

Combined hybrid drive modes

Weaknesses of combined hybrid vehicles:

• Very complicated system, more expensive than parallel hybrid.

• The efficiency of the power train transmission is dependent on the amount of power being
transmitted over the electrical path, as multiple conversions, each with their own
efficiency, lead to a lower efficiency of that path (~70%) compared with the purely
mechanical path (98%).

Advantages of combined hybrid vehicles:

• Maximum flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power

• Decoupling of the power supplied by the engine from the power demanded by the driver
allows for a smaller, lighter, and more efficient ICE design.
Example of CHEV: Toyota Prius, Auris, Lexus CT200h, Lexus RX400h.

1.2 TYPES BY DEGREE OF HYBRIDIZATION

Parallel and combined hybrids can be categorized depending upon how balanced the different
portions are at providing motive power. In some cases, the combustion engine is the
dominant portion; the electric motor turns on only when a boost is needed. Others can run
with just the electric system operating.

1.3 STRONG HYBRID ( = full hybrid)

A full hybrid EV can run on just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both. A
large, high- capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation.

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Examples:

The Toyota Prius, Auris and Lexus are full hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on
battery power alone. The Toyota brand name for this technology is Hybrid Synergy Drive. A
computer oversees operation of the entire system, determining if engine or motor, or both
should be running. The ICE will be shut off when the electric motor is sufficient to provide
the power.

1.4 MEDIUM HYBRID ( = motor assist hybrid)

Motor assist hybrids use the engine for primary power, with a torque-boosting electric motor
connected in parallel to a largely conventional powertrain. EV mode is only possible for a
very limited period of time, and this is not a standard mode. Compared to full hybrids, the
amount of electrical power needed is smaller, thus the size of the battery system can be
reduced. The electric motor, mounted between the engine and transmission, is essentially a
very large starter motor, which operates not only when the engine needs to be turned over,
but also when the driver "steps on the gas" and requires extra power. The electric motor may
also be used to re-start the combustion engine, deriving the same benefits from shutting down
the main engine at idle, while the enhanced battery system is used to power accessories. The
electric motor is a generator during regenerative breaking.

Examples:

Honda's hybrids including the Civic and the Insight use this design, leveraging their
reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is dubbed Integrated
Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic Hybrid, the IMA system now can propel
the vehicle solely on electric power during medium speed cruising.

A variation on this type of hybrid is the Saturn VUE Green Line hybrid system that uses a
smaller electric motor (mounted to the side of the engine), and battery pack than the Honda
IMA, but functions similarly.

Another variation on this type is Mazda's e-4WD system, offered on the Mazda Demio sold
in Japan. This front-wheel drive vehicle has an electric motor which can drive the rear wheels
when extra traction is needed. The system is entirely disengaged in all other driving
conditions, so it does not enhance performance or economy.

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1.5 MILD HYBRID / MICRO HYBRID (= start/stop systems with energy recuperation)

Mild hybrids are essentially conventional vehicles with oversized starter motors, allowing the
engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly
and cleanly.

During restart, the larger motor is used to spin up the engine to operating rpm speeds before
injecting any fuel. That concept is not unique to hybrids; Subaru pioneered this feature in the
early 1980s, and the Volkswagen Lupo 3L is one example of a conventional vehicle that
shuts off its engine when at a stop.

As in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to recapture energy.
But there is no motor-assist, and no EV mode at all. Therefore, many people do not consider
these to be hybrids, since there is no electric motor to drive the vehicle, and these vehicles do
not achieve the fuel economy of real hybrid models.

Some provision must be made for accessories such as air conditioning which are normally
driven by the engine. Those accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the
engine is off.

Furthermore, the lubrication systems of internal combustion engines are inherently least
effective immediately after the engine starts; since it is upon startup that the majority of
engine wear occurs, the frequent starting and stopping of such systems reduce the lifespan of
the engine considerably. Also, start and stop cycles may reduce the engine's ability to operate
at its optimum temperature, thus reducing the engine's efficiency as shown in Fig 1.8.

Fig. 1.8: Powertrain of a mild HEV

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Examples:

BMW succeeded in combining regenerative braking with the mild hybrid "start-stop" system
in their current 1-series model.

Citroën proposes a start-stop system on its C2 and C3 models. The concept-car C5 Airscape
has an improved version of that, adding regenerative breaking and traction assistance
functionalities, and supercapacitors for energy buffering.

1.6 PLUG-IN HYBRID (= grid connected hybrid = vehicle to grid V2G)

All the previous hybrid architectures could be grouped within a classification of charge
sustaining: the energy storage system in these vehicles is designed to remain within a fairly
confined region of state of charge (SOC). The hybrid propulsion algorithm is designed so that
on average, the SOC of energy storage system will more or less return to its initial condition
after a drive cycle.

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a full hybrid, able to run in electric-only mode,
with larger batteries and the ability to recharge from the electric power grid. Their main
benefit is that they can be gasoline-independent for daily commuting, but also have the
extended range of a hybrid for long trips.

Grid connected hybrids can be designed as charge depleting: part of the “fuel” consumed during
a drive is delivered by the utility, by preference at night. Fuel efficiency is then calculated based
on actual fuel consumed by the ICE and its gasoline equivalent of the kWh of energy delivered
by the utility during recharge. The "well-to-wheel" efficiency and emissions of PHEVs compared
to gasoline hybrids depends on the energy sources used for the grid utility (coal, oil, natural gas,
hydroelectric power, solar power, wind power, nuclear power).

In a serial Plug-In hybrid, the ICE only serves for supplying the electrical power via a
coupled generator in case of longer driving distances. Plug in hybrids can be made multi-fuel,
with the electric power supplemented by diesel, biodiesel, or hydrogen.

The Electric Power Research Institute's research indicates a lower total cost of ownership for
PHEVs due to reduced service costs and gradually improving batteries.

Some scientists believe that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry.
Plug-in vehicles which use batteries to store electric energy outperform cars which use
hydrogen as carrier for the energy taken from the grid. The following figures indicate the
efficiencies of a hydrogen fuel cell HEV and a battery powered EV.

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Left a battery powered plug in EV (Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution MIEV)) Right a Fuel
Cell EV (Mercedes NECAR 3)

For typical driving cycles, the achieved efficiencies are lower. The battery powered EV
achieves efficiencies in the range of 50 to 60%. The hydrogen powered EV has a total
efficiency of about 13% only at those drive cycles.

1.7 TYPES BY NATURE OF THE POWER SOURCE

Electric-internal combustion engine hybrid

There are many ways to create an electric-internal combustion hybrid. The variety of electric-
ICE designs can be differentiated by how the electric and combustion portions of the
powertrain connect (series, parallel or combined), at what times each portion is in operation,
and what percent of the power is provided by each hybrid component. Many designs shut off
the internal combustion engine when it is not needed in order to save energy, see 2.3.

Fuel cell hybrid

Fuel cell vehicles have a series hybrid configuration. They are often fitted with a battery or
supercapacitor to deliver peak acceleration power and to reduce the size and power
constraints on the fuel cell (and thus its cost). See 1.1.

Human power and environmental power hybrids

Many land and water vehicles use human power combined with a further power source.
Common are parallel hybrids, e.g. a boat being rowed and also having a sail set, or motorized
bicycles. Also some series hybrids exist. Such vehicles can be tribrid vehicles, combining at
the same time three power sources e.g. from on-board solar cells, from grid-charged
batteries, and from pedals.

The following examples don’t use electrical power, but can be considered as hybrids as well:
Pneumatic hybrid

Compressed air can also power a hybrid car with a gasoline compressor to provide the power.
Moteur Development International in France produces such air cars. A team led by Tsu-Chin
Tsao, a UCLA mechanical and aerospace engineering professor, is collaborating with
engineers from Ford to get Pneumatic hybrid technology up and running. The system is
similar to that of a hybrid-electric vehicle in that braking energy is harnessed and stored to
assist the engine as needed during acceleration.
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Hydraulic hybrid

A hydraulic hybrid vehicle uses hydraulic and mechanical components instead of electrical ones.
A variable displacement pump replaces the motor/generator, and a hydraulic accumulator (which
stores energy as highly compressed nitrogen gas) replaces the batteries. The hydraulic
accumulator, which is essentially a pressure tank, is potentially cheaper and more durable than
batteries. Hydraulic hybrid technology was originally developed by Volvo Flygmotor and was
used experimentally in buses from the early 1980s and is still an active area.

Initial concept involved a giant flywheel (see Gyrobus) for storage connected to a hydrostatic
transmission, but it was later changed to a simpler system using a hydraulic accumulator
connected to a hydraulic pump/motor. It is also being actively developed by Eaton and
several other companies, primarily in heavy vehicles like buses, trucks and military vehicles.
An example is the Ford F-350 Mighty Tonka concept truck shown in 2002. It features an
Eaton system that can accelerate the truck up to highway speeds.

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 UNIT – II – POWER SYSTEM AND NEW GENERATION
VEHICLES – SAU1604

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 UNIT 2

POWER SYSTEM AND NEW GENERATION VEHICLES

2.1 STRATIFIED ENGINES

For many decades the researchers have pursued development of direct injection stratified
charge SI engines to have overall very lean engine operation for higher fuel efficiency.
Charge stratification is a means of ensuring repeatable ignition without misfire and stable
combustion while using overall very lean fuel-air ratios that is otherwise not possible with
homogeneous mixtures. In the stratified charge engines, the mixture composition is varied
within the combustion chamber such that stoichiometric or slightly richer mixture exits near
spark plug to provide good ignition characteristics and the mixture gets progressively leaner
away from the spark plug. Overall air-fuel ratio in the cylinder is significantly leaner than the
stoichiometric. A typical configuration of DISC engine is shown on Fig 7.1. Liquid fuel is
injected in the cylinder. The fuel spray is directed by air motion or by the geometry of piston
crown or by combination of the both towards spark plug. By the time fuel spray reaches the
spark plug electrodes some fuel gets vaporized and forms combustible mixture with air. The
vaporized fuel in spray is then ignited by spark, combustion begins and the flame spreads in
the combustion chamber.

Fig. 2.1: Schematic of a direct injection stratified charge (DISC)

engine combustion system

Potential Advantages of DISC Engines The direct injection stratified charge SI engines have the
potential to provide following advantages over the premixed homogeneous charge engines; The
mixture being rich near spark plug good ignition characteristics without misfire are obtained.
High combustion temperatures obtained as a result of initial burning of rich mixtures near spark
plug produce high flame speeds that burn the lean mixtures in the cylinder away from spark plug.
The overall air-fuel ratio can be very lean reaching 40:1 to 50:1giving high
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fuel efficiency. An unthrottled engine operation is possible such that the engine power may
be controlled by varying only the fuel flow. It would reduce pumping losses. The end gases
being very fuel lean, precombustion reactions would be very slow leading to reduced
knocking tendency. Hence, a higher compression ratio can be used further improving the fuel
efficiency. Presence of rich mixture near spark plug keeps the formation of NOx at low
levels. The mixture that burns early is deficient in oxygen although it attains high combustion
temperatures as shown in the fig 2.1.

2.2 LEAN BURN ENGINE

Fig. 2.2: Lean burn engine

Lean-burn means pretty much what it says. It is a lean amount of fuel supplied to and burned
in an engine’s combustion chamber. Normal air-to-fuel ratio is on the order of 15:1 (15 parts
air to 1 part fuel). True lean-burn can go as high as 23:1.

Lean-burn engines (both gasoline and diesel) enjoy higher fuel economy and cleaner
emissions than conventionally tuned engines. by nature they use less fuel and emit fewer
unburned hydrocarbons and greenhouse gases while producing equivalent power of a like-
sized “normal” combustion engine. They achieve leanburn status by employing higher
combustion chamber compression ratios (higher cylinder pressure), significant air intake
swirl and precise lean-metered direct fuel injection.

Working of Lean Burn Engine

Lean-burn engines (both gasoline and diesel) enjoy higher fuel economy and cleaner emissions
than conventionally tuned engines. by nature they use less fuel and emit fewer unburned
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hydrocarbons and greenhouse gases while producing equivalent power of a like-sized
“normal” combustion engine. They achieve leanburn status by employing higher combustion
chamber compression ratios (higher cylinder pressure), significant air intake swirl and precise
lean-metered direct fuel injection.

▪ A lean burn mode is a way to reduce throttling losses.

▪ An engine in a typical vehicle is sized for providing the power desired for acceleration,
but must operate well below that time in normal steady-speed operation. Ordinarily, the
power is cut by partially closing a throttle.

▪ However, the extra work done in pumping air through the throttle reduces efficiency.

▪ If the fuel/air ratio is reduced, then lower power are often achieved with the throttle closer
to fully open, and the efficiency during normal driving (below the maximum torque
capability of the engine) are often higher.

▪ The engines designed for lean burning can employ higher compression ratios and thus
provide better performance, efficient fuel use and low exhaust hydrocarbon emissions
than those found in conventional petrol engines.

▪ Ultra lean mixtures with very high air-fuel ratios can only be achieved by direct injection
engines.

▪ the most drawback of lean burning is that a posh converter system is required to reduce
NOx emissions.

▪ Lean burn engines don’t work well with modern 3-way converter which needs a pollutant
balance at the exhaust port in order that they can carry out oxidation and reduction
reactions so latest engines run at or near the stoichiometric point.

▪ Alternatively, ultra-lean ratios can reduce NOx emissions

Advantages of lean burn engine

▪ Higher fuel economy

▪ Emit fewer unburned hydrocarbons and greenhouse gases
▪ A lean burn mode may be a way to reduce throttling losses

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Disadvantages of lean burn engine

▪ Lean burning is that a complex catalytic converter system is required to reduce NOx
emissions.
▪ High relatively cost
2.3 HYDROGEN ENGINES

The small number of vehicles using hydrogen internal combustion engines (HICE) makes it
difficult to explain how to repair them. Therefore, this section does not serve as a repair
manual, but as an outline describing the operation of a hydrogen engine and its major
components, its benefits, drawbacks and how components can be modified or redesigned to
reduce the drawbacks.

Combustive Properties of Hydrogen Key Points & Notes: The properties of hydrogen are
detailed in Section 1. The properties that contribute to its use as a combustible fuel are its: • wide
range of flammability • low ignition energy • small quenching distance • high autoignition
temperature • high flame speed at stoichiometric ratios • high diffusivity • very low density

Fig. 2.3: Hydrogen engines

Working principle

Depending the method used to meter the hydrogen to the engine, the power output compared
to a gasoline engine can be anywhere from 85% (intake manifold injection) to 120% (high
pressure injection). Because of hydrogen’s wide range of flammability, hydrogen engines can
run on A/F ratios of anywhere from 34:1 (stoichiometric) to 180:1. The A/F ratio can also be
expressed in terms of equivalence ratio, denoted by phi (Φ). Phi is equal to the stoichiometric
A/F ratio divided by the actual A/F ratio. For a stoichiometric mixture, the actual A/F ratio is
equal to the stoichiometric A/F ratio and thus the phi equals unity (one). For lean A/F ratios,
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phi will be a value less than one. For example, a phi of 0.5 means that there is only enough
fuel available in the mixture to oxidize with half of the air available. Another way of saying
this is that there is twice as much air available for combustion than is theoretically required.

2.4 SURFACE IGNITION

Surface ignition may be initiated by one of two mechanisms: mechanical hot spots or
combustion-chamber deposits. Conditions determining whether or not surface ignition occurs
and the surface ignition resistance of fuels are different for each mechanism. The occurrence
of surface ignition may be detected by changes in engine noise, time of peak pressure, rate of
pressure rise, or flame front propagation time.

Surface ignition may cause decreased engine power, increased heat rejection, and, in severe
cases, component physical damage and ultimate failure. Increased compression ratio, speed,
and specific output all increase the tendency of an engine to experience surface ignition.

The composition and additive treatment of both gasoline and crankcase oil have large effects
on the surface ignition tendencies of accumulated combustion-chamber deposits. Minimizing
the heavy aromatic content of gasoline can reduce surface ignition, but a more effective
method is the use of phosphorus containing, deposit modifier gasoline additives. Minimizing
the bright stock content and metallic detergent content of the crankcase oil reduces its
contribution to surface ignition activity.

2.5 FLEXIBLE FUEL VEHICLES

Flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) have an internal combustion engine and are capable of
operating on gasoline and any blend of gasoline and ethanol up to 83%. E85 (or flex fuel) is a
gasoline-ethanol blend containing 51% to 83% ethanol, depending on geography and season.
According to IHS Markit, as of 2017, there were more than 21 million FFVs in the United
States. Because FFVs are factory made and are capable of operating on gasoline and
gasoline-ethanol blends, many vehicle owners don't realize their car is an FFV and that they
have a choice of fuels to use. Visit Fueleconomy.gov to learn how to identify an FFV or use
the Alternative Fuel and Advanced Vehicle Search to find current FFV models.

Other than an ethanol-compatible fuel system and a different powertrain calibration, FFVs are
similar to their conventional gasoline-only counterparts. While fuel economy (miles per gallon) is
generally lower with increased levels of ethanol (due to the lower energy content in ethanol as
compared to gasoline and because the engines are optimized for gasoline), many FFVs have

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improved acceleration performance when operating on higher ethanol blends. For additional
information on the fuel economy and performance of FFVs, see Effects of High-Octane
Ethanol Blends on Four Legacy Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and a Turbocharged GDI Vehicle

2.6 FREE PISTON.

How does a free piston work

The working principle of the free piston engine is a two-stroke engine cycle, using the
linear motion of pistons sliding in a cylinder. The piston is driven by gas pressure and
other forces on the pistons and, hence, this engine functions similar to a mass spring system.

Free-piston engines have great potential for use as generators for range-extended electric
cars or even driving a full series-hybrid in place of a more conventional crankshaft-based
engine

It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston
rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to
the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod.

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UNIT – III – VEHICLE OPERATION AND CONTROL –
SAU1604

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 UNIT 3
VEHICLE OPERATION AND CONTROL

3.1 Structure and composition of atmosphere Atmosphere, composition and structure. Earth's
atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 0.93% argon. The remainder,
less than 0.1%, contains such trace gases as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone.

Definition of Air pollutants: Substances introduces into the air, natural or manmade, in
concentrations detrimental to human, plant or animal life, or to property.

3.2 Major Classification of Air Pollutants

1] Primary – Secondary
2] Natural – Manmade
3] Criteria Air Pollutants
4] Physical - chemical - biological

3.4 Primary pollutants and secondary pollutants: Primary pollutants are substances that are
directly emitted into the atmosphere from sources. Primary pollutants are those that are
emitted directly from identifiable sources. Secondary air pollutants are those that are
produced in the air by the interaction of two or more primary air pollutant.

Primary Air pollutants

(i) Fine (less than 100μ) and coarse (more than 100μ) suspended particulate matter
(ii) Oxides of sulfur
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen
(iv) Carbon monoxide
(v) Halogens
(vi) Organic compounds
(vii) Radioactive compounds

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Secondary Air pollutants
(i) Ozone
(ii) PAN (peroxi aceyl nitrate)
(iii) Photochemical smog
(iv) Acid mists

Air pollutants arise from both manmade and natural processes. The ambient air quality may
be defined by the concentration of a set of pollutants which may be present in the ambient air
we breathe in. These pollutants may be called criteria pollutants.

Natural Contaminants: Pollen is important natural contaminant because of its peculiar

properties of irritation and allergy sometimes leading to bronchitis, asthma and dermatitis.
Pollen grains are the male gametophytes of gymnosperms and angiosperms and they are
discharged into the atmosphere from plants etc. The air transported pollen grains range
mainly between 10 and 50 microns. Manmade refers to any pollutant produced to influence
or action of humans.

Aerosols: Aerosols refer to the dispersion of solid or liquid particles of microscopic size in
the air. It can also be defined as a colloidal system in which the dispersion medium is gas and
the dispersed phase is solid or liquid. The term aerosol is applicable until it is in suspension
and after settlement due to its own weight or by addition with other particles (agglomeration)
it is no longer an air pollutant. The diameter of the aerosol may range from 0.01 (or less)
micron to 100 micron.

3.5 The various aerosols are as follows

(i) Dust: Dust is produced by the crushing, grinding and natural sources like windstorms.
Generally the dust particles are over 20 micron in diameter. They do not flocculate
but settle under gravity, but smaller particles like 5 micron form stable suspensions.

(ii) Smoke: Smoke is made up of finely divided particles produced by incomplete

combustion. Generally it consists of carbon particles of size less than 1.0 micron.

(iii) Mists: Mist is a light dispersion of minute water droplets suspended in the atmosphere
ranging from 40 to 400 micron in size.

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(iv) Fog: Fog is made up of dispersion of water or ice near the earth’s surface reducing
visibility to less than 500 m. In natural fog the size of particles range from 1.0 to 40
micron.

(v) Fumes: Fumes are solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state
after volatilization from melted substances. Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce.

Gases: Following are the main air pollutant gases

(i) Sulphur dioxide: It is a major air pollutant gas produced by the combustion of fuels
like coal. The main source of electricity production is by burning of fossil fuels in
India and the whole world. The sulphur content of the coal varies from 1 to 4% and
fortunately the Indian coal is low in sulphur content. SO2 is also produced in the
metallurgical operations.

(ii) Oxides of nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen are produced either in the production of nitric
acid or in the automobile exhausts and as the effluent of power plants. Out of the
seven oxides of Nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5) only nitric
oxide and nitrogen dioxide are classified as the main pollutants. All the oxides of
nitrogen are collectively known as NOX.

(iii) Carbon monoxide: It is produced because of the incomplete combustion of coal and
other petroleum products. It is produced in the exhaust of automobiles. In the
pollution check of vehicles mainly CO and unburnt hydrocarbons are measured.

(iv) Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen Sulphide is an obnoxious (bad smelling) gas. It is

produced mainly by the anaerobic (in absence of air) decomposition of organic
matter. Other air polluting sulfur compounds are methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) and
dimethyl sulphide (CH3-S-CH3) etc.

(v) Hydrogen fluoride: It is an important pollutant even in very low concentrations. It is

produced in the manufacturing of phosphate fertilizers.

(vi) Chlorine and hydrogen chloride: It is mixed in the air either from the leakages from
water treatment plants or other industries where it is produced or used. Hydrogen
chloride is also evolved in various industrial chemical processes. The main effect of
chlorine is respiratory irritation which may be fatal.

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(vii) Ozone: It is a desirable gas in the upper layers of atmosphere as it absorbs the UV
radiation of sunlight. But near the earth surface it is a poisonous gas. It makes
poisonous chemicals by photochemical reactions.

(viii) Aldehydes: They are produced by the incomplete oxidation of motor fuels and
lubricating oil. They may also be formed because of photochemical reactions.
Formaldehydes are irritating to the eyes.

3.6 Classification according to chemical composition: (Organic – inorganic)

1. Sulfur-containing compounds.
2. Nitrogen-containing compounds.
3. Carbon-containing compounds.
4. Halogen-containing compounds.
5. Toxic substances (any of about).
6. Radiative compounds.
Classification according to physical state:
1. Gaseous.
2. Liquid (aqueous).
3. Solid.
Criteria air pollutants are six major pollutants defined by EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) for which ambient air standards have been set to protect human health and welfare.
These include :
1. Ozone, O3.
2. Carbon monoxide, CO.
3. Sulfur dioxide, SO2.
4. Nitrogen oxides, NOx.
5. Lead, Pb.
6. Particulates, PM10.

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3.7 PARTICULATES

• A high concentration of particulate matter (PM) is manifested as visible smoke in the

exhaust gases.

• Particulates are any substance other than water that can be collected by filtering the
exhaust, classified as:

• Solid carbon material or soot.

• Condensed hydrocarbons and their partial oxidation products.

• Diesel particulates consist of solid carbon (soot) at exhaust gas temperatures below
o
500 C, HC compounds become absorbed on the surface.

• In a properly adjusted SI engines soot is not usually a problem .

• Particulate can arise if leaded fuel or overly rich fuel-air mixture are used.

• Burning crankcase oil will also produce smoke especially during engine warm up where
the HC condense in the exhaust gas.

3.8 EMISSION CONTROL

Three basic methods used to control engine emissions:

1) Engineering of combustion process -advances in fuel injectors, oxygen sensors, and on-
board computers.

2) Optimizing the choice of operating parameters -two Nox control measures that have
been used in automobile engines are spark retard and EGR.

3) After treatment devices in the exhaust system –catalytic converter.

3.9 NOISE CONTROL

Noise control is becoming increasingly important for a wide variety of OEM designers.

Examples of products that take noise control considerations into account during their design
cycles include equipment such as computer hard drives, house appliances, material handling
and transportation equipment etc.

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3.10 DEFINITION OF SOUND

Sound can be defined as the perception of vibrations stimulating the ear. If scientifically
taken into account, sound is a periodic disturbance in fluids density or in the elastic strain of a
solid, generated by vibrating objects.

These waves or vibrations propagate in two basic ways.

1. Longitudinal waves.
2. Transverse waves
3.11 TYPES OF SOURCES OF NOISE
Sources of noise are numerous but may be classified broadly into two classes as

1. Industrial
2. Non Industrial

The industrial may included noises from various industries operating in cities like
transportation, air crafts, rockets, defense equipment's, explosions etc. The disturbing
qualities of noise emitted by industrial premises are generally its loudness, its distinguishing
features such as tonal or impulsive components and its intermittency and duration.

In non industrial source, major one is traffic mopeds and scooters with have a maximum of
st
75 dBA and 50 dBA respectively, according to new norms from 1 January 2003.
The present norms for petrol and diesel driven two wheelers are 50dBA and 82 dBA
respectively.

Present norms for three wheelers are 82 dBA for petrol and 85 dBA for diesel will be
modified as three wheelers upto 175 cc, 75 dBA and above 175 cc, 80dBA. Passenger cars
can produce maximum noise of 75dBA present being 82dBA.

3.12 CLASSIFICATION OF NOISE CHARACTERISTICS

One typical engine noise classification technique separates the aerodynamic noise,
combustion noise and mechanical noise.

1. Aerodynamic Noise
2. Combustion Noise
3. Mechanical Noise
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3.13 LVDT

The term LVDT or Linear Variable Differential Transformer is a robust, complete linear
arrangement transducer and naturally frictionless. They have an endless life cycle when it is
used properly. Because AC controlled LVDT does not include any kind of electronics, they
intended to work at very low temperatures otherwise up to 650 °C (1200 °F) in insensitive
environments. The applications of LVDTs mainly include automation, power turbines,
aircraft, hydraulics, nuclear reactors, satellites, and many more. These types of transducers
contain low physical phenomena and outstanding repetition.

The LVDT alters a linear dislocation from a mechanical position into a relative electrical
signal including phase and amplitude of the information of direction and distance. The
operation of LVDT does not need an electrical bond between the touching parts and coil, but
as an alternative depends on the electromagnetic coupling.

What is an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)?

The LVDT full form is “Linear Variable Differential Transformer” is LVDT. Generally,
LVDT is a normal type of transducer. The main function of this is to convert the rectangular
movement of an object to the equivalent electrical signal. LVDT is used to calculate
displacement and works on the transformer principle.

The above LVDT sensor diagram comprises a core as well as a coil assembly. Here, the core is
protected by the thing whose location is being calculated, while the coil assembly is increased to
a stationary structure. The coil assembly includes three wire-wound coils on the hollow shape.
The inside coil is the major, which is energized by an AC source. The magnetic flux generated by
the main is attached to the two minor coils, making an AC voltage in every coil.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

The main benefit of this transducer, when compared with other LVDT types, is toughness. As
there is no material contact across the sensing component.

Because the machine depends on the combination of magnetic flux, this transducer can have
an unlimited resolution. So the minimum fraction of progress can be noticed by an
appropriate signal conditioning tool, and the transducer’s resolution is exclusively determined
by the declaration of the DAS (data acquisition system).

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer Construction

LVDT comprises a cylindrical former, which is bounded by one main winding in the hub of
the former and the two minor LVDT windings are wound on the surfaces. The amount of
twists in both the minor windings is equivalent, but they are reversed to each other like
clockwise direction and anti-clockwise direction.

Fig. 3.1: Linear Variable Differential Transformer Construction

For this reason, the o/p voltages will be the variation in voltages among the two minor coils.
These two coils are denoted with S1 & S2. Esteem iron core is located in the middle of the
cylindrical former. The excitation voltage of AC is 5-12V and the operating frequency is
given by 50 to 400 HZ.

Working Principle of LVDT

The working principle of the linear variable differential transformer or LVDT working theory
is mutual induction. The dislocation is nonelectrical energy that is changed into electrical
energy. And, how the energy is altered is discussed in detail in the working of an LVDT.

Fig.3.2: LVDT Working Principle

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Working of an LVDT

The working of the LVDT circuit diagram can be divided into three cases based on the
position of the iron core in the insulated former.

• In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both the minor
windings flux will equal, so the induced e.m.f is similar in the windings. So for no
dislocation, the output value (eout) is zero because both the e1 & e2 are equivalent. Thus,
it illustrates that no dislocation took place.

• In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted up to the null point. In this case, the
flux involving minor winding S1 is additional as contrasted to flux connecting with the S
2 winding. Due to this reason, e1 will be added as that of e2. Due to this eout (output
voltage) is positive.

• In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the null point, In this case, the
amount of e2 will be added as that of e1. Due to this e out output voltage will be negative
plus it illustrates the o/p to down on the location point.

3.14 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSDUCERS, SENSORS, AND ACTUATORS

Introduction

Three types of transducers: light bulb, microphone, and electric motors. A transducer is any
device which converts one form of energy into another. Examples of common transducers
include the following:

• A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker converts

electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound energy to electrical energy and vice versa).

• A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple converts thermal energy
into electrical energy.

• An incandescent light bulb produces light by passing a current through a filament. Thus, a
light bulb is a transducer for converting electrical energy into optical energy.

• An electric motor is a transducer for conversion of electricity into mechanical energy or

motion.

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An actuator is a device that actuates or moves something. An actuator uses energy to provide
motion. Therefore, an actuator is a specific type of a transducer. Which of the previously
mentioned examples is an actuator?

A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal. This signal must be produced by
some type of energy, such as heat, light, motion, or chemical reaction. Once a sensor detects
one or more of these signals (an input), it converts it into an analog or digital representation
of the input signal.

Based on this explanation of a sensor, you should see that sensors are used in all aspects of
life to detect and/or measure many different conditions. What are some sensors that you are
familiar with or use daily?

Human beings are equipped with 5 different types of sensors.

Eyes detect light energy, ears detect acoustic energy, a tongue and a nose detect certain
chemicals, and skin detects pressures and temperatures. The eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and skin
receive these signals then send messages to the brain which outputs a response. For example,
when you touch a hot plate, it is your brain that tells you it is hot, not your skin.

This unit describes the basic concepts of transducers, sensors, and actuators and introduces
the different types in both the macro and micro scales.

Objectives

• Explain the differences between sensors, transducers, and actuators.

• Describe three types of sensors. Include at least one microsensor.

• Describe three types of transducers. Include at least one microtransducer.

Basic Concepts of Transducers

There are many variables which affect our everyday lives: the speed of a car, the velocity of
the wind, and the temperature in a home. In most situations these variables are continuously
monitored.

It is these variables that are the feedback that is used to control the speed of a car, the operation of
an air conditioner, heater levels, and oven temperatures. The elements that sense these variables
and convert them to a usable output are transducers. For example, a transducer known
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as a thermocouple, is able to sense changes in temperature and produce output voltages
representative of those changes.

A transducer is defined as a substance or a device that converts (or transfers) an input energy
into a different output energy. Because of this broad definition, transducers come in many
varieties converting many different types of energy. Following are different types of
transducers.

Electrochemical Transducers

• Converting a Chemical Reaction to Electrical Energy (left: Fuel Cell, right: battery)

• Some common electrochemical transducers include the following:

• pH probe – Converts chemical energy into an electrical energy

• Molecular electric transducer – Converts motion in an electrolytic solution into electrical

energy

• Battery – Converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy

• Fuel cell – Converts the energy from a reaction within a fuel cell to electrical energy
Let’s take a closer look at the electrochemical battery illustrated above. This battery
converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. A cathode and an anode
(typically two dissimilar metals) are each immersed in an electrolyte solution containing
salts of their respective metals. A medium (the salt bridge) separates the two electrodes,
but allows ions to flow between the two solutions. Due to the flow of ions between the
two solutions a potential difference (or voltage) is created. An electrical current flows if a
wire is connected between the two pieces of metals. The amount of voltage developed
between the cathode and the anode depends on the materials that make up the battery.

The fabrication of micro batteries has been a challenge but a challenge that needs to be met.
Microsized sensors require micro-sized batteries in order to operate, especially when those
sensors are placed in remote areas such as the ocean floor or embedded below the surface of
bridges and roads.

So how do you get a long-lasting electrochemical battery from a device that is smaller than the
diameter of a strand of hair? “Traditional batteries have a two-dimensional array of positive and
negative electrodes stacked on top of one another like sheets of paper. Increasing battery
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power means adding more electrode layers, more weight and more size.”1 Electroacoustic,
Electromagnetic, and Electrostatic Transducers

Common electroacoustic transducers:

• Loudspeaker – Converts an electrical signal into sound

• Microphone – Converts sound waves in air into an electrical signal
• Hydrophone - Converts sound waves in water into an electrical signal.

Common electromagnetic transducers:

• Magnetic cartridge – Converts motion in a magnetic field into an electrical energy

• Generator – Converts motion in a magnetic field into electrical energy

Common electrostatic transducers:

• Electrometer – Converts static or energy from a vibrating reed into electricity

Electromechanical Transducers – (Some are also called actuators)

• Strain gauge – Converts the deformation (strain) of an object into electrical resistance

• Galvanometer – Converts the electric current of a coil in a magnetic field into movement

• Generators – Converts mechanical energy (motion) into electrical energy.

• Motor – Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (graphic below)

As with other types of transducers, electromechanical transducers come in all sizes from
macro to micro. Microgenerators have been developed that may someday replace batteries. A
Georgia Tech MEMS Project has developed a 10 millimeter wide generator that spins a
micro-sized magnet above a mesh of coils fabricated on a chip. The micromagnet spins at
100,000 rpm, producing 1.1 watts, enough power for a cell phone. 4

Other Types of Transducers

• Converts Electrical Signals into Light Energy

• Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Page 8 of 22

• Int_Dvices_PK10_PG_042511 Transducers, Sensors, Actuators Primary Knowledge

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Photoelectric Transducers:

• Cathode ray tube (CRT) –Converts electrical signals into light energy for a visual output
(graphic above)

• Light bulb –Converts electrical energy into visible light and heat (explained in next section)

• Laser diode – Converts electrical energy into light energy

• Photodiode - Converts light energy into electrical energy

Thermoelectric Transducers:

• Thermocouple – Converts heat energy into electrical energy

• Temperature sensitive resistor (Thermister) – a variable resistor affected by temperature

changes (heat energy to electrical energy)

Other types of Transducers:

• Geiger-Müller tube – Converts radioactive energy into electrical energy

• Quartz Crystal – Converts mechanical stress into electricity (electrical energy)

Micro-sized transducers that use temperature, chemical reactions, and mechanical stress to
produce changes in voltage, resistance, resonant frequency, or light are used throughout
microsensors. Such transducers are used in MEMS pressure sensors, temperature sensors,
chemical sensor arrays, and optical modulators.

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UNIT – IV – VEHICLE AUTOMATED TRACKS – SAU1604

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 UNIT 4

VEHICLE AUTOMATED TRACKS

4.1 AUTOMATED HIGHWAY SYSTEMS

A major long-term element of Intelligent Transportation Systems research and development is

Automated highway Systems (AHS). The AHS program is a broad international effort “to
provide the basis for, and transition to, the next major performance upgrade of the
vehicle/highway system through the use of automated vehicle control technology” [NAHSC96].

The detailed definition of the Automated Highway System is as follows [Plan93]:

The term “fully automated intelligent vehicle-highway system” is interpreted to mean a

system that:

Evolves from today’s roads (beginning in selected corridors);

Provides fully automated “hands-off” operation at better levels of performance than today’s
roadways in terms of safety, efficiency, and operator comfort; and,

Allows equipped vehicles to operate in both urban and rural areas on highways that are both
instrumented, and not instrumented.

The consensus in the AHS community is that AHS will evolve over a series of smaller steps
in technology. The final step of full automation will not be a leap, but a logical consequence
of previous development and deployment efforts. Each step in the technology will have its
own benefits and be self-sustaining. Vehicle and infrastructure evolutions will be
“synchronous” [James94]. We will briefly mention the steps of this evolution here before
introducing the AHS program and discussing automatic vehicle control technologies in detail.

When the cruise control was first developed, there was much concern over the safety and user
acceptance of the new system; however, it has become widely accepted and used. In the near

future, obstacle and headway warning and Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) will be added
to modern cruise control and existing communications infrastructure. The success of AHS
depends on linking the power of cellular communications and the emerging range of high
performance computers to the ongoing vehicle based developments. Ideally, the highway system
can be divided into a number of “cells” which contain local radio receivers or beacons that will
be linked together through a fiber-optic network. Vehicles will also be equipped with
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a transceiver unit carrying several user services. The first applications of this technology are the
Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) and Electronic Toll Collection (ETC). Obstacle and
headway warning is the next step in AHS development in vehicles. Vehicle on-board radar
(VORAD) systems in many commercial vehicles are already in use for the last two years. An
important issue in warning systems is the capabilities of the sensor modules. Differentiating
between a large vehicle and a small animal may not be possible using a simple system. A
consequent application of the headway warning system is the automatic headway control.
Adaptive cruise control systems are currently designed by many automobile manufacturers.

Roadside-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-vehicle communications are also important for the future
of AHS. Automatic braking systems may be activated by decelerating vehicles in front, or by
the infrastructure sending a deceleration request to the headway control system. The vehicle
must be very sure about the imminent danger, and knowledge of following vehicles and their
speeds is an important factor to be considered. Inter-vehicle communications and rear sensing
both would help in automatic braking.

Evolution of the AHS system will continue with lane departure warning. It will be the first
system to control lateral movement of vehicles. The lane holding feature will consequently be
added to the adaptive cruise control, shortly after the lane departure warning feature.

Automatic lane holding will provide a "hands off/feet off" driving situation where the driver
is still responsible for all command decisions in the vehicle and must be aware at all times of
his surroundings. If the infrastructure knows the location of each vehicle, possesses the
information about its current path, and is communicating with the vehicle, then the lateral
control can be coordinated from the infrastructure.

Further advances in technology will force the driver to “lose” his control of the vehicle. In order
to gain any additional benefit of safety and efficiency, the driver must be removed as the primary
source of command and control. Of course, this change requires that the automated system
perform better than a good driver, i.e., no more than 1 critical error in 108 seconds be

made. This step will be the natural consequence of the previous progress. Obviously, not all
vehicles will be equipped with this technology right away. Automated and manually driven
vehicles have to coexist for some time.

A vehicle that can “predict” the actions of neighboring vehicles is an important step for safer
highway transportation. Locating the position of all the vehicles in close proximity to the
automated vehicle with high accuracy is essential. This can be accomplished through multi-
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sensor systems for adjacent vehicles and possibly inter-vehicle communications to give an
idea of what to expect beyond adjacent vehicles. Alternatively, the “roadside control” may
have knowledge of the positions of the vehicles relative to fixed reference points. This
knowledge is obtained by either vehicle based or roadside based detection, and/or by
communicating with the vehicle.

This technology requires extreme accuracy in vehicle location at all times. If the system is
infrastructure-based, the infrastructure needs to know the locations of the non-automated
vehicles, for safe and efficient implementation. The minimum update rate of information
must be larger than 100 times per second with an accuracy less than 10 cm for the desired
level of safety [James 94]. Automated vehicle control (AVC) systems are expected to boost
the capacity by 50% even for mixed vehicle traffic. Once the system has knowledge of the
surrounding environment to all extents, it can make decisions on merging and passing in
addition to the headway control and lane keeping performed under driver control. Full system
optimization and higher efficiencies can then be obtained as the percentage of automated
vehicles on the road increases.

Highways contain many characteristics that simplify the problem of automation, such as
uninterrupted traffic flow, controlled access. Therefore automation on arterials will lag
significantly behind automated highways. However, many safety measures can be taken on
arterials using the equipment already designed for the highway. For example, the problem of
intersection collision can be reduced by activating the onboard warning systems and automatic
braking systems with electronic signal lights in addition to the normal traffic signal. If the
intersection detects a potential for a collision it can notify equipped vehicles. Problems to be
encountered during AHS deployment on arterials include integration of cyclists and motorcyclists
to the AVC system, and the effects of pedestrian and animal traffic.

The final step in the AHS’ future is fully automatic control, wherein the driver will have no
control over the vehicle. All trip decisions will be automatically made using AVL and ATIS
information. The driver may be able to include additional criteria for route selection. Once
the trip decision is made, the infrastructure, utilizing AVC, will guide the vehicle while
constantly updating the routing strategy based on the current information obtained through
Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS).

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4.2 AHS PROGRAM PHASES AND THE NATIONAL AUTOMATED HIGHWAY

Systems Consortium

The AHS program in United States is planned around three broad phases: Analysis (1993-96),
System Definition (1994-2001), and Operational Tests and Evaluation (starting in 2001). The
National Automated Highway System consortium (NAHSC) is responsible for conducting the
second phase.

The Analysis Phase established an analytic program foundation. It consisted of Precursor

Systems Analyses (PSA) [PSA94] by 15 contractor teams that addressed automated vehicle
control requirements and issues in 16 topic areas, a human factors study effort to develop an
AHS human factors design handbook, and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) analyses to investigate other ITS automated vehicle control-based services that
avoid collisions through warning and control. The PSA identified issues and risks associated
with various AHS concepts and design areas. All contract teams submitted final reports in
November 1994. The NAHSC is actively using these findings in their research.

The Systems Definition Phase is currently underway. The NAHSC is working in partnership
with the federal government. The consortium includes representatives from the vehicle
industry, highway industry, State and local governments, regional and metropolitan
transportation agencies, and electronics/communications industries associated with the
vehicle and communications market.

The milestones of the consortium program are as follows: (a) establishment of performance
and design objectives, (b) a 1997 proof-of-technical-feasibility demonstration, (c)
identification and description of multiple feasible AHS system concepts, (d) selection of the
preferred AHS system configuration, (e) completion of prototype testing, and (f) completion
of system and supporting documentation.

The Operational Test and Evaluation Phase is currently not funded. It would logically follow
a successful completion of the Systems Definition Phase.

The National Automated Highway System Consortium (NAHSC) was formed to “specify,
develop, and demonstrate a prototype Automated Highway System (AHS)” [NAHSC96]. The
specification provides for an evolutionary deployment that can be tailored to meet today’s
transportation needs. The Consortium will seek opportunities for early introduction of vehicles
and highway automation technologies to achieve benefits for all surface transportation users,

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while incorporating public and private stakeholder views to ensure that an AHS is
economically, technically, and socially viable.

The consortium’s proof-of-technical-feasibility demonstration is one of the major milestones

of the AHS program, and is scheduled for October 1997. This demonstration will be a full-
scale exhibition with multiple vehicles on a segment of the I-15 interstate highway near San
Diego, integrating the technological achievements of the participants of the consortium and
the transportation industry. The demonstration will focus on existing technologies and
concepts that can be integrated quickly to provide a solid proof of feasibility.

The selection of the final AHS system configuration will be made during 1999, and the final
decision on the preferred AHS configurations will be made in February 2000. Immediately
after that date, the design, development and testing of the prototype system will begin. The
design process will be finished before the end of year 2000; the development will conclude in
2001, and the prototype system’s testing will be completed in August 2002.

4.3 VEHICLE CONTROL

Vehicle control is probably the most important part of the advanced AHS applications.
Implementation of AHS necessitates automatically controlled vehicles as mentioned
previously.

Achieving the optimal solution to congestion and safety problems requires extensive research
in system modeling, lateral (steering) controls and longitudinal (speed and headway) controls.
In a fully automated highway system, these control systems will rely on vehicle-to-vehicle
communication, as information on velocity and acceleration of other vehicles will be utilized
in individual vehicle controllers [Varaiya93]. The same information and much more (e.g.,
desired speed and lane) may also be received via vehicle-to-roadside communications. Here,
we will briefly discuss the previous research on lateral, longitudinal and combined lateral and
longitudinal control of vehicle

4.4 Lateral Control

Hessburg and Tomizuka [Hessburg91] designed a fuzzy rule-based controller for lateral
guidance of a vehicle. This system is based on human-type reasoning. Advantages of such a
controller include flexibility in the choices of input/outputs, and on-line/off-line training
capability. Their focus was achieving good tracking for a variety of roadway curves over a

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range of longitudinal vehicle speeds. Simulations to demonstrate its performance under
parameter variations and external disturbances gave satisfactory results.

An alternative approach is presented in [Lubin92]. It concentrates the intelligence in the

vehicle, using the visual sensing approach described in [Kornhauser91]. In this model, no
infrastructure modification is needed, but considerable cost and complexity is added to each
individual vehicle. With the current rate of technology improvement, this system may
become feasible for production purposes. During the last five years, the research on lateral
vehicle control and lane changing maneuvers was extensive. For a (non comprehensive) list
of publications on the subject, see [PathDb96].

Besides the theoretical modeling and simulations for lateral control of vehicles, there are a
few important experimental accomplishments: the use of magnetic markers, and the use of
visual information for lateral position handling. The first method was designed by the PATH
Program [PATH96] and employs magnetic markers imbedded into the road to detect the
lateral displacement from the center of the lane [Tan96]. Current tests with a vehicle
equipped with magnetic sensors on its front bumper are reported to be successful [Lee95].

4.5 LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

Longitudinal control is an important aspect of the future AHS. One of the major concepts in
this area is platooning, which is a formation of traveling vehicles that maintain close spacing
at highway speeds. The concept requires inter-vehicle communication links to provide
velocity and possibly acceleration information from the lead vehicle to each of the following
vehicles, as well as the velocity and acceleration of the preceding vehicle in the platoon.
Sheikholeslam and Desoer [Sheikholeslam89] showed that inter-vehicle communications
increases the stability of the platoon formation in the case of identical vehicle platoons.

4.6 COMBINED LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL CONTROL

Although much of the research to date has focused primarily on either lateral or longitudinal
control, an overall automated driving system combining both lateral and longitudinal control
is vital for future automated highway systems. System models which incorporate longitudinal
and lateral dynamics are very rare.

Kachroo and Tomizuka [Kachroo95c] studied combined longitudinal and lateral control to
investigate the resulting behavior of the coupled system. It is shown that longitudinal
controllers that directly control the wheel slip are inherently more stable, especially during

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lateral maneuvers on very slippery road conditions. Spooner and Passino [Spooner95] also
developed sliding mode controllers for longitudinal and lateral control. Their fault tolerant
algorithms were found to be stable for a variety of faults such as braking, powertrain, and
steering systems. Yu and Sideris [Yu95] considered combined control using partial state-
measurements of longitudinal and lateral deviations, longitudinal velocity and yaw rate. The
research on combined control of vehicles is moving toward more realistic systems. New
control approaches for more platoon operations in more complex situations such as entry and
exit maneuvers are being studied [Yang96].

The PATH program investigates the use of machine vision for guiding lane change maneuvers
[Malik95]. The vision system is modularly interfaced with the existing magnetic sensor system
for lateral position measurements, and with active range sensors. Özgüner [Özgüner95] also
described a vehicle-roadway system in which the control of vehicle movement is based on
instrumentation located both in the vehicle and the roadway. A radar based system is used for
both cruise control, and for providing position information in lateral maneuvers.

Combined lateral and longitudinal control experiments are yet to be designed and implemented;
the 1997 AHS Demonstration will be a good occasion for combined control tests.

4.7 SENSORS AND COMMUNICATION

The realization of full AHS needs hardware both in infrastructure and the vehicle. Roadside
monitors will measure traffic flow and speed, and vehicle paths will be calculated based on
this information. Such measurements are currently made with loop detectors, ultrasonic
sensors, AVI tags or vision systems. Information may be communicated by infrared beacons,
broadcast and cellular radio, or using emerging ultra wideband technologies [James96]. The
vehicles need a longitudinal sensor to measure distance and relative speed of the preceding
vehicle. Such sensors may be based on radar, ultrasound, or vision [Özgüner95, Hedrick96,
Pomerlau96]. Microwave radar sensors perform very well in fog and heavy rain, but they are
very expensive. Laser radar systems are low-cost, but cannot handle low visibility conditions
[Yanagisawa92].

To facilitate lane changes at a range of relative speeds, the vehicle must be equipped with
sensors that locate vehicles on the side with a longitudinal range of about 30m. Infrared and
laser range finding techniques may prove to be useful in this area.

Besides headway and side sensor information, longitudinal and lateral velocity and
acceleration, yaw rate, front steering angle, and lateral deviation data is needed to obtain a
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robust combined lateral and longitudinal control. All of these except the last one can be
obtained using on-board accelerometers and encoders. For vehicle position sensing, there are
two alternatives: magnetic markers [Lee95], and vision systems [Pomerlau96]. Recent
research done on vision systems showed significant promise, however these systems are more
expensive than magnetic markers which, in turn, require infrastructure deployment as well as
on-board sensors.

A sequence of single magnetic markers can also form a “word” that transfers information
such as curvature, and number of lanes. However, this magnetic marker data contains only
the static information (roadway characteristics), not dynamic information (such as
information on other vehicles incidents), unlike the vision system.

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UNIT – V – SUSPENSION BRAKES AND AERODYNAMIC
SAFETY

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 UNIT 5

SUSPENSION BRAKES AND AERODYNAMIC SAFETY

5.1 AIR SUSPENSION SYSTEM

These types of suspension systems are commonly used in a long-distance vehicle like buses. Due
to the benefits of the air suspension system, nowadays this system is widely used in many
vehicles. Schematic representation of this type of air suspension system is shown in the figure. It
consists of four air springs which may be a bellow type or piston type. Air compressor is used to
pressurize the purified air (through filter) from the atmosphere and stored in the accumulator at a
2
pressure maintained between 5.6 to 7 kg/cm . To release the excess air and to maintain the
pressure inside the accumulator, a safety relief valve is used. The high pressure compressed air
enters into the air spring through levelling valve and lift control valve. The lift control valve was
operated by a manual lever which is located in the panel board.

Advantages

1. It reduces noise, vibration, and harshness due to which passenger and driver attain better
ride comfort. It reduces the journey tiredness of the driver and the passenger.

2. Change of spring deflection is quite low when compared with a conventional suspension
system for both loading and unloading condition. This helps to reduce the load transfer
on the vehicle.

3. Headlamp alignment remains constant though the vehicle is travelling over irregular roads.

4. With the help of automatic controlling tools, this system will provide some space for
required wheel movement.

5.2 SHOCK ABSORBER

The spring system prevents the travelers and truckloads that do not cause any shocks when
climbing up the sudden disturbance on the road. However, if the spring are stiffer than
expected, it will not absorb the road shock. The spring will keep on oscillate even after
crossing the disturbance till the energy is completely die out. Hence, to quickly dissipate the
stored energy in springs, dampers are used. According to the working principle shock
absorber are classified into three types they are,

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1. Friction type
2. Hydraulic type
3. Air type

5.3 FRICTION TYPE

When one body is allowed to slide over the other, the surface of one body offers some resistance
to the movement of the other body on it. This resisting force is called friction force. In leaf
spring, the interleaf friction is act as a damper. It is not widely used with other types of springs.

5.4 WHAT IS ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM?

Anti-lock Braking System also known as anti-skid braking system (ABS) is an automobile
safety system which prevents the locking of wheels during braking and avoid uncontrolled
skidding. The modern abs system allows steering during braking which gives more control
over the vehicle in case of sudden braking. The main advantages of using ABS system in
vehicle is that it provides better control over the vehicle and decreases stopping distance on
dry and slippery surfaces. Since in ABS installed vehicle the chance of skidding is very less
and hence it provides a better steering control during braking. Without ABS system, even a
professional driver can fail to prevent the skidding of the vehicle on dry and slippery surfaces
during sudden braking. But with ABS system, a normal person can easily prevent the
skidding of the vehicle and get better steering control during braking.

Principle of Working

It works on the principle of threshold braking and cadence braking. Cadence braking and
threshold braking is a technique in which a driver applies the brakes and releases it before
locking up the wheel and then applies the brakes and releases it again before locking. This
process of applying and releasing the brakes on the wheel is done in pulse form to prevent it
from locking and stop skidding of the vehicle. The driver practices this technique to achieve
better control over the vehicle during instant braking and stop skidding of the vehicle. The
ABS system automatically does this cadence braking to prevent locking of wheel and
skidding of vehicle when brakes are applied.

Why Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) is essential in vehicles?

To understand this in a better way lets us take an incident. When you are driving your car on a
highway and suddenly an obstacle comes in front of you and you apply brake with full power.
This will locks wheels of your car and your car will start skidding on the road and also during
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skidding you lost your steering control and unable to move the car in desired direction in
which you want. Finally you hit that obstacle and meet an accident.

Let’s us take another situation, now you are driving a car which is equipped with anti-lock
braking system. When you encounter with an obstacle on the road and suddenly apply the
brakes. But this time the ABS system of your car prevent the locking of the wheel and avoid
skidding. At this time you can control your steering and can stops your car hitting from the
obstacle. This is how the abs system prevents the skidding of the vehicle and provides greater
control over it and prevents accidents.

Main Components of ABS System

It has four main components

1. speed sensors
2. Valves
3. Pump
4. Controller

1. Speed Sensors

It is used to calculate the acceleration and deceleration of the wheel. It consists of a toothed
wheel and an electromagnetic coil or a magnet and a Hall Effect sensor to generate signal.
When the wheel or differentials of the vehicle rotates, it induces magnetic field around the
sensor. The fluctuation in this magnetic field generates voltage in the sensor. This voltage
generated sends signals to the controller. With the help of the voltage the controller reads the
acceleration and deceleration of the wheel.

2. Valves

Each brake line which is controlled by the ABS has a valve. In some of the systems, the valve
works on three positions.

1. In position one, the valve remains open; and pressure from the master cylinder passed
through it to the brake.

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2. In position two, the valve blocks the line and separates the brake from the master
cylinder. And this prevents the further rise of the pressure to the brakes. Valve operates in
second position when the driver applies the brake harder.

3. In position three, some of the pressure from the brake is released by the valve.

The clogging of the valve is the major problem in ABS. When the valve is clogged, it
becomes difficult for the valve to open, close or change position. When the valve is in
inoperable condition, it prevents the system form modulating the valves and controlling
pressure to the brakes.

3. Pump

Pump is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valve releases the
pressure. When the controller detects wheel slip, it sends signals to release the valve. After
the valve releases the pressure supplied from the driver, it restore a desired amount of
pressure to the braking system. The controller modulates (adjust) the status of the pump so as
to provide desired amount of pressure and reduce slipping of the wheel.

4. Controller

The controller used in the ABS system is of ECU type. Its main function is to receives
information from each individual wheel speed sensors and if a wheel loses its traction with
the ground, a signal is sent to the controller, the controller than limit the brake force (EBD)
and activate the ABS modulator. The activated ABS modulator actuates the braking valves
on and off and varies the pressure to the brakes

Working of Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)

• The controller (ECU-Electronic Control Unit) reads the signal from each of the speed
sensors of the wheel.

• As the brakes are suddenly applied by the driver, this makes the wheel to decelerate at
faster rate and may cause the wheel to Lock.

• As the ECU reads the signal which indicates the rapid decrease in the speed of the wheel,
it sends signal to the valve which makes the valve close and the pressure to the brake pad
reduces and prevents the wheel from locking.

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• The wheel again starts to accelerate, again the signal sends to the controller, this time it
opens the valve, increasing the pressure to the brake pad and brakes are applied, this
again reduces the speed of the wheel and tries to make it stop.

• This process of applying brakes and releasing it happens 15 times in a second when a
driver suddenly applies the brake harder. Due to this the locking of the wheel is prevented
and the skidding of the vehicle eliminated. During braking with ABS system, the driver
can steer the vehicle and reduces the risk of vehicle collision.

Advantages

1. It prevents the locking of the wheel and thus eliminates the chance of skidding.

2. The skidding of the vehicle is completely removed, which results in excellent control
during braking?

3. A better steering control is obtained with the ABS system.

4. It reduces the chance of collision by 30 %.

Disadvantages

A vehicle equipped with ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) is costlier as compared with a
vehicle without ABS.

5.5 REGENERATIVE BRAKING

It is a form of braking in which the kinetic energy of the motor is returned to the power
supply system. ... It is very interesting to note that regenerative braking cannot be used to
stop a motor but to control its speed above the no-load speed of the motor driving the
descending loads.

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