Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

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Hybrid vehicles are vehicles with two or more power sources in the drivetrain. There are many
different types of hybrid vehicles, although only the gasoline-electric hybrid is currently commercially
available.
Hybrids are classified by the division of power between sources; both sources may operate in
parallel to simultaneously provide acceleration, or they may operate in series with one source
exclusively providing the acceleration and the second being used to augment the first's power
reserve. The sources can also be used in both series and parallel as needed, the vehicle being
primarily driven by one source but the second capable of providing direct additional acceleration if
required.
Current hybrids use both an internal combustion (IC) engine and a battery/electric drive system
(using ultracapacitors) to improve fuel consumption, emission, and performance. Electrically assisted
pedal bicycles are a form of hybrid drive. Other combinations of energy storage and conversion are
possible, although not yet in commercial production.
Combustion-electric hybrids have larger battery sets than what a normal combustion engine only
vehicle would have. Battery and supercapacitor technology is advancing.[1] A potential advantage is
that when these battery sets require renewing in the future, the newer battery sets will be potentially
superior having higher energy storage giving greater range enhancing a vehicle.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Types by drive train structure

o 1.1 Parallel hybrid
 1.1.1 TTR hybrid
o 1.2 Series hybrid
 1.2.1 Overview
 1.2.2 In detail
o 1.3 Power-split or series-parallel hybrid
 2 Types by degree of hybridization
o 2.1 Full Hybrids
o 2.2 Mild Hybrids
o 2.3 Plug-in hybrid
 3 Types by nature of the power source
o 3.1 Electric-internal combustion engine hybrid
o 3.2 Electric-fuel cell hybrid
o 3.3 Internal combustion engine-hydraulic hybrid
o 3.4 Internal combustion engine-pneumatic hybrid
o 3.5 Human power and environmental power hybrids
 4 Hybrid vehicle operation modes
 5 Adding powertrains and aftermarket kits
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 External links

Types by drive train structure[edit]

Parallel hybrid[edit]

Structure of a parallel hybrid electric vehicle. The gray squares representdifferential gears.

Parallel hybrid systems, which are most commonly produced at present, have both an internal
combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor coupled. If they are joined at an axis in parallel, the
speeds at this axis must be identical and the supplied torques add together. Most electric bicycles
are of this type. When only one of the two sources is being used, the other must either also rotate in
an idling manner, be connected by a one-way clutch, or freewheel. With cars, the two sources may
be applied to the same shaft- for example with the electric motor lying between the engine and
transmission. The speeds are thus equal and the torques add up, with the electric motor adding or
subtracting torque to the system as necessary. The Honda Insight uses this system.
Parallel hybrids can be further categorized depending upon how balanced the different portions are
at providing motive power. In some cases, the combustion engine is dominant (the electric motor
turns on only when a boost is needed) and vice versa. Others can run with just the electric system
operating. But because current parallel hybrids are unable to provide all-electric (ICE=OFF)
propulsion, they are often categorized as mild hybrids (see below).
Because parallel hybrids can use a smaller battery pack as they rely more on regenerative
braking and the internal combustion engine can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging,
they are more efficient on highway driving compared to urban stop-and-go conditions or city
driving.[2] Honda's Insight, Civic, and Accord hybrids are examples of production parallel
hybrids.[2] General Motors Parallel Hybrid Truck (PHT) and BAS Hybrids such as the Saturn VUE and
Aura Greenline and Chevrolet Malibu hybrids are also considered as utilizing a parallel architecture.
TTR hybrid[edit]
An alternative parallel hybrid layout is the 'through the road' type.[3][4] Here a conventional drivetrain
powers one axle, with an electric motor or motors driving the other. The batteries can be recharged
through regenerative braking, or by loading the electrically driven wheels during cruise. Power is
thus transferred from the engine to the batteries through the road surface. This layout also has the
advantage of providing four-wheel-drive in some conditions. An example of this principle is a bicycle
fitted with a front hub motor, which assists the cyclist's pedal power at the rear wheel. Other
examples include the Audi 100 Duo II and Subaru VIZIV concept cars, the Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4,
theVolvo V60 plug-in hybrid and the BMW i8.
Series hybrid[edit]

Structure of a series-hybrid vehicle. The grey square represents a differential gear. An alternative arrangement
(not shown) is to have electric motors at two or four wheels.
Series hybrids have also been referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREV)[5] or range-
extended electric vehicles (REEV).
Overview[edit]
Firstly, look at an electric transmission, which dates from 1903. Conventional mechanical
transmissions add weight, bulk and saps power from the engine with automatic shifting being
complex when used. Unlike combustion engines, with electric motors matched to the vehicle a
multiple-speed transmission is not essential. The mechanical transmission between the engine and
the wheels is removed and replaced by electric driving traction motors which are powered by an
electric generator turned by an internal combustion engine. The driving electric traction motors are
the only form of propulsion.
In certain operational situations it is economical and flexible as the driving internal combustion
engine is disconnected from the demand. This is a series-hybrid arrangement and is common
in diesel-electric locomotives and ships. The river ship the Russian Vandal launched in 1903, was
the world's first diesel-powered and diesel-electric powered ship. Ferdinand Porsche successfully
used this arrangement in the early 20th century in racing cars. Porsche named the system, System
Mixt. A wheel hub motor arrangement, with a motor in each of the two front wheels, setting speed
records. Ferdinand Porsche's system was even used, with much less success, to power
his competitor for the "Tiger" tank contract, and the heaviest armored fighting vehicle design ever
built, both during World War II.
However greater flexibility, higher efficiencies and less emissions are achieved in a series-hybrid
system for road vehicles when an intermediate electric battery, acting as an energy buffer, is
between the electric generator and the electric traction motors. The internal combustion engine is
mechanically disconnected from the driving wheels, in effect disconnecting the engine from the
demand. The electric traction motors and the generator may operate quite independently of each
other. This has advantages. This arrangement allows for a smaller sized generator engine to be
used compared to the size of a conventional direct drive engine. The traction motors receive
electricity from the battery or generator or both. The traction motors, depending on the size of the
battery bank, will in many cases of operation have most of the power provided only by the electric
battery, which may be charged from external sources such as the electricity grid. The vehicle can
move primarily using energy from only the battery bank with the generator operating as a second
stage only when needed to drive the vehicle or charge the batteries. A great advantage is that the
vehicle can be driven in urban areas with zero emissions with the generator cutting in for longer
journey's when the battery bank is depleted.
In short, a series-hybrid is simple, the vehicle is driven only by electric traction motors with a
generator set providing the electric power when needed. An electric battery acts as buffer evening
out demand and the stored energy may be use only as the prime source to propel the vehicle. When
using the generator set to propel the vehicle the batteries reserve energy can be used to assist in
acceleration or pulling heavy loads.
The choice of electric traction motors has great advantages. Unlike piston internal combustion
engines, electric motors are highly efficient with exceptionally high power-to-weight ratios providing
adequate torque when running over a wide speed range. Internal combustion engines run at their
most efficient when turning at a constant speed. An engine turning a generator can be designed to
run at its maximum efficiency constant speed, or a series of constant speeds. Combining the two,
which can operate quite independently of each other, gives maximum efficiency and performance
overall.
The arrangement was difficult for early production cars as synchronization of power generation and
demand was inefficient, resulting in higher fuel consumption. This is no longer an issue with modern
computer engine management systems optimizing when the generator runs to match the power
needed. Since Ferdinand Porsche's series-hybrid car, electric motors have become substantially
smaller, lighter and efficient over the years. One of the advantages of a series-hybrid system is the
smoother progressive ride with no stepped gear ratio changes.
The electric transmission is currently viable in replacing the mechanical transmission. However, the
modern series-hybrid vehicles takes the electric transmission to a higher plane adding greater value.
Modern series-hybrids incorporate:

 Electric traction only - using only one or more electric motors to turn the wheels.
 Combustion engine - that turns only a generator.
 A generator - turned by the combustion engine to make up a generator set that also acts as an
engine starter.
 A battery bank - which acts as an energy buffer.
 Regenerative braking - The driving motor becomes a generator and recovers potential and
kinetic (inertial) energies through its conversion to electrical energy, a process which in turn is
able to slow the vehicle and thus preventing wasteful transfer of this energy as thermal losses
within the friction brakes.
In addition:

 May be plugged into the electric mains system to recharge the battery bank.
 May have supercapacitors to assist the battery bank and claw back most energy from braking -
only fitted in proven prototypes currently.
In detail[edit]
The electric driving motor may run entirely fed by electricity from a large battery bank or via the
generator turned by the internal combustion engine, or both. The battery bank may be charged by
mains electricity reducing running costs, as the range running under the electric motors only is
extended. The vehicle conceptually resembles a Diesel-electriclocomotive with the addition of a
large battery bank that may power the vehicle without the internal combustion engine running and
acting as an energy buffer. The energy buffer is used to accelerate and a greater top speed. The
generator may simultaneously charge the battery bank and power the driving electric motor that
moves the vehicle. An advantage is that when the vehicle is stopped the combustion engine is
switched off. When the vehicle moves it does so using the energy in the batteries. This reduces
kerbside emissions greatly in cities and towns. Vehicles at traffic lights, or in slow moving stop-start
traffic need not be polluting when stationary or moving very slowly. Series-hybrids can also be fitted
with a supercapacitor or a flywheel to store regenerative braking energy, which can improve
efficiency by clawing back energy that otherwise would be lost being dissipated via heat through the
braking system.
Because a series-hybrid omits a mechanical link between the combustion engine and the wheels,
the engine can be run at a constant and efficient rate even as the vehicle changes speed. The
vehicle speed and engine speed are not necessarily in synchronization. The engine can thus
maintain an efficiency closer to the theoretical limit of 37%, rather than the current average of
20%.[6] At low or mixed speeds this could result in ~50% increase in overall efficiency (19% vs 29%).
The Lotus company has introduced an engine/generator set design that runs at two speeds, giving
15 kW of electrical power at 1,500 rpm and 35 kW at 3,500 rpm via the integrated electrical
generator,[7] used in the Nissan concept Infiniti Emerg-e.
As the requirements for the engine are not directly linked to vehicle speed, this gives greater scope
for more efficient or alternative engine designs, such as a microturbine,[8]rotary Atkinson cycle
engine or a linear combustion engine.[9]
General Motors in 1999 made the experimental EV1 series hybrid using a turbine generator set. The
turbine weighed 220 lb (99.8 kg), measured 20 inches (50.8 cm) in diameter by 22 inches (55.9 cm)
long and ran between 100,000 and 140,000 rpm. Fuel consumption was 60 mpg-US (3.9 L/100 km;
72 mpg-imp) to 100 mpg-US (2.4 L/100 km; 120 mpg-imp) in hybrid mode. Depending on the driving
conditions, a highway range of more than 390 miles (627.6 km) was achieved. The results were
highly successful, and would have promised to be more successful if a smaller microturbine was
used, yet the EV1 project was dropped.
The use of an electric motor driving a wheel directly eliminates the conventional mechanical
transmission elements: gearbox, transmission shafts and differential, and can sometimes
eliminate flexible couplings. This offers great simplicity. If the motors are integrated into the wheels a
disadvantage is that the unsprung mass increases and suspension responsiveness decreases which
impacts ride performance and potentially safety. However the impact should be minimal if at all as
electric motors in wheel hubs such as Hi-Pa Drive, may be very small and light having exceptionally
high power-to-weight ratios. The braking mechanisms can be lighter as the wheel motors brake the
vehicle. Light aluminum wheels may be used reducing the unsprung mass of the wheel assembly.
Vehicle designs may be optimized to lower the center of gravity having the heavy mechanics and
battery banks at floor level. If the motors are attached to the vehicle body, flexible couplings are still
required. Advantages of individual wheel motors include simplified traction control and all wheel
drive if required, allowing lower floors, which is useful for buses. Some 8x8 all-wheel drive military
vehicles use individual wheel motors.Diesel-electric locomotives have used this concept (albeit with
the individual motors driving axles connecting pairs of wheels) for 70 years.[10][full citation needed]
In a typical road vehicle the whole series-hybrid power-transmission setup may be smaller and
lighter than the equivalent conventional mechanical power-transmission setup liberating space. As
the combustion generator set only requires cables to the driving electric motors, there is greater
flexibility in major component layout spread across a vehicle giving superior weight distribution and
maximizing vehicle cabin space. This flexibility may lead to superior vehicle designs.
In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan.[11] Designline International of
Ashburton, New Zealand produces city buses with a microturbine powered series-hybrid
system. Supercapacitors combined with a lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in
a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-
hybrid arrangement.[12]
Series-hybrids have been taken up by the aircraft industry. The DA36 E-Star, an aircraft designed
by Siemens, Diamond Aircraft and EADS, employs a series hybrid powertrain with the propeller
turned by a Siemens 70 kW (94 hp) electric motor. A power sapping propeller speed reduction unit is
eliminated. The aim is to reduce fuel consumption and emissions by up to 25 percent. An onboard
40 hp (30 kW) Austro Engine Wankel rotary engine and generator provides the electricity. A Wankel
engine was chosen because of the very small size, low weight and great power to weight ratio
offered, which are assets suited to aircraft. Wankel engines also run efficiently at a constants speed
of approximately 2,000rpm which is highly suited to generator turning operation. Keeping to a near
constant, or narrow band, of revolutions eliminates, or vastly reduces, many of the disadvantages of
the Wankel engine.[13] The electric propeller motor uses electricity stored in batteries, with the
engines not operating, to take off and climb reducing sound emissions. The series hybrid powertrain
using the Wankel engine reduces the weight of the plane by 100 kilos to its predecessor. The DA36
E-Star first flew in June 2013, making this the first ever flight of a series hybrid powertrain. Diamond
aircraft state that the technology using Wankel engines is scalable to a 100 seater aircraft.[14][15]
An example of series-hybrid car was the Fisker Karma, which had a sizable battery bank that could
also be charged by the electricity mains to give a longer range on battery operation only. The car
was propelled by electric motor traction only.
Power-split or series-parallel hybrid[edit]
Structure of a combined hybrid electric vehicle

Power-split hybrid or series-parallel hybrid are parallel hybrids. They incorporate power-split
devices allowing for power paths from the engine to the wheels that can be either mechanical or
electrical. The main principle behind this system is the decoupling of the power supplied by the
engine (or other primary source) from the power demanded by the driver.
A combustion engine's torque output is minimal at lower RPMs and, in a conventional vehicle, a
larger engine is necessary for acceptable acceleration from standstill. The larger engine, however,
has more power than needed for steady speed cruising. An electric motor, on the other hand,
exhibits maximum torque at standstill and is well-suited to complement the engine's torque
deficiency at low RPMs. In a power-split hybrid, a smaller, less flexible, and highly efficient engine
can be used. The conventional Otto cycle (higher power density, more low-rpm torque, lower fuel
efficiency) is often also modified to a Miller cycle or Atkinson cycle (lower power density, less low-
rpm torque, higher fuel efficiency). The smaller engine, using a more efficient cycle and often
operating in the favorable region of the brake specific fuel consumption map, contributes significantly
to the higher overall efficiency of the vehicle.
Interesting variations of the simple design (pictured at right) found, for example, in the well-
known Toyota Prius are the:

 addition of a fixed gear second planetary gearset as used in the Lexus RX400h and Toyota
Highlander Hybrid. This allows for a motor with less torque but higher power (and higher
maximum rotary speed), i.e. higher power density
 addition of a Ravigneaux[16]-type planetary gear (planetary gear with 4 shafts instead of 3) and
two clutches as used in the Lexus GS450h. By switching the clutches, the gear ratio from MG2
(the "drive" motor) to the wheel shaft is switched, either for higher torque or higher speed (up to
250 km/h / 155 mph) while sustaining better transmission efficiency.

Power-splitter series-hybrid Toyota Prius.

 addition of 2 additional planetary gear sets in combination with 4 clutches to create a Two-Mode
Hybrid configuration able to operate in all-electric, blended electric and ICE, or ICE alone with 4
fixed gears. Examples of Two-Mode Hybrids include the General Motors Two-Mode Hybrid full-
size trucks and SUVs, the BMW X6 ActiveHybrid[17] and the Mercedes ML 450 hybrid.[17]
The Toyota Hybrid System THS / Hybrid Synergy Drive has a single power-split device (incorporated
as a single three-shaft planetary gearset) and can be classified as an Input-Split, since the power of
the engine is split at the input to the transmission. This in turn makes this setup very simple in
mechanical terms, but does have some drawbacks of its own. For example, the maximum speed is
mainly limited by the speed of the smaller electric motor (usually functioning as a generator). Also,
the efficiency of the transmission is heavily dependent on the amount of power being transmitted
over the electrical path, as multiple conversions, each with their own, less than perfect efficiency,
lead to a low efficiency of that path (~0.7) compared with the purely mechanical path (~0.98).
Especially in higher speed regimes (>120 km/h or 70 mph) the efficiency (of the transmission alone)
therefore drops below that of a generic automatic transmission with hydrodynamic coupler.[citation needed]

Hybrid Synergy Drive engine with electric motor and generator.

General Motors, BMW, and DaimlerChrysler have developed in collaboration a system named "Two-
Mode Hybrid" as part of the Global Hybrid Cooperation. The technology was released in the fall of
2007 on the Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid. The system was also featured on the GMC Graphite SUV
concept vehicle at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit.[18] BYD
Auto's F3DM sedan is a series-parallel plug-in hybrid automobile, which went on sale in China on
December 15, 2008.[19][20][21]
The Two-Mode Hybrid name is intended to emphasize the drive-train's ability to operate in all-electric
(Mode 1, or Input-Split) as well as hybrid (Mode 2, or Compound-Split) modes. The design, however,
allows for operation in more than two modes; two power-split modes are available along with several
fixed gear (essentially parallel hybrid) regimes. For this reason, the design can be referred to as a
multi-regime design.[22] The Two-Mode Hybrid powertrain design can be classified as a compound-
split design, since the addition of four clutches within the transmission allows for multiple
configurations of engine power-splitting. In addition to the clutches, this transmission also has a
second planetary gearset. The objective of the design is to vary the percentage of mechanically vs.
electrically transmitted power to cope both with low-speed and high-speed operating conditions. This
enables smaller motors to do the job of larger motors when compared to single-mode systems,
because the derived electrical peak power is proportional to the width of the continuous variation
range. The four fixed gears enable the Two-Mode Hybrid to function like a conventional parallel
hybrid under high continuous power regions such as sustained high speed cruising or trailer towing.
Full electric boost is available in fixed gear modes.[23]

Types by degree of hybridization[edit]

Full Hybrids[edit]
Engine compartment of a 2006Mercury Mariner Hybrid.

A full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just the engine,
just the batteries, or a combination of both. The Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape
Hybrid/Mercury Mariner Hybrid, Ford Fusion Hybrid/Lincoln MKZ Hybrid/Mercury Milan Hybrid, Ford
C-Max Hybrid, Kia Optima Hybrid, as well as the General Motors 2-mode hybrid trucks and SUVs,
are examples of this type of hybridization as they are able to be propelled on battery power alone. A
large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split
power path that allows more flexibility in the drivetrain by inter-converting mechanical and electrical
power, at some cost in complexity. To balance the forces from each portion, the vehicles use
a differential-style linkage between the engine and motor connected to the head end of the
transmission.
The Toyota brand name for this technology is Hybrid Synergy Drive, which is being used in the
Prius, the Highlander Hybrid SUV, and theCamry Hybrid. A computer oversees operation of the
entire system, determining which half should be running, or if both should be in use. The operation of
the Prius can be divided into six distinct regimes.
Electric vehicle mode: The engine is off, and the battery provides electrical energy to power
the motor (or the reverse when regenerative braking is engaged). Used for idling as well
when the battery State Of Charge (SOC) is high.
Cruise mode: The vehicle is cruising (i.e. not accelerating), and the engine can meet the
road load demand. The power from the engine is split between the mechanical path and the
generator. The battery provides electrical energy to power the motor, whose power is
summed mechanically with the engine. If the battery state-of-charge is low, part of the power
from the generator is directed towards charging the battery.
Overdrive mode: A portion of the rotational energy is siphoned off by the main electric
motor, operating as a generator, to produce electricity. This electrical energy is used to drive
the sun gear in the direction opposite its usual rotation. The end result has the ring gear
rotating faster than the engine, albeit at lower torque.
Battery charge mode: Also used for idling, except that in this case the battery state-of-
charge is low and requires charging, which is provided by the engine and generator.
Power boost mode: Employed in situations where the engine cannot meet the road load
demand. The battery is then used to power the motor to provide a boost to the engine power.
Negative split mode: The vehicle is cruising and the battery state-of-charge is high. The
battery provides power to both the motor (to provide mechanical power) and to the
generator. The generator converts this to mechanical energy that it directs towards the
engine shaft, slowing it down (although not altering its torque output). The purpose of this
engine "lugging" is to increase the fuel economy of the vehicle.
The hybrid drivetrain of the Prius, in combination with aerodynamics and
optimizations in the engine itself to reduce drag, results in 80%–100% gains
in fuel economy compared to four-door conventional cars of similar weight
and size.[citation needed]
Mild Hybrids[edit]
 Engine compartment of a 2006GMC Sierra Hybrid.

Mild hybrids are essentially conventional vehicles with some degree of

hybrid hardware, but with limited hybrid feature utilization. Typically they are
a parallel system with start-stop only or possibly in combination with modest
levels of engine assist or regenerative braking features. Unlike full
hybrids, Mild hybrids generally cannot provide ICE-OFF all-electric (EV)
propulsion.
Mild hybrids like the General Motors 2004-07 Parallel Hybrid Truck (PHT)
and the Honda Eco-Assist hybrids are equipped with a 3-phase electric
motor mounted within the bell-housing between the engine and
transmission, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the truck is
coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly when required.
Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the engine is off,
and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to
recapture energy. The large electric motor is used to spin up the engine to
operating rpm speeds before injecting any fuel.
The 2004-07 Chevrolet Silverado PHT, was a full-size pickup truck.
Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on the Silverado's fuel
efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand and using
regenerative braking. However the electrical motor was not used to provide
propulsion or assist, rather the electrical energy was used to drive
accessories like the A/C and power steering.The GM PHT used a 42 volt
systems via a pack comprising three 12V vented lead acid batteries
connected in series (36V total) to supply the power needed for the startup
motor, as well as to compensate for the increasing number of electronic
accessories on modern vehicles.
General Motors followed the parallel hybrid truck with their BAS
Hybrid system, another mild hybrid implementation officially released on the
2007 Saturn Vue Green Line. For its "start-stop" functionality, it operates
similarly to the system in the Silverado, although via a belted connection to
the motor/generator unit. However the GM BAS Hybridsystem has broader
hybrid functionality as the electric motor can also provide modest assist
under acceleration and during steady driving, and captures energy during
regenerative (blended) braking. The BAS Hybrid can result in as much as a
27% improvement in combined fuel efficiency as noted by the EPA in
testing of the 2009 Saturn VUE.[24] The BAS Hybridsystem can also be
found on the 2008-09 Saturn Aura and the 2008-2010 Chevrolet
Malibu hybrids.
Another way to provide for shutting off a car's engine when it is stopped,
then immediately restarting it when it's time to go, is by employing a static
start engine. Such an engine requires no starter motor, but employs
sensors to determine the exact position of each piston, then precisely timing
the injection and ignition of fuel to turn over the engine.[25]
Mild hybrids are sometimes called Power assist hybrids' as they use the
engine for primary power, with a torque-boosting electric motor also
connected to a largely conventional power train. The electric motor,
mounted between the engine and transmission, is essentially a very large
starter motor, which operates not only when the engine needs to be turned
over, but also when the driver "steps on the gas" and requires extra power.
The electric motor may also be used to restart the combustion engine,
deriving the same benefits from shutting down the main engine at idle, while
the enhanced battery system is used to power accessories.[citation needed]GM is
going to produce Buick LaCrosse andBuick Regal mild hybrids dubbed
Eassist.
Honda's hybrids including the Insight use this design, leveraging their
reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is
dubbed Integrated Motor Assist(IMA). Assist hybrids differ fundamentally
from full hybrids in that propulsion cannot be accomplished on electric
power alone. However, since the amount of electrical power needed is
much smaller, the size of the system is reduced.
A variation on this type of hybrid is the Saturn Vue Green Line BAS
Hybrid system that uses a smaller electric motor (mounted to the side of the
engine), and battery pack than the Honda IMA, but functions similarly.
Another variation on this type is Mazda's e-4WD system, offered on
the Mazda Demio sold in Japan.[citation needed] This front-wheel drive vehicle has
an electric motor which can drive the rear wheels when extra traction is
needed. The system is entirely disengaged in all other driving conditions, so
it does not directly enhance performance or economy but allows the use of
a smaller and more economical engine relative to total performance.
Ford has dubbed Honda's hybrids "mild" in their advertising for the Escape
Hybrid, arguing that the Escape's full hybrid design is more efficient.
Plug-in hybrid[edit]

Chevrolet Volt charging

Main article: Plug-in hybrid
See also: Vehicle-to-grid and Plug-in electric vehicles
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) has two defining characteristics: 1)
it can be plugged into an electrical outlet to be charged and (2) has some
range that can be traveled on the energy it stored while plugged in. They
are full hybrid, able to run in electric-only mode, with larger batteries and
the ability to recharge from the electric power grid. And can be parallel or
series hybrid designs. They are also called gas-optional, or griddable
hybrids. Their main benefit is that they can be gasoline-independent for
daily commuting, but also have the extended range of a hybrid for long
trips. They can also be multi-fuel, with the electric power supplemented
by diesel, biodiesel, or hydrogen. The Electric Power Research Institute's
research indicates a lower total cost of ownership for PHEVs due to
reduced service costs and gradually improving batteries. The "well-to-
wheel" efficiency and emissions of PHEVs compared to gasoline hybrids
depends on the energy sources of the grid (the US grid is 50% coal;
California's grid is primarily natural gas, hydroelectric power, and wind
power). Particular interest in PHEVs is in California where a "million solar
homes" initiative is under way, and global warming legislation has been
enacted.

Engine compartment of a BYD F3DM plug-in hybrid.

Prototypes of PHEVs, with larger battery packs that can be recharged from
the power grid, have been built in the U.S., notably at Prof. Andy Frank's
Hybrid Center[26] at University of California, Davis and one production
PHEV, the Renault Kangoo, went on sale in France in
2003. DaimlerChrysler is currently building PHEVs based on the Mercedes-
Benz Sprinter van. Light Trucks are also offered by Micro-Vett SPA[27] the
so-called Daily Bimodale.
The California Cars Initiative has converted the '04 and newer Toyota Prius
to become a prototype of what it calls the PRIUS+. With the addition of
140 kg (300 lb) of lead-acid batteries, the PRIUS+ achieves roughly double
the gasoline mileage of a standard Prius and can make trips of up to 16 km
(10 mi) miles using only electric power.[28]
Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released
the F3DM compact sedan to the Chinese fleet market on December 15,
2008.[29][30] Due to low sales, BYD announced in April 2010 that the F3DM
will be replaced by the BYD Qin plug-in hybrid.[31][32]
General Motors began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in the United States
in December 2010,[5] and its sibling, the Opel Ampera, was released for
retail customers in Europe by early 2012.[33][34] As of November 2012, other
plug-in hybrids available in several markets are the Fisker Karma, Toyota
Prius Plug-in Hybrid, and Ford C-Max Energi.
As of October 2012, the best selling plug-in hybrid is the Chevrolet Volt,
with more than 33,000 units of the Volt/Ampera family sold worldwide since
December 2010, with sales led by the U.S. with 27,306 Volts sold through
October 2012,[35][36] followed by the Netherlands with 2,175 Amperas sold
through October 2012.[37][38] The second top selling PHEV is the Prius Plug-
in Hybrid, with 21,600 units sold worldwide through October 2012, with
sales led by the United States with 9,623 units through October 2012,
followed by Japan with 9,500 units through October 2012.[36][39]

Types by nature of the power source[edit]

Electric-internal combustion engine hybrid[edit]
There are many ways to create an electric-Internal Combustion Engine
(ICE) hybrid. The variety of electric-ICE designs can be differentiated by
how the electric and combustion portions of the powertrain connect, at what
times each portion is in operation, and what percent of the power is
provided by each hybrid component. Two major categories areseries
hybrids and parallel hybrids, though parallel designs are most common
today.
Most hybrids, no matter the specific type, use regenerative braking to
recover energy when slowing down the vehicle. This simply involves driving
a motor so it acts as a generator.
Many designs also shut off the internal combustion engine when it is not
needed in order to save energy. That concept is not unique to
hybrids; Subaru pioneered this feature in the early 1980s, and
the Volkswagen Lupo 3L is one example of a conventional vehicle that
shuts off its engine when at a stop. Some provision must be made,
however, for accessories such as air conditioning which are normally driven
by the engine. Furthermore, the lubrication systems of internal combustion
engines are inherently least effective immediately after the engine starts;
since it is upon startup that the majority of engine wear occurs, the frequent
starting and stopping of such systems reduce the lifespan of the engine
considerably.[dubious – discuss] Also, start and stop cycles may reduce the engine's
ability to operate at its optimum temperature, thus reducing the engine's
efficiency.

Structure of a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle

Electric-fuel cell hybrid[edit]

Fuel cell vehicles are often fitted with a battery or supercapacitor to deliver
peak acceleration power and to reduce the size and power constraints on
the fuel cell (and thus its cost); this is effectively also a series hybrid
configuration.
Internal combustion engine-hydraulic hybrid[edit]

Chrysler are adapting a minvan to a gasoline-hydraulic hybrid setup

A hydraulic hybrid vehicle uses hydraulic and mechanical components

instead of electrical. Avariable displacement pump replaces the electric
motor/generator. A hydraulic accumulator, is a vessel which stores energy.
The vessel typically has a flexible bladder of pre-charged pressurized
nitrogen gas inside. Pumped hydraulic fluid is compressed against the
bladder storing the energy in the highly compressed nitrogen gas. Some
versions have a piston in a cylinder rather than pressurized bladder of
nitrogen gas. The accumulator replaces the batteries on petro-electric
hybrid. The hydraulic accumulator is potentially cheaper and more durable
than batteries. Hydraulic hybrid technology was originally implemented in
Germany in the 1930s. Volvo Flygmotor used petro-hydraulic hybrids
experimentally in buses from the early 1980s and is still an active area.
Initial concept involved a giant flywheel (see Gyrobus) for storage
connected to a hydrostatic transmission, however later changed to a
simpler system using a hydraulic accumulator connected to a hydraulic
pump/motor. The system is also being actively developed by Eatonand
several other companies, primarily in heavy vehicles like buses, trucks and
military vehicles. An example is the Ford F-350 Mighty Tonka concept truck
shown in 2002. It features an Eaton system that can accelerate the truck up
to highway speeds.
The system components were expensive which precluded installation in
smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that the power driving motors
were not efficient enough at part load. Focus has now switched to smaller
vehicles. A British company has made a breakthrough by introducing an
electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump, the Digital Displacement®
motor/pump, that is highly efficient at all ranges and loads making small
applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids feasible.[40] The company converted a
BMW car as a test bed to prove viability. The BMW 530i, gave double the
MPG in city driving compared to the standard car. This was tested using the
standard 3,000cc engine. Petro-hydraulic hybrids using well sized
accumulators entails downsizing an engine to average power usage, not
peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the
accumulator.[41]
The kinetic braking energy recovery rate is higher and therefore the system
is more efficient than current battery charged hybrids, demonstrating a 60%
to 70% increase in economy in EPA testing.[42] Under tests undertaken by
the EPA, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 mpg-
US(7.4 L/100 km) in urban driving, and 22 mpg-US(11 L/100 km) on the
highway.[43] UPS currently has two trucks in service with this
technology.[44] While the system has faster and more efficient
charge/discharge cycling, the accumulator size and pressure dictates total
energy capacity, and requires more space than a battery. However for the
energy stored the accumulator is smaller in physical size than a current
battery pack.
One research company's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to
maximize the packaging of gasoline-hydraulic hybrid components in the
vehicle. All bulky hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of
the car. One design has claimed to return 130mpg in tests by using a large
hydraulic accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car. The
small hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs
driving the wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The
aim is 170mpg in average driving conditions. Energy created by shock
absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be wasted assists
in charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuelled piston engine sized for
average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at
running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully
charged accumulator with an energy storage potential of 670 HP, which will
produce a 0-60 mph acceleration speed of under 5 seconds using four
wheel drive.[45][46][47]
In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an
experimental gasoline-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large
passenger cars. Chrysler adapted an existing production minvan to the new
hydraulic powertrain.[48][49][50][51] Research is ongoing in this field.[52]
NRG Dynamix of the U.S.A. claims its approach reduces cost one-third
compared with electric hybrids and adds only 300 lbs (136 kg) to vehicle
weight vs. 1,000 lbs (454 kg) for electric hybrids. Under tests the company
claim a standard pickup vehicle powered by a 2.3 litre 4 cylinder engine
returns 14 mpg (16.8 l/100 km) in city driving. Using the petro-hydraulic
setup fuel economy climbs to "the mid 20s".[53]
Internal combustion engine-pneumatic hybrid[edit]
Compressed air can also power a hybrid car with a gasoline compressor to
provide the power. Motor Development International in France is developing
such air-powered cars. A team led by Tsu-Chin Tsao, a UCLA mechanical
and aerospace engineering professor, is collaborating with engineers from
Ford to get Pneumatic hybrid technology up and running. The system is
similar to that of a hybrid-electric vehicle in that braking energy is
harnessed and stored to assist the engine as needed during acceleration.
Human power and environmental power hybrids[edit]
Many land and water vehicles use human power combined with a further
power source. Common are parallel hybrids, e.g. a boat being rowed and
also having a sail set, ormotorized bicycles, or a human-electric hybrid
vehicle such as the Twike. Also some series hybrids exist, see in hybrid
vehicle. Such vehicles can be tribrid vehicles, combining at the same time
three power sources e.g. from on-board solar cells, from grid-charged
batteries, and from pedals.
Hybrid vehicle operation modes[edit]
Hybrid vehicles can be used in different modes. The figure shows some
typical modes for a parallel hybrid configuration.

Adding powertrains and aftermarket kits[edit]

One can install conmarket or aftermarket powertrain to a vehicle
to hybridise it.
The conmarket solution is used when the user buys the glider (rolling
chassis) and the hybrid (two engines) or all-electric (only an electric motor)
powertrain kit to the automakerand receives it installed in the car. Also an
(electric or hybrid) powertrain can be added to a glider[54] by a third party
aftermarket installer.
A University of Central Florida senior design team, On the Green, is
currently developing a bolt-on hybrid conversion kit to transform an older
model vehicle into a gas-electric hybrid.[55]
An example of a conversion using a 1966 Mustang was demonstrated by
an engineer in California. The system replaces the alternator with a 12 kW
(30 kW peak) brushless electric motor. Gas mileage and power were
improved.[56]

See also[edit]
 Battery electric vehicle
 Electric vehicle
 Engine control unit
 Hybrid electric vehicle