MAJORSHIP I.

THE REMEDIAL CLASSROOM: ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

Area: ENGLISH A remedial program primarily helps students address language skills deficits by helping them
acquire self-confidence to face their own weakness and overcome these through the acquisition of self-
Focus: Remedial Instruction in English help strategies. A thorough assessment must be conducted before organizing a remedial program, while
consistent monitoring is imperative in managing the program.
LET Competencies:
Below are general instructional guidelines that should be considered (Strickland, 1998 cited in
• Develop the students’ ability to organize, design, implement, and evaluate remedial English Gunning, 2003 and in Vacca, Vacca, and Gove, 1991):
program in any of the four macro skills.
✓ Instruction is systematic when it is planned, deliberate in application, and proceeds in an
The review material consists of the following: orderly manner. This does not mean a rigid progression of one-size-fits-all teaching.
I. The Remedial Classroom: Organization and Management ✓ Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy should be based on need. Thus,
A. Organization intensity will vary both with individuals and groups.
1. Curriculum ✓ There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and monitoring of learning to determine the
2. Instruction order in which skills should be addressed and the level of intensity required to help a child or
3. Assessment group of children succeed in a particular area.
B. Management ✓ To track specific goals and objectives within an integrated language-arts framework, teachers
Components of Remediation must know the instructional objectives their curriculum requires at the grade or year level they
II. Remedial Instruction in READING teach.
A. Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in Word Recognition A. Organization
B. Definition of Terms In organizing a remedial program, one must consider the following factors:
C. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit
D. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit 1. CURRICULUM
E. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence a. Base goals and standards for language
F. Remediation through Phonemic Awareness learning on theory and research.
G. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction b. Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge about
III. Remedial Instruction in LISTENING instruction to research.
A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening Comprehension c. Organize the curriculum framework so that it
B. Internal Factors is usable
C. External Factors d. Select materials that facilitate
D. How to Improve Students’ Listening Comprehension accomplishment of school goals.
IV. Remedial Instruction in SPEAKING
A. What makes speaking difficult 2. INSTRUCTION
B. Teaching Pronunciation a. The program must identify instructional strategies and activities for learners.
C. The Use of Accuracy-based Activities b. Instruction must be based upon what we know about the effective teaching of language
D. Talking to Second Language Learners in the beginning level skills.
V. Remedial Instruction in WRITING c. Those involved in designing or selecting instructional activities need to consider the
A. Areas of Difficulty for Students with Writing Problems variables that contribute to success in language learning, given its interactive and
B. Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction constructive nature.
C. Adaptations for Struggling Writers d. Time must be provided in the classroom for practice.
D. Teaching Handwriting e. Composing should be an integral part of the program.
E. Teaching Spelling f. Students should be given opportunities to become independent and to self-monitor their
progress.

Remedial Instruction in English |1

 g. The climate in a school must be conducive to the development of students. 6. Cognitive Development Component. This component should contain an attempt to enhance
h. The school must develop an organizational structure that meets individual needs of basic thinking operation such as: inference, abstract verbal reasoning, analogical reasoning,
students. constructive-critical/ creative reading, convergent and divergent analysis, problem-solving,
i. The program must provide for coordination among all language programs offered in and metacognition.
the school.

II. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN READING

3. ASSESSMENT A. Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in Word Recognition
a. Use assessment to guide instruction. We can identify the student who has insufficient competence in the visual analysis of words in two
b. Develop scoring guides and rubrics. ways. First, the student, when pronouncing words verbally, selects inappropriate elements to
c. Seek alignment among various layers of assessment. sound out and often he/she tries again and again to use the same analysis even when it does not
work. The second way can be done when the teacher shows him/her the word covering up parts of
B. Management it, if the student is able to recognize it, then at least one of his/her problems in word recognition is
faulty visual analysis (Ekwall & Shanker, 1988).
School-based remedial sessions tend to involve 3 to 10
learners, and typically last between 30 to 50 minutes, depending B. Definition of Terms
on whether they are in the elementary or secondary level. A plan 1. Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding that letters represent sound so that words may be read
to maximize the utilization of that time should be a high priority. by saying the sounds represented by the letters, and words may be spelled by writing the
To ensure that the program is effective, one must consider the six letters that represent the sounds in a word.
components of an ideal remedial program (Manzo & Manzo, 2. Sight-Word Knowledge: all words any one reader can recognize instantly (with automaticity)
1993). These principles may also be applicable in remediation for not necessarily with meaning.
other skills aside from reading. 3. Basic Sight Words: a designated list of words, usually of high utility.
4. Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence: (a.k.a. graphophonic knowledge) the readers’
1. The orientation component. The orientation component ability to use phonics, phonemic, and structural analysis knowledge.
provides continuity and focus to the remedial session. It
may be an engaging question or statement related to local or national news, or even school C. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit
life. It must focus on structured routines, materials, equipment, venue, people involved, and 1. Write a sentence on the chalkboard with the new word used in context. Underline the word.
the objective of the program. 2. Let students read the sentence and attempt to say the new word using context clues along with
other word-attack skills. If you are introducing a new story, it is especially important that you
2. Direct Instruction Component. This is the instructional heart of the remedial session. It do not tell them each new word in advance, as this deprives them of the opportunity to apply
should never be traded away, even for one period, without some compelling reason. word-attack skills themselves.
3. Discuss the meaning of the word or how it is used in talking and writing. Try to tie to
3. Reinforcement and Extension Component. This period of time ideally should build on the something in their experience. If possible, illustrate the word with a picture or a concrete
direct instructional period and be spent in empowered reading, writing, and discussion of what object.
was read. Writing activities may vary from simply listing key words to summarizing and 4. Write the word as students watch. Ask them to look for certain configuration clues such as
reacting. double letters, extenders, and descenders. Also ask them to look for any well-known
phonograms or word families, e.g. ill, ant, ake, but do not call attention to little words in
4. Schema-Enhancement Component. This unit of time should be spent in building a longer words.
knowledge base for further reading and independent thinking. It is an ideal time to teach study 5. Ask students to write the word themselves and to be sure have them say the word while they
skills such as outlining, note taking, and memory training. Ideally, it should flow or precede write it.
Component 3. 6. Have students make up and write sentences in which the word is used in context. Have them
read these sentences to each other and discuss them.
5. Personal-Emotional Growth Development. There is little learning or consequence that can
occur without the learner involvement and anticipation of personal progress. D. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit
1. Have the students trace the word; write it on paper, or use chalk or magic slates.

Remedial Instruction in English |2

 2. Have the students repeat the word each time it is written. NOTE: Accent has less importance for a corrective reader than the vowel rules. This is true partially
3. Have the students write the word without looking at the flash card; then compare the two. because a student who properly attacks a new word in his or her speaking-listening vocabulary but not
4. Create “study buddies.” Match learners in the classroom with fellow students who have sight vocabulary is likely to get the right accent without any knowledge of accent generalizations.
mastered the words. Take time to teach the “tutors” how to reinforce new words. Provide a Also, teach students the use of affixes so they will have better understanding of contractions,
big reward to both tutor and learner once the learner has attained the goal. inflectional and derivational endings for change tense, number form and function. These will lead to
5. Provide reinforcement games for students to use on their own or with their study buddies. students’ sufficient use of structural analysis strategy.
Games may be open-ended game boards or developed by levels according to the sublists.
6. Provide charts, graphs, and other devices for students to display their progress. These serve as Syllabication Principles
excellent motivators, especially since students are competing with themselves rather than each 1. When two consonants stand between two vowels, the word is usually divided between the
other. consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-cus. In some of the newer materials, materials are divided
7. Use your imagination. Have students dramatize phrases, build a sight-word “cave,” practice after the double consonant, e.g., dagg-er. It should be remembered that in reading we are
words while lining up, read sight-word “plays,” etc. usually teaching syllabication as a means of word attack. Therefore, we should also accept a
division after double consonants as correct even though the dictionary would not show it that
E. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence way.
Vowel Rules or Principles and Accent Generalizations 2. When one consonant stands between two vowels, try dividing first so that the consonant goes
1. In words containing a single vowel letter at the end of the word, the vowel letter usually with the second vowels, e,g., pa-per and motor, Students should be taught that flexibility is
has the long vowel sound. (Note that this rule refers to words and not just syllables.) required in using this rule; if this does not give a word in the student’s speaking-listening
There is a similar rule for single word letters at the end of syllables vocabulary, then the student should divide it so that the consonant goes with the first vowel,
2. In syllables containing a single vowel letter at the end of the syllable, the vowel letter may as in riv-er and lev-er.
have either the long or short vowel sound. Try the long sound first. (Note that this has the 3. When a word ends in a consonant and le, the consonant usually begins the last syllable, e.g.,
same effect as rule 1.) ta-ble and hum-ble.
3. A single vowel in a syllable usually has the short vowel sound if it is not the last letter or is 4. Compound words are usually divided between word parts and between syllables in these
not followed by r, w, or l. When explaining this to students it is often helpful to indicate that a parts, e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man.
single vowel in a closed syllable is usually short. Students should be taught that a closed 5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate syllables.
syllable is one in which there is a consonant on the right-hand side. They will also need to
know, as indicated above, the r, w, and l control rules. F. Remediation through Phonemic Awareness
4. Vowels followed by r usually have a sound that is neither long nor short The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness skills students should learn
5. A y at the beginning of a word has the “y” consonant sound; y at the end of a single-syllable 1. Sound Isolation. Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/.
word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long I sound; and y at the end of a Example Instruction: In sound isolation use conspicuous strategies.
multisyllable word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long e sound. (Some a. Show students how to do all the steps in the task before asking children to do the task.
people hear it as short i.) Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different sounds and say the names of the
6. In words ending with vowel-consonant-silent e the e is silent and the first vowel may be either pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound in man, /mmm/. Mmman begins with /mmm/.
long or short. Try the long sound first. In teaching this rule, stress that the student should be Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
flexible; i.e. try the short vowel sound if the long one does not form a word in his or her Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in these pictures?"
speaking-listening vocabulary. It has been demonstrated that students who are taught to be b. Use consistent and brief wording.
flexible in attacking words when applying rules such as this become more adept at using Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. Everyone says the first sound in man,
word-attack skills than those who are not taught this flexibility. /mmm/."
7. When aj, ay, ea, ee, and oa are found together, the first vowel is usually long and the second Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the first sounds in mountain, mop, and
is usually silent. Miranda. Does anyone know other words that begin with the same sound as man?"
8. The vowel pair ow may have either the sound heard in cow or the sound heard in crow. c. Correct errors by telling the answer and asking students to repeat the correct answer.
9. When au, aw, ou, oi, and oy are found together, they usually blend to form a diphthong. Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in mmman with me,
10. The oo sound is either long as in moon or short as in book. /mmm/. /Mmmm/."
11. If a is the only vowel in a syllable and is followed by l or w, then the a is usually neither long Non-example: Asking the question again or asking more questions. "Look at the picture
nor short. again. What is the first sound?"

Remedial Instruction in English |3

2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/ is sun). In blending instruction, use scaffold task Example: After students can segment the first sound, have them use letter tiles to
difficulty. represent the sounds.
a. When students are first learning to blend, use examples with continuous sounds, because Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities are not used. Explicit
the sounds can be stretched and held. connections between alphabetic and phonologic activities are not made.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /mmm/ - d. Use phonologic skills to teach more advanced reading skills, such as blending letter-
/ooo/ - /mmm/ he means mom." sounds to read words.
Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /b/ - Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter tiles for s, u, n.) Have them do
/e/ - /d/ he means bed." familiar tasks and blending to teach stretched blending with letters.
b. When students are first learning the task, use short words in teaching and practice
examples. Use pictures when possible. G. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My lion puppet wants one of Vocabulary is initially acquired in four
these pictures. Listen to hear which picture he wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/. Which picture?" ways:
Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/. Which picture?" (This is a more advanced • Incidentally, through reading and
model that should be used later.) conversation
c. When students are first learning the task, use materials that reduce memory load and to • Through direct instruction, as when a
represent sounds. teacher or auto-instructional program is
Example: Use pictures to help them remember the words and to focus their attention. Use used intentionally build vocabulary
a 3-square strip or blocks to represent sounds in a word. power
Non-example: Provide only verbal activities. • Through self-instruction, as when words
d. As students become successful during initial learning, remove scaffolds by using are looked up in a dictionary or their
progressively more difficult examples. As students become successful with more difficult meaning are sought from others in a
examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as pictures. conscious manner.
Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to blending with all sounds in a • Through mental manipulation while thinking, speaking, and writing
word (phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds, such as pictures. "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/.
Which picture?" "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What word?"
Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only the easiest levels with all the 1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction
scaffolds. Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The literature on
vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into five phases. These are:
3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme segmentation a. Disposition – opening the student’s mind and will to engage new words.
instruction, strategically integrate familiar and new information. b. Integration – establishing ties between the meaning of a new word and the student’s
a. Recycle instructional and practice examples used for blending. Blending and segmenting existing knowledge.
are sides of the same coin. The only difference is whether students hear or produce a c. Repetition – provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as opportunities for
segmented word. Note: A segmenting response is more difficult for children to reproduce frequent encounters with the word in similar and differing contexts.
than a blending response. d. Interaction and meaningful use – social situations conducive to using new words in
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the sounds in words. The sounds in mom interactions with others and, thus, mentally referencing new words in listening, reading,
are /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us. " writing, and speaking.
b. Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences for the sounds students will be e. Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of new words outside the classroom.
segmenting in words.
Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down letter cards for familiar letter- 2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building
sounds. Then, have them place pictures by the letter that begins with the same sound as a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in question.
the picture. b. Provide examples of the concept.
Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been taught when teaching first sound in c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with which it might be
pictures for phoneme isolation activities. compared.
c. Make the connections between sounds in words and sounds of letters. d. Relate the concept by some possible smaller or subordinating concepts.
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some possible larger or superordinating concepts.
Remedial Instruction in English |4
 f. Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal or coordinating terms. PROCEDURE
1. Take a difficult word from the text, write it on the chalkboard, pronounce it, and tell
3. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV) what it means.
a. Identify two to four words to be taught or pre-taught if SAV is used as a pre-reading 2. Ask students to imagine a simple pantomime for the word meaning (“How could you
activity. If a word list is used, be sure to include as many words as possible that impart show someone what this word means with just your hands or a gesture?”)
concepts and feelings that you would wish students to learn. 3. Tell students that when you give a signal, they will do their gesture pantomimes
simultaneously.
b. The teacher tells the student the full meaning of a word, much as it might be found in a
4. Select the most common pantomime observed. Demonstrate it all to the students,
dictionary. It is recorded in a Word Study Journal as the “objective” or dictionary
saying the word while doing the pantomime.
meaning.
5. Repeat each new word, this time directing the class to do the pantomime while saying a
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does this word remind you of?” or “What do you brief meaning or simple synonym.
picture or think of when you hear this word?” Explain that discussion of a personal 6. Let the students encounter the word in the assigned reading material.
association with a word can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying its meaning. 7. Try to use the pantomime casually whenever the word is used for a short time
d. The teacher talks to the student through this personal search for meaning by asking thereafter.
further clarifying questions, and in group situations by pointing out those images
suggested that seem most vivid. The teacher may add his or her own images. Students
are then directed to write some “subjective” or personal associations for the new word III. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN LISTENING
under the previously written dictionary definition in their journals. Drawings can be A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening Comprehension
added. 1. Internal factors – refer to the learner characteristics, language proficiency, memory, age,
e. Silent reading follows next when SAV is used as pre-reading vocabulary development. gender, background knowledge as well as aptitude, motivation, and psychological and
When it is being used for general vocabulary development, students are given 5 to 10 physiological factors
minutes to study and rehearse the new and previously recorded words. 2. External factors - are mainly related to the type of language input and tasks and the
context in which listening occurs
f. The teacher let the student close the Word Study Journal and asks him/her the meanings
of the words studied that day and a few others from previous days. This step can be tied B. Internal Factors
to seat exercises in conventional workbooks such as crossword puzzles, category games, 1. Problems in language proficiency (cover problems on phonetics and phonology like
etc. This manipulation and reinforcement step can be made easier by selecting the words phonetic discrimination, and phonetic varieties; problems in grammar; and lexicological
to be taught from the exercise material. problems)
2. Poor background knowledge
3. Lack of motivation to listen
4. Motor Imaging 4. Psychological factors
It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and concept learning have psychomotor 5. Other internal factors (age, attention span, memory span, reaction and sensitivity)
foundations, or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated with certain stimuli can
become interiorized as a “symbolic meaning” (Piaget, 1963 in Manzo and Manzo1993). There C. External Factors
are three considerable advantages to knowing this where remediation is concerned: 1. Speed of delivery and different accents of the speakers
a. First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive learning can be interiorized, they also can 2. The content and task of listening materials
be self-stimulating, and as such, they are easier to rehearse and recall with the slightest 3. Context - refers to the spatial-temporal location of the utterance, i.e. on the particular time
mental reminder, as well as from external stimulation. and particular place at which the speaker makes an utterance and the particular time and
b. Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to human learning that it is common to all place at which the listener hears or reads the utterance.
learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for heterogeneously grouped classes. 4. Co-text - another major factor influencing the interpretation of meaning. It refers to the
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life experience in itself linguistic context or the textual environment provided by the discourse or text in which a
with the word – a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo and Manzo (1993) particular utterance occurs. Co-text constrains the way in which we interpret the response.
demonstrated when he successfully taught youngsters words via the “experiential” Here we can infer that the person is not going to a picnic by judging from the co-text.
approach. A: Are you coming going to Baguio with us?
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday.

Remedial Instruction in English |5

 photography.
D. How to Improve Students’ Listening Comprehension 9. Reading aloud/recitation. Passages and scripts are used for students to practice and then read
1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the critical sounds of English aloud focusing on stress, timing, and intonation.
2. Practice sound discrimination, liasions, and incomplete plosives 10. Recording of learners’ production. Playback allows for giving of feedback and self-
3. Recognize stressed and unstressed words evaluation.
4. Enrich vocabulary
5. Teach grammar C. The Use of Accuracy-based Activities
6. Practice inferring information not directly stated Accuracy precedes fluency. Form-focused activities prepare students for communicative tasks.
7. Improve skills in predicting These activities have a high degree of control and focuses on specific language components.
8. Teach note-taking skills To strike a balance, Hedge (2000) describes how to make accuracy-based activities
meaningful.
1. Contextualized practice. This aims to establish the link between form and function. The
IV. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN SPEAKING activity should highlight the situation where the form is commonly used.
A. What makes speaking difficult (Brown, 2001) 2. Personalizing language. Personalized practice encourages learners to express their ideas,
1. Clustering feelings, and opinions. These activities help learners to use language in interpersonal
2. Redundancy interactions. A variety of gambits or useful expressions should be provided.
3. Reduced forms 3. Building awareness of the social use of language. This involves understanding social
4. Performance variables conventions in interaction. Communication strategies are directly taught and practiced
5. Colloquial language through contextualized activities.
6. Rate of delivery 4. Building confidence. The key is to create a positive climate in classroom where learners are
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation encouraged to take risks and engage in activities.
8. Interaction
D. Talking to Second Language Learners in the beginning level
B. Teaching Pronunciation Cary (1997) suggests that teachers need to make speech modifications as a form of
Below are techniques and practice, materials (as cited in Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin, 1996) instructional support when teaching with second language learners.
in teaching pronunciation which have been used traditionally and continues to be utilized in 1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing more and slightly longer pauses to give
speaking classes. students more time to make sense of the utterances.
1. Listen and imitate. Learners listen to a model provided by the teacher and then repeat or 2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions. These provide emphasis on words and
imitate it. give learners extra clues as they search for meaning.
2. Phonetic training. Articulatory descriptions, articulatory diagrams, and a phonetic alphabet 3. Be careful with fused forms. Language compressions or reduces forms can be difficult for
are used. learners. Use these forms without overusing or eliminating them altogether.
3. Minimal Pair drills. These provide practice on problematic sounds in the target language 4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences.
through listening discrimination and spoken practice. Drills begin with word-level then move 5. Use specific names instead of pronouns.
to sentence-level.
4. Contextualized minimal pairs. The teacher established the setting or context then key V. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN WRITING
vocabulary is presented. Students provide meaningful response to sentence stem. A. Areas of Difficulty for Students with Writing Problems (Troia, 2002; Troia & Graham,
5. Visual aids. These materials are used to cue production of focus sounds. 2003)
6. Tongue twisters B. Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction
7. Developmental approximation drills. Second language speakers take after the steps that In order for teachers to support all students' writing ability development, certain qualities of
English-speaking children follow in acquiring certain sounds. the writing classroom must be present. Four core components of effective writing instruction
8. Practice of vowel shifts and stress shifts related by affixation constitute the foundation of any good writing program:
Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short i) 1. Students should have meaningful writing experiences and be assigned authentic writing
Sentence context: Street mimes often mimic the gestures of passersby. tasks that promote personal and collective expression, reflection, inquiry, discovery, and
Stress shift: PHOtograph phoTOGraphy social change.
Sentence context: I can tell from these photographs that you are very good at
Remedial Instruction in English |6
 2. Routines should permit students to become comfortable with the writing process and move h. Help students develop self-instructions (e.g., “I can handle this if I go slow.”) and self-
through the process over a sustained period of time at their own rate. questions (e.g., “Am I following my plan?”) that focus on positive attributions for success
3. Lessons should be designed to help students master craft elements (e.g., text structure, and task progress.
character development), writing skills (e.g., spelling, punctuation), and process strategies i. Teach students to evaluate and adjust their writing behaviors and writing strategy use to
(e.g., planning and revising tactics). improve their writing productivity and performance.
4. A common language for shared expectations and feedback regarding writing quality might j. Promote maintenance and generalization of writing strategies by doing the following:
include the use of traits (e.g., organization, ideas, sentence fluency, word choice, voice, and • Modeling and discussing how strategies may be used in multiple contexts;
conventions). • Relating writing performance to strategy use;
• Having students teach others how to use strategies;
C. Adaptations for Struggling Writers • Having students keep a strategy notebook which they can consult at any time;
1. Accommodations in the Learning Environment • Ensuring all staff and caregivers are familiar with and prompt the use of the
a. Increase instructional time for writing. strategies; and
b. Provide quiet and comfortable spaces for students to work. • Reviewing strategies often.
c. Provide unimpeded access to writing tools. 4. Modifications to Task Demands
d. Let students identify and select meaningful reinforcements for achieving writing goals a. Increase amount of time allotted for completing written assignments.
(e.g., a reinforcement menu). b. Decrease the length and/or complexity of written assignments.
e. Consult with an occupational therapist to identify specialized adaptations (e.g., chair and c. Have students complete text frames (i.e., partially finished texts).
desk height). d. Reduce or eliminate copying demands (e.g., teach students abbreviations for note taking,
supply worksheets with math problems from textbook).
2. Accommodations in Instructional Materials e. Allow students to use temporary/invented spelling.
a. Simplify language of writing prompts. f. Pre-teach spelling vocabulary for assignments.
b. Highlight (e.g., color code) key words and phrases. g. Evaluate spelling using correct letter sequences (e.g., hopping has 8 possible correct letter
c. Transition from simple to more elaborate graphic organizers and procedural checklists. sequences) rather than number of words spelled correctly to measure and reward
d. Post strategies, graphic organizers, and checklists in classroom and give students personal incremental progress attributable to partial correct spelling.
copies. h. Permit students to dictate written work to a scribe.
e. Develop individualized spelling lists. i. If students have adequately developed keyboarding skills, permit them to write papers
f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of “demon” words and frequently used spelling with a word processor.
vocabulary. j. Permit students to use outlining and semantic mapping software to facilitate planning.
g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’ desks.
h. Provide pencil grips for students.
i. Provide raised- or colored-lined paper.
j. Provide students with personal copies of alphabet strips. k. Permit students to use integrated spell checker and/or word prediction software to
3. Accommodations in Teaching Strategies facilitate correct spelling.
a. Devote more instructional time to writing mechanics. l. Permit students to use speech synthesis technology to facilitate revising and editing.
b. Provide physical assistance during handwriting practice. m. Selectively weight grading for content, organization, style, and conventions.
c. Re-teach writing skills and strategies. n. Grade assignments based on the amount of improvement rather than absolute
d. Expect and support mastery learning of skills and strategies (e.g., memorization of performance.
strategy steps). o. Assign letter grades for body of work collected over time (i.e., portfolio assessment)
e. Use cross-age peer tutors to reinforce skills and strategies. rather than for each paper.
f. Assign homework designed to reinforce writing instruction. p. Provide feedback on content, organization, style, and conventions for some rather than all
g. Help students set specific and challenging yet attainable goals for the writing process assignments (which may reduce students’ anxiety about writing).
(e.g., completing a planning sheet before beginning to draft) and written products (e.g., a q. Provide feedback on targeted aspects of writing rather than all aspects to avoid
quantity goal of including 10 descriptive words in a story, which is perhaps linked to a overwhelming students.
quality goal of improving word choice by two points on an analytic quality scale).

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 5. Modifications to Learning Tasks e. Students are asked to self-evaluate their handwriting and to set goals for improving
a. Permit students to dramatize or orally present a written assignment, either in lieu of specific aspects of their handwriting each day.
writing or in preparation for writing. f. Students are encouraged to correct poorly formed letters and to rewrite illegible work.
b. Assign students suitable roles (e.g., brainstorm manager) for the creation of a group-
generated paper.
E. Teaching Spelling
D. Teaching Handwriting 1. Curriculum Considerations
The following are research-based suggestions for teaching handwriting. a. Spelling vocabulary includes words drawn from children’s reading materials, children’s
1. Curriculum Considerations writing, self-selected words, high-frequency word lists 1,2, and pattern words.
a. The initial use of one type of script (e.g., manuscript versus cursive or different versions b. Students are typically taught phonemic awareness and phoneme-grapheme associations
of manuscript) does not appear to affect handwriting performance. (reserving the least consistent mappings, such as consonants /k/ and /z/ and long vowels,
b. Special emphasis is placed on difficult-to-form letters and those that are frequently for last) in kindergarten and first grade. Common spelling patterns (e.g., phonograms or
reversed. rime families 3,4,5) are taught in first and second grades. Morphological structures (i.e.,
c. Lowercase letters are introduced before upper-case letters, unless they are formed using roots and affixes 3,4,5,6) and helpful spelling rules (e.g., add es to make words ending in
similar strokes (e.g., C, c). s, z, x, ch, or sh plural) are taught in second grade and beyond.
d. Letters that share common strokes are grouped together (e.g., o, c, d, a). c. Students are taught systematic and effective strategies for studying new spelling words
e. The introduction of easily confused letters (e.g., b, d, p, q) is staggered. (e.g., mnemonic spelling links, multi-sensory strategies).
f. The formation of individual upper- and lowercase letters and, for cursive, difficult letter d. Previously taught spelling words are periodically reviewed to promote retention.
transitions (e.g., roam) are modeled. e. Correct use of spelling vocabulary in students’ written work is monitored and reinforced.
g. Visual cues, such as numbered dots and arrows, and verbal descriptions are used to guide f. Students are taught and encouraged to use dictionaries, spell checkers, and other
letter formation. resources to determine the spelling of unknown words
h. Activities to reinforce letter recognition and naming are combined with handwriting g. Spelling “demons” and other difficult words are posted on wall charts.
practice.
i. Students practice using a comfortable and efficient tripod pencil grasp. 2. Weekly Routines
j. Students are shown and expected to use appropriate posture and paper positioning for a. A minimum of 60–75 minutes per week is allocated for spelling instruction.
their handedness. b. Students take a Monday pretest to determine which words they need to study during
k. Handwriting fluency is developed through frequent writing and speed trials, with an subsequent activities and to set spelling performance goals.
emphasis on maintaining legibility. c. After studying new spelling words, students take a Friday posttest to determine which
l. Opportunities are provided for distributed practice and judicious review of individual words were mastered.
letters and letter sequences. d. Immediately after taking a spelling test, students correct their misspellings.
m. Students are permitted to develop their own handwriting style and to choose which script e. The teacher conducts word sorts and guided spelling activities to explicitly teach spelling
(manuscript, cursive, or even a blend) they prefer to use after mastering handwriting patterns and rules at the beginning of the week.
(manuscript tends to be more legible than cursive and can be written just as quickly if f. Daily opportunities are provided for cumulative study and testing of new spelling words
given equal emphasis). (e.g., through computer-assisted instruction).
n. Students are prompted to identify when a high degree of legibility is and is not necessary. g. Students work together each day to learn new spelling words.
h. While studying, students monitor their on-task behavior or the number of times they
2. Weekly Routines correctly spell a target word, to promote active learning.
a. In the primary grades, 60–75 minutes per week is allocated for handwriting instruction.
b. Students are encouraged to compare letters to discover patterns and to highlight their
similarities and differences.
c. Students are given opportunities to reinforce target letters by tracing them (a dashed or
faded model), copying them, and writing them from memory.
d. Students’ handwriting is monitored and immediately reinforced for correct letter
formation, spacing, alignment, size, slant, and line quality.

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