GE ELEC learning, given its interactive and constructive

nature.
Chapter 1: The Remedial Classroom: Organization
d) Time must be provided in the classroom for
and Management
practice.
A remedial program primarily helps students address e) Composing should be an integral part of the
language skills deficits by helping them acquire self- program.
confidence to face their own weakness and overcome f) Students should be given opportunities to
these through the acquisition of self-help strategies. become independent and to self-monitor their
A thorough assessment must be conducted before progress.
organizing a remedial program, while consistent g) The climate in a school must be conducive to the
monitoring is imperative in managing the program. development of students.
h) The school must develop an organizational
Below are general instructional guidelines that structure that meets the individual needs of
should be considered (Strickland, 1998 cited in students.
Gunning, 2003 and in Vacca, Vacca, and Gove, i) The program must provide for coordination
1991): among all language programs offered in the
• Instruction is systematic when it is planned, school.
deliberate in application, and proceeds in an 3. ASSESSMENT
orderly manner. This does not mean a rigid
progression of one-size-fits-all teaching. a) Use assessment to guide instruction.
• Intensive instruction on any particular skill or b) Develop scoring guides and rubrics.
strategy should be based on need. Thus, intensity c) Seek alignment among various layers of
will vary both with individuals and groups. assessment.
• There is no substitute for ongoing documentation B. Management
and monitoring of learning to determine the order
in which skills should be addressed and the level School-based remedial sessions tend to involve 3 to
of intensity required to help a child or group of 10 learners, and typically last between 30 to 50
children succeed in a particular area. minutes, depending on whether they are in the
• To track specific goals and objectives within an elementary or secondary level. A plan to maximize
integrated language-arts framework, teachers the utilization of that time should be a high priority.
must know the instructional objectives their To ensure that the program is effective, one must
curriculum requires at the grade or year level they consider the six components of an ideal remedial
teach. program (Manzo & Manzo, 1993). These principles
may also be applicable in remediation for other skills
A. Organization aside from reading.
In organizing a remedial program, one must consider Overlapping Components of Remediation
the following factors:
a. The orientation component. The orientation
1. CURRICULUM component provides continuity and focus to the
a) Base goals and standards for language learning remedial session. It may be an engaging question
on theory and research. or statement related to local or national news, or
b) Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge about even school life. It must focus on structured
instruction to research. routines, materials, equipment, venue, people
c) Organize the curriculum framework so that it is involved, and the objective of the program.
usable b. Direct Instruction Component. This is the
d) Select materials that facilitate accomplishment of instructional heart of the remedial session. It
school goals. should never be traded away, even for one period,
without some compelling reason.
2. INSTRUCTION c. Reinforcement and Extension Component.
a) The program must identify instructional This period of time ideally should build on the
strategies and activities for learners. direct instructional period and be spent in
b) Instruction must be based upon what we know empowered reading, writing, and discussion of
about the effective teaching of language skills. what was read. Writing activities may vary from
c) Those involved in designing or selecting simply listing key words to summarizing and
instructional activities need to consider the reacting.
variables that contribute to success in language d. Schema-Enhancement Component. This unit
of time should be spent in building a knowledge
 base for further reading and independent recognize it, then at least one of his/her problems in
thinking. It is an ideal time to teach study skills word recognition is faulty visual analysis (Ekwall &
such as outlining, note taking, and memory Shanker, 1988).
training. Ideally, it should flow or precede
B. Definition of Terms
Component 3.
e. Personal-Emotional Growth Development. 1. Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding that letters
There is little learning or consequence that can represent sound so that words may be read by saying
occur without the learner involvement and the sounds represented by the letters, and words may
anticipation of personal progress. be spelled by writing the letters that represent the
f. Cognitive Development Component. This sounds in a word.
component should contain an attempt to enhance
basic thinking operation such as: inference, 2. Sight-Word Knowledge: all words any one reader
abstract verbal reasoning, analogical reasoning, can recognize instantly (with automaticity) not
constructive-critical/ creative reading, necessarily with meaning.
convergent and divergent analysis, problem- 3. Basic Sight Words: a designated list of words,
solving, and metacognition. usually of high utility.
IV. SYNTHESIS/ GENERALIZATION 4. Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence:
1. Curriculum: What is taught and learned. The (a.k.a. graphophonic knowledge) the readers’ ability
curriculum is the structured set of learning to use phonics, phonemic, and structural analysis
outcomes for a prescribed course of study. knowledge.
2. Instruction: How we teach. An instructional C. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit
repertoire is the array of teaching and learning
strategies we use to design experiences that 1. Write a sentence on the chalkboard with the new
promote student learning of the curriculum. word used in context. Underline the word.
3. Assessment: How we and the students know 2. Let students read the sentence and attempt to say
what students have learned. the new word using context clues along with
4. The overlapping components of remediation are other word-attack skills. If you are introducing a
as follows: orientation; direct instruction; new story, it is especially important that you do
reinforcement and extension; schema not tell them each new word in advance, as this
enhancement; personal-emotional growth; and deprives them of the opportunity to apply word-
cognitive development. attack skills themselves.
3. Discuss the meaning of the word or how it is used
Chapter 2: Remedial Instruction in READING in talking and writing. Try to tie to something in
Remedial reading refers to correcting or improving their experience. If possible, illustrate the word
deficient skills in specific subject. Thus, remedial with a picture or a concrete object.
reading is a change in instruction that helps remedy 4. Write the word as students watch. Ask them to
a weakness in the area of reading. look for certain configuration clues such as
double letters, extenders, and descenders. Also
The goal of Remedial Reading is to dramatically ask them to look for any well-known
reduce the number of students who have extreme phonograms or word families, e.g. ill, ant, ake,
difficulty learning to read and write. Remedial but do not call attention to little words in longer
Reading is a highly effective short-term intervention words.
of tutoring struggling readers in both an 5. Ask students to write the word themselves and to
individualized and small group setting. be sure have them say the word while they write
it.
Remedial Instruction in READING
6. Have students make up and write sentences in
A. Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits which the word is used in context. Have them
in Word Recognition read these sentences to each other and discuss
them.
We can identify the student who has insufficient
competence in the visual analysis of words in two D. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit
ways. First, the student, when pronouncing words
1. Have the students trace the word; write it on
verbally, selects inappropriate elements to sound out
paper, or use chalk or magic slates.
and often he/she tries again and again to use the same
2. Have the students repeat the word each time it is
analysis even when it does not work. The second way
written.
can be done when the teacher shows him/her the
3. Have the students write the word without looking
word covering up parts of it, if the student is able to
at the flash card; then compare the two.
4. Create “study buddies.” Match learners in the one does not form a word in his or her speaking-
classroom with fellow students who have listening vocabulary. It has been demonstrated
mastered the words. Take time to teach the that students who are taught to be flexible in
“tutors” how to reinforce new words. Provide a attacking words when applying rules such as this
big reward to both tutor and learner once the become more adept at using word-attack skills
learner has attained the goal. than those who are not taught this flexibility.
5. Provide reinforcement games for students to use 7. When aj, ay, ea, ee, and oa are found together,
on their own or with their study buddies. Games the first vowel is usually long and the second is
may be open-ended game boards or developed by usually silent.
levels according to the sublists. 8. The vowel pair ow may have either the sound
6. Provide charts, graphs, and other devices for heard in cow or the sound heard in crow.
students to display their progress. These serve as 9. When au, aw, ou, oi, and oy are found together,
excellent motivators, especially since students they usually blend to form a diphthong.
are competing with themselves rather than each 10. The oo sound is either long as in moon or short
other. as in book.
7. Use your imagination. Have students dramatize 11. If a is the only vowel in a syllable and is followed
phrases, build a sight-word “cave,” practice by l or w, then the a is usually neither long nor
words while lining up, read sight-word “plays,” short.
etc.
NOTE: Accent has less importance for a corrective
E. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol reader than the vowel rules. This is true partially
Correspondence because a student who properly attacks a new word
in his or her speaking-listening vocabulary but not
Vowel Rules or Principles and Accent
sight vocabulary is likely to get the right accent
Generalizations
without any knowledge of accent generalizations.
1. In words containing a single vowel letter at the
Also, teach students the use of affixes so they will
end of the word, the vowel letter usually has the
have better understanding of contractions,
long vowel sound. (Note that this rule refers to
inflectional and derivational endings for change
words and not just syllables.) There is a similar
tense, number form and function. These will lead to
rule for single word letters at the end of syllables
students’ sufficient use of structural analysis strategy.
2. In syllables containing a single vowel letter at the
end of the syllable, the vowel letter may have Syllabication Principles
either the long or short vowel sound. Try the long
sound first. (Note that this has the same effect as • When two consonants stand between two vowels,
the word is usually divided between the
rule 1.)
consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-cus. In some of
3. A single vowel in a syllable usually has the short
the newer materials, materials are divided after
vowel sound if it is not the last letter or is not
the double consonant, e.g., dagg-er. It should be
followed by r, w, or l. When explaining this to
remembered that in reading we are usually
students it is often helpful to indicate that a single
teaching syllabication as a means of word attack.
vowel in a closed syllable is usually short.
Therefore, we should also accept a division after
Students should be taught that a closed syllable is
double consonants as correct even though the
one in which there is a consonant on the right-
dictionary would not show it that way.
hand side. They will also need to know, as
indicated above, the r, w, and l control rules. • When one consonant stands between two vowels,
4. Vowels followed by r usually have a sound that try dividing first so that the consonant goes with
is neither long nor short the second vowels, e,g., pa-per and motor,
5. A y at the beginning of a word has the “y” Students should be taught that flexibility is
consonant sound; y at the end of a single-syllable required in using this rule; if this does not give a
word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has word in the student’s speaking-listening
the long I sound; and y at the end of a vocabulary, then the student
multisyllable word, when preceded by a • should divide it so that the consonant goes with
consonant, usually has the long e sound. (Some the first vowel, as in riv-er and lev-er.
people hear it as short i.) • When a word ends in a consonant and le, the
6. In words ending with vowel-consonant-silent e consonant usually begins the last syllable, e.g.,
the e is silent and the first vowel may be either ta-ble and hum-ble.
long or short. Try the long sound first. In teaching • Compound words are usually divided between
this rule, stress that the student should be word parts and between syllables in this parts,
flexible; i.e. try the short vowel sound if the long e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man.
• Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate • Through self-instruction, as when words are
syllables. looked up in a dictionary or their meaning are
sought from others in a conscious manner.
F. Remediation through Phonemic Awareness
• Use: Through mental manipulation while
The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness thinking, speaking, and writing
skills students should learn:
1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary
1. Sound Isolation. Example: The first sound in sun instruction
is /ssss/.
Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural
• Show students how to do all the steps in the task processes of word learning. The literature on
before asking children to do the task. vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching
• Use consistent and brief wording. of vocabulary into five phases. These are:
• Correct errors by telling the answer and asking • Disposition – opening the student’s mind and
students to repeat the correct answer.
will to engage new words.
2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/ is sun). • Integration – establishing ties between the
In blending instruction, use scaffold task difficulty. meaning of a new word and the student’s existing
knowledge.
• When students are first learning to blend, use • Repetition – provisions for practice distributed
examples with continuous over time, as well as opportunities for frequent
• When students are first learning the task, use encounters with the word in similar and differing
short words in teaching and practice examples. contexts.
Use pictures when possible. • Interaction and meaningful use – social
• When students are first learning the task, use situations conducive to using new words in
materials that reduce memory load and to interactions with others and, thus, mentally
represent sounds. referencing new words in listening, reading,
• As students become successful during initial writing, and speaking.
learning, remove scaffolds by using • Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of
progressively more difficult examples. As new words outside the classroom.
students become successful with more difficult
examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as pictures. 2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary
Building
3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are /sss/
- /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme segmentation instruction, a) Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the
strategically integrate familiar and new information. concept in question.
b) Provide examples of the concept.
a) Recycle instructional and practice examples used c) Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely
for blending. Blending and segmenting are sides related concepts with which it might be
of the same coin. The only difference is whether compared.
hear or produce a segmented word. Note: A d) Relate the concept by some possible smaller or
segmenting response is more difficult for subordinating concepts.
children to reproduce than a blending response. e) Relate or categorize the concept by some
b) Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences possible larger or superordinating concepts.
for the sounds students will be segmenting in f) Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal
words. or coordinating terms.
c) Make the connections between sounds in words
and sounds of letters. 3. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV)
d) Use phonologic skills to teach more advanced a) Identify two to four words to be taught or pre-
reading skills, such as blending letter-sounds to taught if SAV is used as a pre-reading activity. If
read words. a word list is used, be sure to include as many
G. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction words as possible that impart concepts and
feelings that you would wish students to learn.
Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways: b) The teacher tells the student the full meaning of
• Incidentally, through reading and a word, much as it might be found in a dictionary.
conversation It is recorded in a Word Study Journal as the
• Through direct instruction, as when a “objective” or dictionary meaning.
teacher or auto-instructional program is used c) The teacher asks the student, “What does this
intentionally build vocabulary power word remind you of?” or “What do you picture
 or think of when you hear this word?” Explain education classroom, but a supplemental program to
that discussion of a personal association with a help each student progress toward year end goals. It
word can be very helpful in remembering and can be complicated finding effective methods to use
clarifying its meaning. with at-risk students. What is taught must meet the
d) The teacher talks to the student through this different needs of individual learners. Some will
personal search for meaning by asking further have learning difficulties and some will come from
clarifying questions, and in group situations by different backgrounds. One size certainly doesn’t fit
pointing out those images suggested that seem all.
most vivid. The teacher may add his or her own
Chapter 3: Remedial Instruction in LISTENING
images. Students are then directed to write some
“subjective” or personal associations for the new Listening is a significant language skill to develop in
word under the previously written dictionary second language learning. Despite its importance,
definition in their journals. Drawings can be language learners consider listening as the most
added. difficult language skill to learn. Since the role of
e) Silent reading follows next when SAV is used as listening comprehension in language teaching has
pre-reading vocabulary development. When it is been repeatedly emphasized, many teachers do not
being used for general vocabulary development, pay enough attention to its importance in their
students are given 5 to 10 minutes to study and classes.
rehearse the new and previously recorded words.
f) The teacher let the student close the Word Study Teaching the skill of listening cannot be emphasized
Journal and asks him/her the meanings of the enough in a communicative classroom. For second
words studied that day and a few others from language learners, developing the skill of listening
previous days. This step can be tied to seat comprehension is extremely important. Students
exercises in conventional workbooks such as with good listening comprehension skills are better
crossword puzzles, category games, etc. This able to participate effectively in class.
manipulation and reinforcement step can be A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening
made easier by selecting the words to be taught Comprehension
from the exercise material.
1. Internal factors – refer to the learner
4. Motor Imaging characteristics, language proficiency, memory, age,
It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary gender, background knowledge as well as aptitude,
and concept learning have psychomotor foundations, motivation, and psychological and physiological
or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated factors
with certain stimuli can become interiorized as a 2. External factors - are mainly related to the type
“symbolic meaning” (Piaget, 1963 in Manzo and of language input and tasks and the context in which
Manzo1993). There are three considerable listening occurs.
advantages to knowing this where remediation is
concerned: B. Internal Factors

a) First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive 1. Problems in language proficiency (cover problems

learning can be interiorized, they also can be self- on phonetics and phonology like phonetic
stimulating, and as such, they are easier to discrimination, and phonetic varieties; problems in
rehearse and recall with the slightest mental grammar; and lexicological problems)
reminder, as well as from external stimulation. 2. Poor background knowledge
b) Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to
human learning that it is common to all learners, 3. Lack of motivation to listen
fast and slow, and hence, ideal for 4. Psychological factors
heterogeneously grouped classes.
c) Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word 5. Other internal factors (age, attention span, memory
becomes a life experience in itself with the word span, reaction and sensitivity)
– a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in C. External Factors
Manzo and Manzo (1993) demonstrated when he
successfully taught youngsters words via the 1. Speed of delivery and different accents of the
“experiential” approach. speakers

IV. SYNTHESIS/ GENERALIZATION 2. The content and task of listening materials

Remedial reading is not in place of the core reading 3. Context - refers to the spatial-temporal location of
program and instruction provided in the general the utterance, i.e. on the particular time and particular
place at which the speaker makes an utterance and A. What makes speaking difficult (Brown, 2001)
the particular time and place at which the listener
1. Clustering
hears or reads the utterance.
2. Redundancy
4. Co-text - another major factor influencing the 3. Reduced forms
interpretation of meaning. It refers to the linguistic 4. Performance variables
context or the textual environment provided by the 5. Colloquial language
discourse or text in which a particular utterance 6. Rate of delivery
occurs. Co-text constrains the way in which we 7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
interpret the response. Here we can infer that the 8. Interaction
person is not going to a picnic by judging from the
B. Teaching Pronunciation
co-text.
Below are techniques and practice,materials (as cited
A: Are you coming going to Baguio with us?
in Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin, 1996) in teaching
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday. pronunciation which have been used traditionally
and continues to be utilized in speaking classes.
D. How to Improve Students’ Listening
Comprehension 1. Listen and imitate. Learners listen to a model
provided by the teacher and then repeat or imitate it.
1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the
critical sounds of English 2. Phonetic training. Articulatory descriptions,
2. Practice sound discrimination, liasions, and articulatory diagrams, and a phonetic alphabet are
incomplete plosives used.
3. Recognize stressed and unstressed words
3. Minimal Pair drills. These provide practice on
4. Enrich vocabulary
problematic sounds in the target language through
5. Teach grammar
listening discrimination and spoken practice. Drills
6. Practice inferring information not directly stated
begin with word-level then move to sentence-level.
7. Improve skills in predicting
8. Teach note-taking skills 4. Contextualized minimal pairs. The teacher
established the setting or context then key
SYNTHESIS/ GENERALIZATION
vocabulary is presented. Students provide
Listening Comprehension, it is a child’s ability to meaningful response to sentence stem.
understand the meaning of the words he hears and to
5. Visual aids. These materials are used to cue
relate to them in some way.
production of focus sounds.
There are internal and external factors that hinder
6. Tongue twisters
student’s listening comprehension.
7. Developmental approximation drills. Second
Teaching the skill of listening cannot be emphasized
language speakers take after the steps that English-
enough in a communicative classroom. For second
speaking children follow in acquiring certain sounds.
language learners, developing the skill of listening
comprehension is extremely important. Students 8. Practice of vowel shifts and stress shifts related
with good listening. comprehension skills are better by affixation
able to participate effectively in class. Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short i)
Chapter 4: Remedial Instruction in SPEAKING Sentence context: Street mimes often mimic the
gestures of passersby.
Many students equate being able to speak a language
as knowing the language and therefore view learning Stress shift: PHOtograph phoTOGraphy
the language as learning how to speak the language,
or as Nunan (1991) wrote, "success is measured in Sentence context: I can tell from these photographs
terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the that you are very good at photography.
(target) language." Therefore, if students do not learn 9. Reading aloud/recitation. Passages and scripts
how to speak or do not get any opportunity to speak are used for students to practice and then read aloud
in the language classroom, they may soon get de- focusing on stress, timing, and intonation.
motivated and lose interest in learning. On the other
hand, if the right activities are taught in the right way, 10. Recording of learners’ production. Playback
speaking in class can be a lot of fun, raising general allows for giving of feedback and self-evaluation.
learner motivation and making the English language
classroom a fun and dynamic place to be.
C. The Use of Accuracy-based Activities words and sentences according to Organize their
thoughts in the proper social meaningful and logical
Accuracy precedes fluency. Form-focused activities
setting, audience, situation sequence and subject
prepare students for communicative tasks. These
matter. Use the language quickly Use language as a
activities have a high degree of control and focuses
means of and confidently with few expressing values
on specific language components. To strike a
and unnatural pauses, which is judgments called as
balance, Hedge (2000) describes how to make
fluency.
accuracy-based activities meaningful.
Chapter 5: Remedial Instruction in WRITING
1. Contextualized practice. This aims to establish the
link between form and function. The activity should In traditional teaching and learning contexts,
highlight the situation where the form is commonly product-oriented approaches to writing that focus on
used. form and emphasize final product are the norm.
While these may effectively prepare students for
2. Personalizing language. Personalized practice
examinations, the recognition that an understanding
encourages learners to express their ideas, feelings,
of context and audience would heighten writers’
and opinions. These activities help learners to use
awareness of function and purpose, thus increase
language in interpersonal interactions. A variety of
effectiveness of their content (Hedge, 1988) inspired
gambits or useful expressions should be provided.
development of process approaches to writing, where
3. Building awareness of the social use of language. the actual writing process is as important as its end.
This involves understanding social conventions in Explicit teaching of the processes in writing would
interaction. Communication strategies are directly reinforce contextual knowledge and thus improve
taught and practiced through contextualized quality of student writing.
activities.
A. Areas of Difficulty for Students with Writing
4. Building confidence. The key is to create a Problems (Troia, 2002; Troia & Graham, 2003)
positive climate in classroom where learners are
1. Knowledge Difficulties
encouraged to take risks and engage in activities.
Students with writing problems show:
D. Talking to Second Language Learners in the
beginning level a) Less awareness of what constitutes good writing
and how to produce it;
Cary (1997) suggests that teachers need to make
b) Restricted knowledge about genre-specific text
speech modifications as a form of instructional
structures (e.g., setting or plot elements in a
support when teaching with second language
narrative);
learners.
c) Poor declarative, procedural, and conditional
1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing strategy knowledge (e.g., knowing that one
more and slightly longer pauses to give students should set goals for writing, how to set specific
more time to make sense of the utterances. goals, and when it is most beneficial to alter those
goals);
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial d) Limited vocabulary;
expressions. These provide emphasis on words and e) Underdeveloped knowledge of word and
give learners extra clues as they search for meaning. sentence structure (i.e., phonology, morphology,
3. Be careful with fused forms. Language and syntax);
compressions or reduces forms can be difficult for f) Impoverished, fragmented, and poorly organized
learners. Use these forms without overusing or topic knowledge;
eliminating them altogether. g) Difficulty accessing existing topic knowledge;
and
4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences. h) Insensitivity to audience needs and perspectives,
5. Use specific names instead of pronouns. and to the functions their writing is intended to
serve.
SYNTHESIS/ GENERALIZATION
2. Skill Difficulties
Speaking is the process of building and sharing
meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal Students with writing problems:
symbols, in a variety of contexts. a) Often do not plan before or during writing;
To teach speaking is to teach learners to: Use word b) Exhibit poor text transcription (e.g., spelling,
and sentence produce the English speech stress, handwriting, and punctuation);
intonation patterns sounds and sound patterns and the
rhythm of the second language. Select appropriate
c) Focus revision efforts (if they revise at all) on C. Adaptations for Struggling Writers
superficial aspects of writing (e.g., handwriting,
1. Accommodations in the Learning Environment
spelling, and grammar);
d) Do not analyze or reflect on writing; a. Increase instructional time for writing.
e) Have limited ability to self-regulate thoughts,
feelings, and actions throughout the writing b. Provide quiet and comfortable spaces for students
process; to work.
f) Show poor attention and concentration; and c. Provide unimpeded access to writing tools.
g) Have visual motor integration weaknesses and
fine motor difficulties. d. Let students identify and select meaningful
reinforcements for achieving writing goals (e.g., a
3. Motivation Difficulties reinforcement menu).
Students with writing problems: e. Consult with an occupational therapist to identify
a) Often do not develop writing goals and sub goals specialized adaptations (e.g., chair and desk height).
or flexibly alter them to meet audience, task, and 2. Accommodations in Instructional Materials
personal demands;
b) Fail to balance performance goals, which relate a. Simplify language of writing prompts.
to documenting performance and achieving b. Highlight (e.g., color code) key words and phrases.
success, and mastery goals, which relate to
acquiring competence; c. Transition from simple to more elaborate graphic
c) Exhibit maladaptive attributions by attributing organizers and procedural checklists.
academic success to external and uncontrollable d. Post strategies, graphic organizers, and checklists
factors such as task ease or teacher assistance, but in classroom and give students personal copies.
academic failure to internal yet uncontrollable
factors such as limited aptitude; e. Develop individualized spelling lists.
d) Have negative self-efficacy (competency) f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of
beliefs; “demon” words and frequently used spelling
e) Lack persistence; and vocabulary.
f) Feel helpless and poorly motivated due to
repeated failure. g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’
desks.
B. Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction
In order for teachers to support all students' writing h. Provide pencil grips for students.
ability development, certain qualities of the writing
i. Provide raised- or colored-lined paper.
classroom must be present. Four core components of
effective writing instruction constitute the j. Provide students with personal copies of alphabet
foundation of any good writing program: strips.
1. Students should have meaningful writing
experiences and be assigned authentic writing
3. Accommodations in Teaching Strategies
tasks that promote personal and collective
expression, reflection, inquiry, discovery, and a. Devote more instructional time to writing
social change. mechanics.
2. Routines should permit students to become
b. Provide physical assistance during handwriting
comfortable with the writing process and move
practice.
through the process over a sustained period of
time at their own rate. c. Re-teach writing skills and strategies.
3. Lessons should be designed to help students
master craft elements (e.g., text structure, d. Expect and support mastery learning of skills and
character development), writing skills (e.g., strategies (e.g., memorization of strategy steps).
spelling, punctuation), and process strategies e. Use cross-age peer tutors to reinforce skills and
(e.g., planning and revising tactics). strategies.
4. A common language for shared expectations and
feedback regarding writing quality might include f. Assign homework designed to reinforce writing
the use of traits (e.g., organization, ideas, instruction.
sentence fluency, word choice, voice, and g. Help students set specific and challenging yet
conventions). attainable goals for the writing process (e.g.,
completing a planning sheet before beginning to
draft) and written products (e.g., a quantity goal of f. The formation of individual upper- and lowercase
including 10 descriptive words in a story, which is letters and, for cursive, difficult letter transitions
perhaps linked to a quality goal of improving word (e.g., roam) are modeled.
choice by two points on an analytic quality scale).
g. Visual cues, such as numbered dots and arrows,
h. Help students develop self-instructions (e.g., “I and verbal descriptions are used to guide letter
can handle this if I go slow.”) and self-questions formation.
(e.g., “Am I following my plan?”) that focus on
h. Activities to reinforce letter recognition and
positive attributions for success and task progress.
naming are combined with handwriting practice.
i. Teach students to evaluate and adjust their writing
i. Students practice using a comfortable and efficient
behaviors and writing strategy use to improve their
tripod pencil grasp.
writing productivity and performance.
j. Students are shown and expected to use appropriate
j. Promote maintenance and generalization of writing
posture and paper positioning for their handedness.
strategies by doing the following:
k. Handwriting fluency is developed through
• Modeling and discussing how strategies may
frequent writing and speed trials, with an emphasis
be used in multiple contexts;
on maintaining legibility.
• Relating writing performance to strategy use;
• Having students teach others how to use l. Opportunities are provided for distributed practice
strategies; and judicious review of individual letters and letter
• Having students keep a strategy notebook sequences
which they can consult at any time; m. Students are permitted to develop their own
• Ensuring all staff and caregivers are familiar handwriting style and to choose which script
with and prompt the use of the strategies; and (manuscript, cursive, or even a blend) they prefer to
• Reviewing strategies often use after mastering handwriting (manuscript tends to
4. Modifications to Learning Tasks be more legible than cursive and can be written just
as quickly if given equal emphasis).
a. Permit students to dramatize or orally present a
written assignment, either in lieu of writing or in n. Students are prompted to identify when a high
preparation for writing. degree of legibility is and is not necessary

b. Assign students’ suitable roles (e.g., brainstorm 2. Weekly Routines/Strategies for Remediation
manager) for the creation of a group-generated paper. a. In the primary grades, 60–75 minutes per week is
allocated for handwriting instruction.

D. Teaching Handwriting b. Students are encouraged to compare letters to

discover patterns and to highlight their similarities
The following are research-based suggestions for and differences.
teaching handwriting.
c. Students are given opportunities to reinforce target
1. Curriculum Considerations letters by tracing them (a dashed or faded model),
a. The initial use of one type of script (e.g., copying them, and writing them from memory.
manuscript versus cursive or different versions of
manuscript) does not appear to affect handwriting d. Students’ handwriting is monitored and
performance. immediately reinforced for correct letter formation,
spacing, alignment, size, slant, and line quality.
b. Special emphasis is placed on difficult-to-form
letters and those that are frequently reversed. e. Students are asked to self-evaluate their
handwriting and to set goals for improving specific
c. Lowercase letters are introduced before upper-case aspects of their handwriting each day.
letters, unless they are formed using similar strokes
(e.g., C, c). f. Students are encouraged to correct poorly formed
letters and to rewrite illegible work.
d. Letters that share common strokes are grouped
together (e.g., o, c, d, a). E. Teaching Spelling

e. The introduction of easily confused letters (e.g., b, a. Spelling vocabulary includes words drawn from
d, p, q) is staggered. children’s reading materials, children’s writing, self-
selected words, high-frequency word lists 1,2, and
pattern words.
b. Students are typically taught phonemic awareness As children progress through school, they are
and phoneme grapheme associations (reserving the increasingly expected to express what they know
least consistent mappings, such as consonants /k/ and about many different subjects through writing. If a
/z/ and long vowels, for last) in kindergarten and first child fails to develop certain basic skills, he or she
grade. Common spelling patterns (e.g., phonograms will be unable to write with the speed and fluency
or rime families 3,4,5) are taught in first and second required to excel as these demands increase. Indeed,
grades. Morphological structures (i.e., roots and for a child struggling with a writing problem, the
affixes 3,4,5,6) and helpful spelling rules (e.g., add writing process itself interferes with learning.
es to make words ending in s, z, x, ch, or sh plural) Students faced with such difficult odds have trouble
are taught in second grade and beyond. staying motivated.
c. Students are taught systematic and effective Writing problems rarely occur in isolation, and
strategies for studying new spelling words (e.g., improvements in writing go hand in hand with the
mnemonic spelling links, multi-sensory strategies). development of other non-writing-specific skills.
Thus, a problem with the development in one of these
d. Previously taught spelling words are periodically
areas is likely to interfere with a child's progress as a
reviewed to promote retention.
writer.
e. Correct use of spelling vocabulary in students’
Chapter 6: How to Teach
written work is monitored and reinforced.
Remedial Instruction in English
f. Students are taught and encouraged to use
dictionaries, spell checkers, and other resources to • Designed to assist students in order to achieve
determine the spelling of unknown words expected competencies in core academic skills
such as literacy and numeracy
g. Spelling “demons” and other difficult words are
• Intended for students who have fallen behind the
posted on wall charts.
rest of the class
2. Weekly Routines • Spiral process of assessment – instruction – re-
assessment
a. A minimum of 60–75 minutes per week is
allocated for spelling instruction. • Teachers first diagnose students’ learning
difficulties
b. Students take a Monday pretest to determine • Then, remedial course will be designed in
which words they need to study during subsequent accordance with students needs
activities and to set spelling performance goals. • Evaluation will be conducted during and after
c. After studying new spelling words, students take a implementation to determine effectiveness of the
Friday posttest to determine which words were course.
mastered. Types
d. Immediately after taking a spelling test, students o Compensatory – provides necessary services to at-
correct their misspellings. risk students who are from disadvantaged
e. The teacher conducts word sorts and guided backgrounds to help them overcome learning
spelling activities to explicitly teach spelling patterns problems and increase academic achievement;
and rules at the beginning of the week. requires involvement of school staff and parents

f. Daily opportunities are provided for cumulative o Supplemental – a support program that aims to
study and testing of new spelling words (e.g., help students master content-oriented materials,
through computer-assisted instruction). improve study skills or test-taking strategies tailored
to the specific needs of a class.
g. Students work together each day to learn new
spelling words. o Tutorial – learning tasks require a great deal of
practice; trained tutors may be effective; higher
achieving tutors can offer extra explanations and
practices to the underachieving students
❖ While studying, students monitor their on-task
behavior or the number of times they correctly o Adaptive – teacher uses alternative instructional
spell a target word, to promote active learning. strategies and resources to meet the learning needs of
individual students for them to effectively master
SYNTHESIS/ GENERALIZATION
basic skills in academic subjects; teaching materials
Like all learning problems, difficulties in writing can that are within the students’ interest and learning
be devastating to a child's education and self-esteem.
level are best; alternative evaluation methods, rather cultivate an interest in learning and gain a
than paper and pencil tests. sense of satisfaction and achievement
during the learning process.
o Basic skills – instruction focuses on the students’
acquisition of basic skills required in certain subjects
• Handling Pupils’ Behaviour Problems -
for them to be academically prepared for tertiary
Remedial teachers should observe the following
level tasks.
when dealing with the behavior problems of
o Learning strategies training - aims to help pupils:
students become more effective and efficient learners − always observe the performance of pupils
by teaching them thinking, learning, and self- in class and their behavior in groups;
management strategies. − establish close relationship with pupils,
develop mutual trust and listen carefully
REMEDIAL TEACHING STRATEGIES
to what they say;
• Individualized Education Program aims to − help pupils understand the effect of their
reinforce the foundation of learning, help pupils behaviour on the other as well as their
overcome their learning difficulties and develop own selves;
their potentials. − keep in close contact with parents to find
− This includes short-term and long-term out the cause of pupils’ behaviour
teaching objectives, learning steps, activities problems;
and reviews to ensure that the programme is − help pupils build up self-confidence and
implemented effectively. a healthy self-image;
− can be done in small groups or for an − give positive reinforcement to pupils’
individual. good behaviour, and do not pay undue
− If necessary, remedial teachers, other attention to their misbehavior;
teachers, student guidance officers/teachers, − do not try to change all the deviant
parents and pupils alike are to participate in behaviour of pupils at once. Teachers
designing the programme. should list out the problems and set the
− Remedial teachers hold meetings regularly to priorities with an aim to improve one or
evaluate the effectiveness of work and gather two of them at a time;
opinions for refinement. − refer the cases to Student Guidance
Officers/Teachers for follow-up action if
• Peer Support Program - Remedial teachers may the behaviour problems of pupils
train pupils who perform better in a certain continue or become serious.
subject to become ‘little teachers’
A. Four Generic Instructional Model for teaching
a) They will be responsible for helping
listening
schoolmates with learning difficulties in
group teaching and self-study sessions as Listening and Repeating – students listen to how
well as outside class. words are pronounced and they say the word too
b) Peer support programme helps pupils
reinforce their knowledge, and develop their Listening and answering comprehension
communication and cooperation skills as well questions – ask students to listen to an oral text along
as good interpersonal relationship. a continuum of sentence length to lecture length then
c) To enhance the effectiveness of the asking them to answer questions regarding what they
programme, remedial teachers must provide heard.
training to the pupils concerned beforehand Task listening – ask students to listen to instruction
and make regular reviews on its and complete a task
effectiveness.
d) This is more suitable for pupils of higher Interactive listening – two-way communication by
grades. means of individual or small group discussion
− B. Three Principles for Materials Development
• Reward Scheme - has positive effect in for developing listening comprehension activities
enhancing pupils’ motivation.
− aims at guiding pupils to set their own Relevance – material should have relevance to the
objectives and plans, and positively audience to sustain interest to listen
reinforcing their good performance. Transferability / applicability – material should be
− No matter what reward is provided, the applicable and transferable to other classes or similar
most important thing is to help pupils lecture sessions
Task orientation – should be usable for language unaided: allows the reader to tell whatever they
use tasks and language analysis activities. remember
CUEING SYSTEMS specific: an in-depth retelling used by some teachers
which can help evaluate the reader’s comprehension
❖ Semantic (meaning): makes sense of text
and move very specifically into an instructional
and relays meaningful connections
strategy.
❖ Syntactic (structure): makes sense of the
actual words in the sentence SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES
❖ Graphophonic (Visual): breaks down words
Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) - also known
into letters, sounds, syllables, prefixes, etc.
as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, a condition
➢ Categories of graphic similarities
that adversely affects how sound that travels
o high graphic similarity - two
unimpeded through the ear is processed or
parts of a word are similar; or when
interpreted by the brain.
part of the word is also part of
another word. − Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle
o some graphic similarity - one of differences between sounds in words, even
the three parts a word is visually when the sounds are loud and clear enough to
similar to the text printed word be heard.
when broken into thirds. − They can also find it difficult to tell where
o no graphic similarity - the word sounds are coming from, to make sense of the
read does not have any common order of sounds, or to block out competing
letters or number of letters. background noises.
❖ Pragmatic: based on the reader’s
background and the context of the reading, Dyscalculia - affects a person’s ability to understand
the reader has certain expectations for the numbers and learn math facts.
text. Dysgraphia - affects a person’s handwriting ability
Miscue Analysis - an observed response that does and fine motor skills.
not match what the person listening to the reading Dyslexia- affects reading and related language-based
expects to hear (Goodman). processing skills. (Language-Based Learning
RETELLING requires readers to organize text Disability)
information in order to provide a personal rendition Language Processing Disorder - A specific type of
of it. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which there
As a comprehension strategy, it: is difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that
form words, sentences and stories.
o encourages readers to attend to the meaning
of text Types:
o reinforces knowledge of elements of story • Receptive language issues involve difficulty
structure understanding what others are saying.
o requires readers to distinguish between key • Expressive language issues involve difficulty
ideas and supporting details expressing thoughts and ideas.
o encourages communication and oral
• Mixed receptive-expressive language issues
language development
involve difficulty understanding and using
As assessment strategy, it: spoken language.
• Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities - a disorder
o demonstrates what the student understands
usually characterized by a significant
and remembers
discrepancy between higher verbal skills and
o reveals what the student considers important
weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills.
o indicates what students know about story
• Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit -
structure and literary language
affects the understanding of information that a
o Demonstrates the students’ vocabulary and
person sees, or the ability to draw or copy
oral language development
SYNTHESIS/ GENERALIZATION
Types of Retelling
The Remedial Education Program is an instructional
aided: used to encourage students to expand on their
program designed for children who have identified
unaided retelling
deficiencies in reading, writing and mathematics
(Richards, 2015). Remedial Instruction equips
teachers with in-demand skills and addresses a very 8. Biteable (user-friendly interface; pre-made
deep need within our education system. The remedial templates)
instruction activities are simple, yet significant and 9. Shadow puppet
do not require an excessive amount of preparation. 10. Sock puppet
Furthermore, the approaches, pedagogies and 11. Toontanstic 3D (animated; 3D characters)
activities that are related to remedial instruction are 12. Voice memos (recording voice notes, interviews)
suitable for the level of the remedial students.
TEACHING READING
A learning disability is a neurological disorder. In
Vocabulary
simple terms, a learning disability results from a
difference in the way a person's brain is "wired." 1. Memrise (self-learning website)
Children with learning disabilities are as smart as or 2. Quizlet (teaching and learning voc; monitor
smarter than their peers. But they may have difficulty students’ progress online)
reading, writing, spelling, and reasoning, recalling 3. Rewordify (simplifying challenging vocabulary)
and/or organizing information if left to figure things 4. Lingro
out by themselves or if taught in conventional ways. 5. Shahi
6. Graphic organizers
A learning disability can't be cured or fixed; it is a
7. Read aloud tools
lifelong issue. With the right support and
8. Newsela (annotate a text at the same time as their
intervention, however, children with learning
students; tracking progress)
disabilities can succeed in school and go on to
successful, often distinguished careers later in life. TEACHING CULTURE
Parents can help children with learning disabilities 1. Skype in the classroom (virtual fieldtrip and
achieve such success by encouraging their strengths, games)
knowing their weaknesses, understanding the 2. Videos
educational system, working with professionals and 3. FluentU (movie trailers; 9 foreign languages)
learning about strategies for dealing with specific 4. YouTube
difficulties. 5. World stories (story collections from different
cultures)
6. BBC bitesize modern languages
TEACHING GRAMMAR
1. PBL & THE CLASSROOM
1. Kahoot (interactive game-based platform)
2. PBL BUILDS AGENCY AND INDEPENCE
2. Google Docs (collaborative platform)
3. PBL PROMOTES ADAPTABILITY AND
3. Wordreference (offering dictionaries and
FLEXIBILITY
conjuagation)
4. PBL IS PERSISTENT
4. Corpora (database for real-world language usage
5. PBL CIVICALLY ENGAGED
analysis; lexical and syntactic understanding)
6. PBL IS A LEARNING PROCESS
TEACHING LISTENING
1. MAKE IT REAL
1. BBC (offers news articles, videos, and audios)
• Brainstorm
2. Yabla (six languages; with subtitles)
• Define
3. Innovative Language
2. MAKE IT RELEVANT
4. Pocoyo (young students)
• Field studies
5. Lyrics Training (music vids in 10 languages)
• Plan
TEACHING SPEAKING 3. MAKE AN IMPACT
1. Flipgrid (fosters cross-classroom, cross-cultural • Create
conversation) • Advocate
2. Mango Problem-based Learning & the Common Core
3. My Language Exchange (structured language
exchange lessons) 1. INDEPENDENCE
4. Skype (voice and vid calls, messages; requires 2. ADAPTING COMMUNICATION TO
installation) DIFFERENT AUDIENCES & PURPOSES
5. Zoom (breakout rooms, virtual backgrounds) 3. COMPREHENDING AND CRITIQUING
6. Google Hangout 4. VALUING EVIDENCE
7. iMovie 5. STRATEGIC USE OF DIGITAL MEDIA
6. LANGUAGE ART