Hydrogen compression –

An integral part of the

H2 value chain

siemens-energy.com
Page

03 1. Introduction:
An element full of energy

05 2. The Ecosystem:
An interlocking value chain

08 3. Compression:
A crucial technology

12 4. The Future:
Balance requires diversity

Authors
Peter Adam
Siemens Energy,
Germany
Mark Barton
Siemens Energy,
United States
Keiren Lake

Siemens Energy,
United Kingdom
Michael Schulz
Siemens Energy,
Germany

Co-authors
José L. Gilarranz
Siemens Energy,
United States
Thomas Soulas
Siemens Energy,
United States

Page 2 © 2021 Siemens Energy

1. Introduction: An element full of energy

With increasing frequency, we are witnessing more 35 2021 Total:

dramatic weather extremes, as temperature records are 330 GT CO2
GtCO2
broken year after year. Meanwhile, larger and more destruc-
tive storms, floods, droughts, wildfires, and hurricanes
touch nearly every corner of the globe.

At the same time, greenhouse gas emissions1) continue to

rise – approaching 2018 and 2019 peaks in 2021 – with an
increase of nearly 5% while ever-higher atmospheric CO2 30
concentrations are being recorded with concentrations
exceeding 410 ppm for the first time in 20192).

Against this backdrop, governments are taking increasingly

clear action to meet their commitments made as part of the
2015 Paris Agreement to help limit global warming.
This includes the December 2020 agreement among EU
25
countries to cut net carbon emissions by 55 percent over
the next decade. The details of this agreement demonstrate
how most areas of economic activity will be impacted by
the steps taken to achieve the Paris climate goals.

That is to be expected, given that a diverse range of sectors

collectively account for more than three-quarters of global
CO2 emissions4). More specifically, power generation and 20
heating contribute 30.4 percent, transportation contributes 1990 2000 2010 t 2020
15.9 percent, manufacturing and construction add 12.4
percent, agriculture produces 11.8 percent, and industrial Figure 1: Global energy-related CO2 emissions, 1990-20213)

Figure 2: Five ways to reach the Paris climate target

© 2021 Siemens Energy Page 3

 Help decarbonize
transportation

Distribute energy across Help decarbonize

sectors and regions industrial energy
use

Help decarbonize
building heat
and power

Serve as renewable
H2
feedstock

Enable large-scale renewables Act as a buffer to increase

integration and power generation system resilience

Figure 3: Hydrogen can play different roles in the energy transition and is therefore an important lever for decarbonization9)

processes emits 5.6 percent5). Making a difference will require processes that emit ~ 10 ton of CO2 per ton of hydrogen
significant emission reductions across all these sectors. produced. However, two proven technologies for generat-
ing lower-CO2 emissions during hydrogen production are
That’s why hydrogen – the most common element in the ripe for further advancement:
universe6) – is such a focus of interest. It can support decar-
bonization in every one of these sectors. At the heart of • Green hydrogen is produced without generating any CO2
hydrogen’s appeal are three factors: by using electricity from renewable energy sources to
power the electrolysis of water, which results in hydrogen
• This element and its role in decarbonization are not theo- and oxygen. This is a key long-term source of clean hydro-
retical or ‘under development’. They are well known, well gen. In an electrolysis process 8 tons of Oxygen is produced
understood, and widely used. Hydrogen has played a role to make one ton of hydrogen. This Oxygen will probably be
in many industrial processes and industries for decades. used in future as well e.g. in Oxyfuel processes.
We know how to safely use, store, and transport it, and we
do this today with commercially available technologies. • Hydrogen also can be produced from natural gas, with
the resulting CO2 captured and stored so it does not end
• Existing proven technologies can produce hydrogen in up in the environment. This will be used as an intermedi-
several ways – some without releasing CO2 into the ate technology for the next decades to accelerate the
atmosphere. transition to a green hydrogen energy system long-term.

• Due to its versatility, hydrogen can play a variety of roles, A third zero-emission technology – using clean-ener-
including as an energy carrier for power generation and gy-powered pyrolysis to ‘crack’ natural gas into solid carbon
transportation, and as feedstock for industry, agricul- and hydrogen – is still in the development stage but offers
ture, and synfuels. great potential.

In addition, the market for hydrogen will grow dramatically As economies decarbonize and companies look for ways to
as the energy transition is inevitable and the need for lower the climate impact of their processes, hydrogen
decarbonization becomes more urgent. From approximately offers a tremendous opportunity. With proven technologies
75 Mtpa today, market demand is expected to rise up to ten set to become even more efficient, accompanied by addi-
times to 750 Mtpa 20507). Nearly all of today’s output is tional benefits through sector coupling, hydrogen can help
utilized to produce ammonia and other chemicals for indus- companies, industries and economies achieve both
try and fertilizer, and for refining. By 2050, the largest commercial and environmental goals.
shares will be used as a transportation fuel, as fuel for
industrial energy, for building heat and power, for power To make this possible, organizations require a partner with
generation, and for new and existing feedstock8). decades of experience across the entire hydrogen value
chain. Siemens Energy brings a unique constellation of
The way we produce hydrogen also will dramatically technologies and expertise to help business, industry, and
change as we move along the decarbonization pathway. society make the most of the hydrogen revolution at all
Currently, most hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels in stages – today, tomorrow, and in the long term.

Page 4 © 2021 Siemens Energy

2. The Ecosystem: An interlocking value chain

A process with many components other. That’s already how it is done with today’s conven-
tional hydrogen production. Around the world, there are
While the possibilities for hydrogen are enormous, nearly 9,000 kilometers of hydrogen pipeline, some as long
unlocking this opportunity is only possible when all the as a couple of hundred kilometers linking production to
pieces of a fully integrated value chain are put in place. consumption. As a result, the technology for hydrogen
A successful hydrogen project requires a supportive and transport and storage is well understood and well devel-
carefully designed regulatory environment, sufficient oped. This includes the technology to store hydrogen in
renewable energy supply, the right hydrogen-production large underground formations, such as salt caverns.
technologies, suitable transport and storage infrastructure,
and end users for the clean hydrogen. What’s more, at End users for clean hydrogen can include ammonia and
every step in this value chain, it’s essential that operations methanol producers that currently use conventional
are as efficient as possible – both in terms of cost and in hydrogen as an input. By switching to clean hydrogen, they
terms of minimizing impact on the environment. can shrink their carbon footprint. Likewise, steel manufac-
turers and other high-temperature process industries can
Location, location, location use clean hydrogen fuel to significantly lower their emis-
sions, especially since high-temperature processes can’t be
Location is a top priority for making any hydrogen project electrified easily.
succeed. This includes placing electrolyzers close to the
source of clean energy, whether adjacent to wind farms Industrial processes also can transform hydrogen into
and PV plants, or even built into offshore wind turbine transport fuel for fields such as aviation, shipping, long-
platforms. A minimization of the distance between the distance rail, and heavy trucks.
energy source and the hydrogen production will bring
about a significant cost advantage. Another major end user group that can benefit from being
located near to clean hydrogen production facilities are
That said, efficiency in the system is further improved when gas-fired power plants that today can run on a fuel blend
hydrogen production and offtake are located near each that includes a small amount of hydrogen.

Figure 4: Hydrogen value chain

© 2021 Siemens Energy Page 5

Figure 5: Side by side – a functioning hydrogen landscape

With modifications, these plants ultimately will be able to The economics

run on 100 percent hydrogen.
As has happened with other technologies at the heart of a
Ensuring accessibility to transport infrastructure is also decarbonized future – such as solar photovoltaic (PV) and
important. This includes existing hydrogen pipelines, but wind power – costs across the hydrogen value chain are
also natural gas infrastructure, which can accommodate expected to fall rapidly in coming years. Today, most clean
small amounts of hydrogen blended into the gas stream. hydrogen systems are not commercially viable, except with
government intervention in areas such as subsidies,
In the future, existing natural gas pipeline networks and mandates around the use of clean hydrogen, or emission
storage facilities will require modifications, including the reduction requirements.
deployment of high-efficiency turbocompressors, to transi-
tion to fully decarbonized hydrogen. Even so, the cost of BloombergNEF predicts that by 2030, hydrogen produced
retrofitting existing infrastructure would be only 10 percent from renewable energy will be cheaper than conventionally
to 15 percent of the cost of building new pipelines and produced hydrogen in 16 of the 28 countries it modeled10).
storage tanks.
One short and midterm challenge is the very large electrical
In the long term, consideration will be given to locating energy demand of electrolysis systems (55 MWh /ton of H2).
hydrogen production facilities in areas with direct access to The required electrical energy demand to allow large scale
ports for easy export internationally. Countries like Australia hydrogen production with electrolysis competes with all the
and Saudi Arabia are planning for a future where hydrogen other users of renewable electricity and to build up the
is exported in a similar way as oil is today. required gigantic capacities requires time and funding.

Green hydrogen production will be supported by the

continued fall in renewable energy prices, improvements in
electrolyzer costs and technologies, gas compression
systems advances, and other efficiencies of scale. Today, it
is not economical to use renewable energy to produce
hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to fuel gas turbine
power plants. In the future, this is expected to provide an
effective way to deliver zero-carbon dispatchable electricity
to balance the intermittency of renewable power sources.

Page 6 © 2021 Siemens Energy

 Required
compression

H2 transportation

Compressors

Long distance
pipelines
O2 and CO2
pipelines

Figure 6: The H2 economy is a systems play - an interaction of different technologies, solutions and stakeholders (excerpt of the hydrogen value chain)

Partnership and collaboration As an experienced technology provider along the entire

hydrogen value chain, Siemens Energy understands the role
The financing challenges, alongside the need to bring of future technologies as one aspect in building an efficient
together the right mix of infrastructure, location, tech- hydrogen system. For example, Siemens Energy develops
nology, and regulations, mean that no one entity can and provides both upstream hydrogen technologies such as
develop a viable hydrogen project alone. All stakeholders wind turbines and polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)
need to collaborate and contribute their part. Only in this electrolyzers, as well as two critical downstream technolo-
way can any clean hydrogen project deliver on both cost gies – compressors that will be key to the efficient transpor-
and sustainability. tation and storage of hydrogen, and gas turbines, which
will make it possible to efficiently reconvert hydrogen to a
Governments need to create an enabling environment. usable source of energy (electricity, heat, mechanical
Renewable energy developers and utilities with clean power to drive equipment, etc).
energy capacity need to coordinate electricity demand
requirements with electrolysis developers. Hydrogen
producers, in turn, need to be sure that steady and reliable
buyers will consume the volume of hydrogen produced.
Owners of pipelines and storage infrastructure need to be
ready to handle the flow of hydrogen from production to
consumption or to export.

© 2021 Siemens Energy Page 7

3. Compression: A crucial technology

An essential component of the hydrogen value chain is energy into pressure energy, and the return channel which
compression. It is needed to move, store, and use redirects the gas and prepares it to enter into the next
hydrogen. From the point at which hydrogen is produced to stage. For the case of the last stage, the stationary compo-
the point where it is consumed, different types of compres- nents will have a discharge volute following the diffuser
sion are required. This includes the gathering of hydrogen (there is no return channel). The pressure ratio that can be
produced by electrolyzers, steam methane or autothermal achieved by the machine is influenced by the size of the
reformers (SMRs/ATRs), sending hydrogen through short- impellers, the number of impellers, and the rotational
or long-distance pipelines, compressing hydrogen to the speed than can be achieved.
pressure levels required by vehicle fueling stations, lique-
faction for vessel transport facilities, and feeding it into gas Irrespective of the compression technology that is chosen,
turbines or other downstream and petrochemical processes. getting hydrogen gas to the required discharge pressure
level usually requires several stages. In reciprocating
In addition, CO2 compression is a critical element to enable machines, the piston speed, stroke length and bore size
blue hydrogen production and related CCUS (Carbon together determine compressor capacity, and the compres-
Capture Underground Storage). sion ratio is limited by the discharge gas temperature,
based on American Petroleum Institute (API) industry
Hydrogen has the lowest molecular weight of any sub‑ standards. In turbocompressors, one key factor to influence
stance and has a low density (one eighth that of natural the pressure ratio capability per compression stage is the
gas): this has important implications for compression, tip-speed of the impeller (a function of the impeller diam-
including the need for more energy and more compression eter and rotating speed), which is usually constrained by
stages to reach a given compression level. Its small molec- aerodynamic design limits, as well as mechanical and
ular size also results in some additional sealing challenges material strength limitations.
for compressors to minimize internal and external leakages
compared against the requirements when they handle Reciprocating compressors
natural gas.
Several factors go into the choice of a reciprocating
Compression process compressor, including valve lift, rotating speed, piston
speed, piston and packing ring, rider bands materials, and
There are two primary compression methods used for capacity controls.
hydrogen today, both of which have years of demonstrated
success in industrial applications. The first is positive Valves, rotation speed and pistons
displacement, most commonly applied by reciprocating
compressors using a piston to compress the gas. For these The compressor valve is perhaps the most crucial element
machines, hydrogen is drawn into the cylinder through the of the compressor, requiring a balance between reliability
suction inlet as the piston moves from outer-dead-center and efficiency. High lift, high efficiency valves can lead to
position to inner-dead-center; the piston then reverses valve ‘flutter’ which causes the valve sealing elements to
direction and compresses the gas contained in the cylinder. cycle many times per single stroke of the piston.
As the gas reaches discharge pressure, the discharge valves
open, allowing the gas to flow from the cylinder at higher
pressure, and then the process repeats.

The second method is dynamic, most commonly applied by

centrifugal type turbocompressors. These are based on
imposing changes in the angular momentum of the fluid,
utilizing high-speed impeller rotation to impose high-ve-
locity kinetic energy into the gas that is then converted to
pressure through the stationary diffuser. In these machines,
gas enters via the suction inlet flange, flows into a series of
compression stages which sequentially increase the pres-
sure of the gas as it passes through the machine, and then
exits the machine through the discharge nozzle (flange).
Each one of the compression stages is composed of a
rotating component (i.e. the impeller) and stationary
components (i.e. the diffuser, which converts kinetic Figure 7: Siemens Energy BDC reciprocating compressor

Page 8 © 2021 Siemens Energy

This increase in cycling introduces many more seating Piston and packing rings, and rider bands
impact events, which can lead to increased wear rates and
maintenance. Reducing valve lift reduces impact forces and Rider bands carry the weight of the piston and half of the
cycling, and extends valve operating life but may compro- piston rod and distribute this weight over the area of the
mise efficiency due to increased pressure drop across the rider band contacting the cylinder bore. Force per unit area,
valves. Compressor valve selection is optimized for reli- or unit loading of the rider band is determined by dividing
ability and efficiency with a dynamic valve analysis for each the weight by the contact area. API 618 recommends
application. 10 psi (69 kPa) unit loading for lubricated services and 5 psi
(34.5 kPa) unit loading for non-lubricated applications.
Valve life also is impacted by compressor rotating speed,
since lower rotating speed will reduce the number of valve Piston rings and packing rings are composed of carbon-
impact events per minute, mean time between valve filled PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) non-metallic materials,
change-out will be proportional to rotating speed. which have better sealing and wear properties than prior
Conversely, higher rotating speed will increase the mainte- generation metallic-ring materials.
nance frequency.

The rotation speed also cycles the compressor piston from

outer-dead-center, to inner-dead-center and back with each
revolution. Because of the interplay between rotating speed
and stroke length, maximum average piston speed can be
maintained by adjusting these two parameters. Mainte-
nance intervals are therefore impacted by the choice of
allowable rotating speed and maximum average piston
speed.

Process reciprocating compressors (API 618) typically

operate between 277 rpm and 450 rpm, with a stroke range
from 9” to 18” (229 mm to 458 mm). High-speed recipro-
cating compressors (API 11P) typically operate between
600 rpm and 1800 rpm, with a stroke range from 5” to 8”
(127 mm to 203 mm).

Reciprocating compressors
Over 1,500 units in operation,
over 2 million horsepower in H2 rich services

• High Speed and Process Recip –

standardized and project specific designs
• Up to 170 bar (dry) 300 bar (lubed), 1 to 5 MW
• Used primarily for H2 product, tail gas, feed gas and H2
make up applications as well as H2 pipeline and storage.
• Very efficient for hydrogen compression applications
Markets
• World renowned dependable service
• Process industries
and steadfast reliability
• Refining
• H2 pipelines (up to 750,000 Nm3/h with 3 units)
• H2 boosting after electrolysis system
• H2 storage (up to 300 bar)

© 2021 Siemens Energy Page 9

Turbocompressors

The specific work required to compress a volume flow from

a suction to a discharge-pressure is defined by the pres-
sure-integral across the specific volume of the flow.
So, because of the very low density of hydrogen, turbo­
compressors in hydrogen duty require a comparably high
number of compression stages. This, in turn, results in a
trade-off regarding the footprint for turbocompressors.
Indeed, in the recent past, turbocompressors in hydrogen
duty have been primarily applied for medium and high
volume flows, but rather small overall pressure ratios.

One way to increase the work/pressure ratio per compres-

sion stage and decrease the footprint of a turbocompressor
in hydrogen duty is to increase the tip speed and/or circum-
ferential portion of the absolute flow leaving the impeller
at outer diameter (discharge). For gases with high molec-
ular weights, this approach might be affected by transonic Figure 8: Siemens Energy turbocompressor, STC-SV
considerations; but for hydrogen, the speed of sound is
rather high, which supports a high tip speed approach. Compressor selection considerations

This approach, achieved by increasing rotating speeds, For operators looking to deploy hydrogen compressors, the
requires additional considerations regarding the compressor most salient features include the facility’s footprint, capital
and the compressor train, in terms of technical feasibility costs, availability/reliability and operating expenses
and ensuring that the solution is cost effective and efficient. (including the cost of maintenance). Both compressor types
The evaluations need to include the proper balance in the can handle a broad range of application scenarios, with the
design among mechanical, material stress, aerodynamic and choice of technology based on economic tradeoffs and the
rotor-dynamic criteria, among others. Finally, especially specific requirements of each application, including
considering the increased speed requirements of the required flowrates, pressure ratios, use cases, footprint
compressor, the overall train architecture needs to be prop- limitations, use of dry or wet sealing, and whether the gas
erly evaluated to achieve the best overall solution. is 100 percent hydrogen or blended with natural gas.

H2 rich synthesis gas turbocompressors

• Up to 200 bar and 100% H2 content

• Typically steam turbine driven several compressor body
trains primarily for hydrogen rich syngas services
• Advanced, reliable technology with proven references
• Existing turbocompressor technology requires many
impellers in several casings to achieve a reasonable
compression ratio for hydrogen gas
• Existing turbocompressors in natural gas pipelines can be
upgraded to be used for up to 40% H2 in the pipeline

Markets
• Downstream/process industries
• Refining
• Pipelines

Page 10 © 2021 Siemens Energy

 Reciprocating compressors:
Pressure ratio

• High efficient H2-compression via

positive displacement even at part loads
• Part load flow rate turn downs of 50%
or more typical at high compression
efficiency (90%)
• Maintenance intervals of over 3 years,
process and gas dependent. Coming soon for turbocompressors:
Clean dry H2 is ideal. Maximized pressure ratio per stage resulting
in reduced frame size and stage count
increased applicability for high pressure ratio

Turbocompressors:
• Primarily applied with moderate/high volume flows
• Two well-referenced product lines, i.e. integrally
geared and single shaft compressors to optimize
compression solution with Turbocompressors

Suction volume flow [m3/h]

Figure 9: Main target of Siemens Energy compressors is to provide typical pipeline pressure ratio in a single casing

Molecular weight and efficiency used in situations where lower volumes, but higher pres-
sures are required. Reciprocating compressors also are
The most apparent differentiator between reciprocating better suited where part-load operations are anticipated.
and turbocompressors in the hydrogen context relates to its
low molecular weight. While reciprocating compressors can OPEX considerations
have an advantage with respect to efficiency and leakage
for low molecular weight gases such as hydrogen, several While the higher efficiency of reciprocating compressors
aspects (including those identified above) have to be makes them attractive from a power consumption perspec-
considered for a proper evaluation. tive, turbocompressors can usually run for longer times
without requiring maintenance, so they have an operating
Compressor stages expense benefit resulting from their longer maintenance
intervals. Furthermore, when the end user has a spare
For example, while turbocompressors may require more centrifugal compressor modular cartridge available, the
stages, the nature of turbocompressor designs is such that time to refurbish these types of machines is significantly
multiple stages handling large volumes of gas can be lower, reducing the time to bring the facility back online.
accommodated in machines that occupy a smaller footprint
than reciprocating compressors handling the same volumes Capacity control
of gas at similar pressure ratios. For reciprocating compres-
sors, more stages require more cylinders, given the Capacity control facilitates greater efficiency in power
temperature limits, while turbocompressors can increase tip consumption by enabling users to compress only as much
speed and wheel size. This also means turbocompressors hydrogen as is needed. With reciprocating compressors,
can deliver capital cost advantages in high-volume situa- this can be achieved with fixed volume clearance pockets
tions. within the compressor cylinder, suction valve unloaders to
reduce compressor capacity, and reverse suction-flow or
The efficiency advantage of reciprocating compressors may infinite-step capacity controls.
also be diminished at high flow volumes, given the increased
number of cylinders required with that technology. For both reciprocating and turbocompressors, variable
frequency drive (VFD) motors can be used to vary the
As a result, turbocompressors are more often applied in rotating speed of the compressor to adjust to capacity
high-volume flow situations requiring relatively lower demand.
pressure ratios. Reciprocating compressors are more often

© 2021 Siemens Energy Page 11

4. The Future: Balance requires diversity

Addressing climate change will require action across the Here, compressors represent a basic technology, as they are
entire economy and in most other areas of life. Siemens used for a safe and cost-effective hydrogen transport and
Energy is committed to providing solutions that benefit storage – an essential point for a smooth energy flow and
society as well as the economy. Building a low-carbon deployment. With a comprehensive portfolio of both recip-
energy system to achieve the goal of full decarbonization rocating and turbocompression solutions for use in
will entail a range of energy technologies, including both hydrogen applications, along with a global manufacturing
zero- and lower-carbon solutions. network, Siemens Energy is prepared to meet the growing
demand for future compression technology and to enable
During the energy transition, renewable energy solutions, customers to shift to a more efficient and sustainable
such as solar PV and wind, will play a major role, but so will future.
natural gas and synthetic fuels such as hydrogen. These
technologies are not in opposition, they will actually Just as the hydrogen economy requires many parties to
complement each other. work together, the larger energy transition requires
industry, government, citizens and other stakeholders to
As policymakers look to address climate change, while also come together to build an energy system that is advanta-
ensuring affordability and security of supply as demand geous – to the people of today and tomorrow, and to the
grows, they cannot choose one over the other. Many solu- planet. By balancing interests and leveraging a range of
tions are needed today and will continue to be a crucial energy solutions, the global community will be able to
part of the energy story for decades. Siemens Energy is well address the threat of climate change and create countless
placed to provide holistic, clean and safe solutions for the new opportunities.
emerging hydrogen economy, by offering all necessary
technologies, products, solutions and services along the
entire H2 value chain and its application fields.

Figure 10:
In the interplay of the various technologies, hydrogen compression plays an essential role for a safe and reliable energy flow in all areas of application

Page 12 © 2021 Siemens Energy

Source-list:

1) IEA 2021, CO2 emissions in https://www.iea.org/reports/ 7) Strategy and Part of the PWC Network, The dawn of
global-energy-review-2021/CO2-emissions green hydrogen in https://www.strategyand.pwc.com/
m1/en/reports/2020/the-dawn-of-green-hydrogen/
2) United Nations, UN News 2020, Carbon dioxide levels the-dawn-of-green-hydrogen.pdf
hit new record in https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/
11/1078322 8) Hydrogen Council 2017, Hydrogen scaling up in
https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/
3) IEA 2021, CO2 emissions in https://www.iea.org/reports/ 2017/11/Hydrogen-scaling-up-Hydrogen-Council.pdf
global-energy-review-2021/CO2-emissions
9) Hydrogen Council 2017, Hydrogen scaling up in
4) World Resources Institute 2020, Greenhouse gas emis- https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/
sion in https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/02/greenhouse- 2017/11/Hydrogen-scaling-up-Hydrogen-Council.pdf
gas-emissions-by-country-sector
10) BloombergNEF 2021, Green hydrogen to outcompete
5) World Resources Institute 2020, Greenhouse gas emis- blue everywhere by 2030 in https://about.bnef.com/
sion in https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/02/greenhouse- blog/green-hydrogen-to-outcompete-blue-every-
gas-emissions-by-country-sector where-by-2030/

6) Live Science 2017, Why is hydrogen the most common

element in https://www.livescience.com/58498-why-is-
hydrogen-the-most-common-element.html

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Siemens Energy 2021

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