Liquid State

Diffusion in Liquids:
Reason: Rate of diffusion of liquids is less than gases.
Liquids diffuser slower than gases because there is less
intermolecular distance between the molecules of liquids hence
the molecules collide with each other during diffusion slowing
the rate of diffusion of liquids.
 Short Note on:
Viscosity (η)
Definition:
The resistance to flow in liquid is called viscosity.
Explanation:
Fluids are the substances which have ability to flow. Liquids and gases
are collectively termed as fluids. When a liquid flows its speed is
affected by the force of friction between the molecules of liquid and
the surface. This resistance is called viscosity.
The liquids which flows slowly are called viscous liquids. For example:
Honey, Lubricants etc.
The liquids which flows fast are called mobile liquids. For example:
Water, petrol etc.
Grading of motor oil is done on the bases of viscosity.
Factors on which viscosity depends:
Viscosity depends upon following two factors.
(i) Intermolecular attraction
Viscosity is directly proportional to intermolecular attraction.
The more the intermolecular attraction between the molecules of liquids greater
will be the viscosity.
The molecules containing hydrogen bonding are more viscous.
Reason: C2H5OH has greater viscosity than C2H5OC2H5
Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH) contains hydrogen bonding because according to its
molecular structure hydrogen is directly bonded to an oxygen while in the case of
di ethyl ether (C2H5 – O – C2H5) hydrogen is not attached to oxygen directly hence
it does not contain hydrogen bonding.
That’s why ethyl alcohol is more viscous due to the presence of hydrogen bond.

(ii) Temperature:
Viscosity is inversely proportional to temperature.
At higher temperature the molecules of liquids move farther away so it causes
less friction with surface so the viscosity decreases.
Formula of Viscosity:
Viscosity = Pressure x Time
Units of Viscosity:
SI Unit is N.m-2.s
CGS Unit is g/cm2.s = 1 Poise=100 centipoise=1000 millipoise
 Short Note on
Surface Tension (γ)
Definition:
The tension created on the surface of the liquid is known as surface tension.
Surface tension may be defined as force per unit length OR energy per unit area on the
surface of the liquid.
Explanation:
The molecules below the surface of liquid are surrounded by other molecules from all sides
but the liquid molecules on surface exerts more force on the molecules lying below which
creates a tension on the surface of liquid which is known as surface tension.
Units of Surface Tension:
SI Unit: N/m or J/m2
CGS Unit: dyne/cm or erg/cm2
Factors affecting surface tension:
(i) Intermolecular attraction:
Surface tension is directly proportional to intermolecular attraction.
Due to greater intermolecular attraction the molecules on surface are
greatly attracted towards molecules lying below.
Hence, the liquids containing hydrogen bonding have more surface
tension.
(ii) Temperature:
Surface tension is inversely proportional to temperature.
At higher temperature the molecules of liquids move far away thus
they cannot attract the molecules lying below with greater force.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• A falling drop of liquid is always spherical.
Surface tension tends to reduce the surface area
of the liquid and sphere occupies least surface
are in all geometrical figures. Hence, a falling
drop of liquid is always spherical.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• Liquid rises in capillary tube.
The rising of liquid in a capillary tube is called capillary action.
Surface tension tends to reduce the surface are of liquids. Since,
the surface are of capillary tube is lesser than water trough so
liquid rises in the capillary tube to acquire less surface area.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• A drop of ink spreads over blotting paper.
Blotting paper contains very small pores which behaves like small
capillary tubes having lesser surface area. As we know that
surface tension tends to reduce the surface area of the liquid,
hence ink spreads on the blotting paper to acquire less surface
area.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• Surface tension of water is greater than that of ethyl alcohol.
The hydrogen bonding in water is stronger than that of ethyl
alcohol so surface tension of water is greater than that of ethyl
alcohol.
 Reasons from Surface Tension
• Water forms concave meniscus while mercury forms convex meniscus.
The force of attraction between two molecules of liquid is called cohesive force and
the force of attraction between a molcules with the wall of container is called
adhesive force.
The liquids whose adhesive force is greater than cohesive force can wet the wall of
container, they rise in capillary tube and they form concave meniscus. Such liquids are
called wetting liquid such as water.
In contrast to it, the liquids whose cohesive force is greater than adhesive force cannot
wet the wall of container, they fall in capillary tube and they form convex meniscus.
Such liquids are called non-wetting liquids such as mercury.
 Evaporation
Definition:
The process in which molecules of liquid having high kinetic energy escapes out from
its surface in gaseous state is called evaporation.
Evaporation exists at all temperatures.
The liquids having higher rate of evaporation are called volatile liquids such as petrol.
The liquids having slower rate of evaporation are called non-volatile liquids such as
honey.
Explanation according to KMT:
The molecules of liquids frequently collide with each other elastically transferring
energy to adjacent molecules until the energy reaches to the molecules on surface
and due to high kinetic energy they escape out from the surface in gaseous state.
Factors Affecting the rate of evaporation:
i) Intermolecular attraction α 1/evaporation
ii) Temperature α evaporation
 Reason:
Evaporation is a cooling process
During evaporation, the escape of high energy
molecules lowers the average kinetic energy of
the remaining molecules, consequently the
temperature of the remaining liquid falls down.
Thus it is said that evaporation is a cooling
process.
 Vapour Pressure
“The pressure exerted by vapours when the rate
of evaporation becomes equal to rate of
condensation is called vapour pressure.”
 Boiling
The process in which the vapour pressure of a
liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure is
called boiling.
The temperature at which boiling occurs is
called boiling point.
If the atmospheric pressure is 1 atm then it is
called normal boiling point.
Boiling occurs at high temperature.
 Reason
Compounds having hydrogen bond generally
have high boiling points.
Boiling point is directly proportional to
intermolecular attraction between the liquid
molecules. Since hydrogen bonding is the
strongest intermolecular bond hence the
compounds having hydrogen bond have high
boiling point. That’s why water has more boiling
point than gasoline.
 Solid State
• Deformity:
Solids are compressed to negligible extent because of
very little intermolecular space between the atoms but
when the solid is subjected to a huge amount of force,
it’s deformed and changed its shape.
• Sublimation:
The process in which a solid directly converts
into gaseous state is called sublimation.
Such solids are called ‘sublime solids’.
For example: Camphor, Iodine, Dry Ice (Solid CO2), Naphthalene etc.
In terms of KMT, the intermolecular force in such solids is less
than ordinary solids hence they are directly converted into solid.
Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
Example: NaCl, Diamond, Iron etc. Example: Glass, rubber, plastic etc.
The particles of crystalline solids are The particles are amorphous solids are
uniformly arranged in a fixed pattern. randomly arranged.
They are symmetrical. They are asymmetrical.
They have sharp melting point. They have no sharp melting point.
Cleavage is the process of breaking In amorphous solids there is no cleavage
crystals in identical shapes via a fixed plane.
plane called as cleavage plane.
In crystalline solids there is a cleavage
plane.
They are anisotropic. They are isotropic.
It means that crystalline solids have It means that amorphous solids have
different values of physical properties at same values of physical properties at all
different orientations. Such as, refractive the orientations.
index, electrical conductivity.
For example: Graphite doesn’t conduct
electricity perpendicular to plane but
parallel to the plane.
 Types of Crystals
There are 4 types of crystals:
• Ionic crystals
• Covalent crystals
• Metallic crystals / Atomic crystals
• Molecular crystals
Isomorphism Polymorphism
When two substances have same crystal The substance which can exist in ore thn
structure, they are said to be one crystalline form is called
isomorphous and phenomenon is called polymorphous and the phenomenon is
isomorphism. called polymorphism.
For Example: For Example:
NaF and MgO (Cubic) CaCO3 (Trigonal and Orthorhombic)
They have different chemical properties. They have same chemical properties.
 Unit Cell
The basic structural unit when repeated in three dimensions
generates the crystal structure is called a Unit Cell.
Cell Dimensions/Cell Parameters:
Length of sides of unit cell: a, b, c
Angle between the sides of unit cell: α, β, γ
Crystal System Sides Angles
Cubic a=b=c α=β=γ=90°
Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90°
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90°
Rhombohedral (Trigonal) a=b=c α=β=γ≠90°
Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°, γ=120°
Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=γ=90°, β≠90°
Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90°
 Melting Point
The temperature at which a solid starts
converting into liquid state is called melting
point.
Factors Affecting Melting Point:
Impurity: Impurity lowers the melting point.
Hence, melting point is used to determine the
purity of solids.
 Latent Heat of Fusion
The energy required to change 1g of solid into
liquid at its melting point.
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