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Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter

1. Matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving.


2. All matter have energy, but the energy varies depending on the temperature the
sample of matter is in.
3. The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles.
4. A change in phase may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.
5. There are spaces between particles of matter.
6. There are attractive forces between atoms or molecules, and these become stronger
as the particles move closer together. These attractive forces are called intermolecular
forces.

Intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces


Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules while intramolecular
forces hold atoms together in a molecule. Intermolecular forces are much weaker than
the intramolecular forces of attraction but are important because they determine the
physical properties of molecules like their boiling point, melting point, density, and
enthalpies of fusion and vaporization. Also, the stronger the intermolecular forces of
attraction, the more energy is required to break those forces. This explains into ionic
and polar covalent compounds having higher boiling and melting points, higher enthalpy
of fusion, and higher enthalpy of vaporization than covalent compounds. Whereas, the
bonds in intramolecular force are very strong and take a lot of energy to break.
However, breaking these bonds will result in the loss of identity of the molecule. For
example, if the bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms are broken in water
molecule, it will no longer have water.
Types of Intermolecular Forces
A. Dispersion Forces
These forces of attraction result from temporary dipole moments induced in ordinarily
nonpolar molecules. These forces are present between all types of molecules due to
the movement of electrons. As electrons move around the nucleus, an uneven
distribution causes momentary charge separation. Slightly positive sides of a molecule
are attracted to the slightly negative sides of the adjacent molecule. The extent to which
a dipole moment can be induced in a molecule is called its polarizability. Polarizability of
the atom or molecule refers to the ease with which the electron distribution can be
distorted. Generally, the larger the number of electrons and the larger or more diffused
the electron cloud in the atom or molecule, the greater its polarizability. Thus, dispersion
forces may be the weakest of intermolecular forces that can exist between two
molecules, but the larger the atoms present, the stronger the dispersion forces. For
example, F2, the lightest halogen, is a gas, Br2 is a liquid, and the heavier I2 is a solid at
room conditions. Further, the more atoms that make up the molecules, the stronger are
the dispersion forces. Methane, CH4, is gaseous, but larger hydrocarbons like butane,
C4H10 is liquid, and those with larger number of carbon atoms, like the waxes, are solids
at room temperature.
B. Dipole-Dipole Forces
Are attractive forces between polar molecules (molecules that possess dipole
moments). In polar molecules the electrons are unevenly distributed because some
elements are more electronegative than others. The partial negative side of one
molecule is attracted to the partial positive side of another molecule. This type of force
is stronger than the dispersion forces because polar molecules have a permanent
uneven distribution of electrons.
C. Hydrogen bond
It is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a polar
bond, such as N‒H, O‒H, or F‒H, and an electronegative O, N, or F atom. Hydrogen
bonds between water molecules are particularly strong.
General Properties of Liquids
A. Surface tension is a measure of the elastic force in the surface of a liquid. It is the
amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.
This is attributed to the strong attractive and cohesive forces between and among the
molecules, particularly at the surface of the liquid.
B. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The grater the intermolecular
forces, the more viscous the substance.
C. Vapor pressure is the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid; that is, the
pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed container.
Substances with relatively strong intermolecular force will have low vapor pressure
because the particles will have difficulty escaping as gas.
D. Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid boil. The boiling point of a liquid
when the external pressure is 1 atm is called the normal boiling point. Increasing the
temperature of a liquid raises the kinetic energy of its molecules until such point where
the energy of particle movement exceeds the intermolecular forces that hold them
together.
E. Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature. The application of heat disrupts the
intermolecular forces of attraction of the liquid molecules and allows them to vaporize.
LECTURE:
The molecular structure of water molecules
https://tinyurl.com/429452c4
Water is vital for all life. Its versatility and adaptability help perform important chemical
reactions. Its simple molecular structure helps maintain important shapes for cells' inner
components and outer membrane. No other molecule matches water when it comes to
unique properties that support life.
The Unique Properties of Water
• Water is a good solvent. A unique property of water is its ability to dissolve a large
variety of chemical substances. It dissolves salts and other ionic compounds, as well as
polar covalent compounds such as alcohols and organic substances that are capable of
forming hydrogen bonds with water. Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide will dissolve
in water meaning that some animals do not need to breathe air in order to respire but
they must still be able to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide. Water is
sometimes called the universal solvent because it can dissolve so many things.
• Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat or energy
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 oC. The specific heat
of water is 1 calorie/g-oC (4.18 J/g-oC), one of the highest for many liquids.
• Water has high heat capacity. It can absorb a large amount of heat even if its
temperature rises only slightly. To raise the temperature of water, the intermolecular
hydrogen bonds should break. The converse is also true; water can give off much heat
with only a slight decrease in its temperature. This allows large bodies of water to help
moderate the temperature on earth.
• The boiling point of water is unusually high. Many compounds similar in mass to
water have much lower boiling points. The strong intermolecular forces in water allow
it to be a liquid at a large range of temperatures.
• Solid water is less dense, and in fact floats on liquid water. Unlike all other
liquids, the molecules in solid water are actually farther apart than they are in liquid
water. When solid water forms, the hydrogen bonds result in a very open structure with
unoccupied spaces, causing the solid to occupy a larger volume than the liquid. This
makes ice less dense than liquid water, causing ice to float on water.
Types and Properties of Solids
Solids can be categorized into two groups: the crystalline solids and the amorphous
solids. The differences in properties of these two groups of solids arise from the
presence or absence of long-range order of arrangements of the particles in the solid.
1. Arrangement of particles the components of a solid can be arranged in two general
ways: they can form a regular repeating three-dimensional structure called a crystal
lattice, thus producing a crystalline solid, or they can aggregate with no particular long-
range order, and form an amorphous solid (from the Greek ámorphos, meaning
“shapeless”).
Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices. Examples of
crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper sulfate ( CuSO 4 ¿, diamond,
graphite, and sugar (C 12 H 22 O11). The ordered arrangement of their units maximizes the
space they occupy and are essentially incompressible.
Example:

Amorphous solids have a random orientation of particles. Examples of amorphous


solids are glass, plastic, coal, and rubber. They are considered super-cooled liquids
where molecules are arranged in a random manner similar to the liquid state.
Example:

More than 90% of naturally occurring and artificially prepared solids are crystalline.
Minerals, sand, clay, limestone, metals, alloys, carbon (diamond and graphite), salts
(e.g. NaCl and MgSO4), all have crystalline structures. They have structures formed by
repeating three dimensional patterns of atoms, ions, or molecules. The repetition of
structural units of the substance over long atomic distances is referred to as long-range
order.
Amorphous solids (e.g. glass), like liquids, do not have long range order, but may have
a limited, localized order in their structures.
2. Behavior when heated the presence or absence of long-range order in the structure
of solids results in a difference in the behavior of the solid when heated.
The structures of crystalline solids are built from repeating units called crystal lattices.
The surroundings of particles in the structure are uniform, and the attractive forces
experienced by the particles are of similar types and strength. These attractive forces
are broken by the same amount of energy, and thus, crystals become liquids at a
specific temperature (i.e. the melting point). At this temperature, physical properties of
the crystalline solids change sharply.

Amorphous solids soften gradually when they are heated. They tend to melt over a
wide range
of

temperature. This behavior is a result of the variation in the arrangement of particles in


their structures, causing some parts of the solid to melt ahead of other parts.

Concentration of solutions is the amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of


solvent or solution.

A. Percent by Mass (%m/m)


mass of solute
Percent by mass= X 100
mass of solution
mass of solute
Percent by mass= X 100
mass of solute +solvent
B. Percent by Volume (%v/v)
volume of solute
Percent by volume= X 100
volume of solution
C. Percent by mass-volume (%m/v)
mass of solute∈grams
Percent by mass-volume= X 100
volume of solution∈mL
D. Mole Fraction (X)
The mole fraction (x) of a component in a solution is equal to the number of
moles of one component divided by the total number of moles in the solution. Always
remember that the sum of the mole fraction of components in a solution is equal to one.
In mathematical expression:

mass (g)
mole (n)=
g
molar mass( )
mole

moles of solute moles of solvent


Xsolute= Xsolvent=
total moles of solution total moles of solution

moles of solute moles of solvent


Xsolute= Xsolvent=
moles of solute+moles of solvent moles of solute+moles of solvent

Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1

E. Molality (m)
Molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
The unit of molality is molal (m).
moles of solute
molality =
mass of solvent ∈ kg

F. Molarity (M)
Molarity of solution is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The unit
of molarity is molar (M).
moles of solute
molarity =
volume of solution∈ L
G. Parts Per Million (ppm)
Parts per million (ppm) expresses the number of parts of solute per one million
parts of solution.
grams solute 6
ppm= x 10
grams solution

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