BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING NOTES

UNIT - I D.C. Circuits - Syllabus

Units and Dimensions, Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Law, Power and Energy in circuits, Voltage and Current Sources,
Dependent and Independent Sources, Source Conversion, Mesh and Nodal analysis, Superposition Theorem,
Thevenin’s Theorem and their Application for analysis of series and parallel resistive circuits excited by
independent voltage sources, Star Delta transformation and circuits

DC CIRCUITS

Units and Dimensions :

The description of any object or material is quantitative and involves measurement as well as comparison
of physical quantities. To measure any physical quantity a standard unit of that quantity is needed. Unit of
a physical quantity is the reference standard used to measure it. Dimension is a measurable physical
quantity, while unit is a way to assign a number or measurement to that dimension. There is difference
between dimension and unit. For example, length is a dimension, but it is measured in units of feet or
metre. A particular quantity can be reported in many different kinds of units, but it will always have the
same dimensions. Dimensions are represented as symbols by: length [L], mass [M] and time [T]. In order to
maintain uniformity in the field of science and engineering the S.I. unit is used (Systeme International
d’Unites). The seven fundamental units in SI are - Metre, Kilogram, Second, Ampere, Kelvin, Mole, Candela.

Important Laws :
a. Ohm’s law : The current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it, provided the temperature of conductor and all other
V V
I= R=
factorsremainconstant. The relations for ohms law are R; V = IR ; I
b. Kirchhoff’s current law : The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction is equal to zero.

c. Kirchhoff’s voltage law : The algebraic sum of the voltage sources in any closed circuit is always equal to
the sum of the voltage drops as well as voltage rises in that closed circuit.

d. Basic norms followed during circuit analysis :

Assumption of sign while applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to networks :
5V
i) To voltage sources :
A B Rise in Potential
+5V

Assumed direction of movement along network

5V
A B Fall in Potential
5V

Assumed direction of movement along network

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ii) To passive elements: 5Ω
2A
A B Rise in Potential
+10 V
Assumed direction of movement along network

5Ω
2A
A BA Fall in Potential
10 V
Assumed direction of movement along network

The analysis of DC circuits can be carried out if the below mentioned relations are known :
R1 R2
a. Resistors in series : Req = R1 + R2
I
R 1 R2 V1 V2
Req =
b. Resistors in parallel : R 1 + R2
V
c. The voltage division for the circuit shown is :
R1
R1 R2 I1
V 1 =V V 2 =V
R1 + R 2 and R1 + R 2
I2

I R2
d. The division of current for the circuit shown is :
R2 R1 V
I 1 =I I 2 =I
R1 + R 2 and R1 + R 2

In DC circuit analysis usually the circuits are reduced in steps to get their equivalent resistance and
then obtain the required solution.

Relations for Power and Energy:

We have electrical power, P= VI
An electrical power of 1 watt is consumed in a circuit if a potential difference of 1 volt when applied across
it, causes a current of 1 ampere to flow through it. Other relations for power are, P=I 2R and P = V2/R.
Unit for power is watts or kW.
We have electrical energy, E = Power x Time.
An electrical energy of 1 watt-sec is consumed in a circuit when a power of 1 watt is utilized for one second
ORAn electrical energy of 1 kWh is consumed in a circuit when a power of 1 kW is utilized for one hour.
Other relations for energy are, E=I2Rt and E = VIt ; Unit for energy is watt-sec or watt-hr or kWh.

Voltage and Current sources :

 Any device that produces electrical energy can be called a source.
 A source is usually expected to deliver power to a network and not to absorb it.
 A voltage source maintains the required difference in potential across the circuit it is connected.
 A current source supplies the required quantity of current to the circuit it is connected.

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 An ideal constant voltage source is one whose output voltage remains absolutely constant irrespective of
the change in load current. These voltage sources must possess zero internal resistance, so that the internal
voltage drop in the source is zero. It is not practically possible to have an ideal constant voltage source.
 An ideal constant current source is one whose output current remains absolutely constant. These current
sources have infinite internal resistance. Practically these sources possess a very high resistance when
compared to its external load resistance.

Dependent and Independent sources :

 The sources in which the voltage or current depends upon a current or voltage elsewhere in the circuit are
known as Dependent sources or Controlled sources.
 The sources in which the voltage is completely independent of the current or the current
is completely independent of the voltage are known as Independent sources.
+
 An ideal independent voltage source is one that maintains a specified voltage between
VS
its source terminals regardless of the current drawn from it. It is symbolised as shown :
The positive and negative signs indicate the conventional direction of electric field when
the source is applied to a load.
 An ideal independent current source is one that maintains a specified current through IS
its terminals regardless of the voltage across the terminals. It is symbolised as shown :
The arrow indicates the conventional direction of current when the source is applied to a load.

+
 A dependent voltage source is one that produces a voltage as a function of voltages
VS
elsewhere in a given circuit. It is symbolised as shown :

 A dependent current source is one that produces a current as a function of currents

elsewhere in a given circuit. It is symbolised as shown : IS

Source Conversion :
 A voltage source with a series resistor can be converted into an equivalent current source with a resistor in
parallel to it.
 A current source with a parallel resistor can be converted into an equivalent voltage source with a resistor
in series with it.
 The conversions are possible only when their respective open circuit voltages are equal or theirrespective
short circuit currents are equal. AS AS
+ 5Ω
 Example for voltage source to
10 V 2A 5Ω
current source conversion :
BAIS BAIS

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 Example for current source to AS AS
+ 2Ω
voltage source conversion :
2Ω 8V
4A
 Conversion of sources helps in
simplifying the analysis of circuits. BAIS BAIS

Network Terminologies :
 A network or circuit is an arrangement of active and passive elements that form closed paths.
a ba ca
 Consider the circuit shown : R1 R2
 It has two active elements E1 and E2. E1 R3 E2
 It has three passive elements R1, R2 and R3. d
 A node of a network is an equi-potential surface at which two or more circuit elements are joined.
 In the circuit shown above a, b, c and d are nodes.
 A junction is that point in a network where three or more circuit elements are joined.
 In the circuit there are two junctionsb and d.
 A branch is that part of a network which lies between junction points.
 There are three branches dab, dcb and db.
 The branch dab has two elements E1and R1.
 The branch dcb has two elements E2 and R2.
 The third branch db has only one element R3.
 A loop is any closed path of a network.
 The loops in the circuit are abda, dbcd and abcda.
 A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop.
 The meshes in the circuit are abda and dbcd.
 A mesh is also a loop that cannot have another loop within it.
 A mesh current is that current which flows around the perimeter of the mesh.
 The mesh currents are always assumed to flow in the clockwise direction.
 Branch currents have physical identity but mesh currents are fictitious quantities introduced so that
they allow us to solve problems with minimum number of unknowns.

Mesh and Loop Analysis :

 When the number of branches in a network increase, the earlier methods used will lead to
complications. In order to simplify the solution of such networks one of the methods is the Loop
analysis or the Mesh analysis.
 The step by step procedure adopted to use the method of mesh analysis is :

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a. Observe the circuit for finding the number of meshes possible, if there are any current sources
convert them into their equivalent voltage sources.
b. Assign mesh currents to each mesh assuming to flow in clockwise direction.
c. Apply KVL to each mesh and write the equations.
d. The number of equations will be equal to the number of unknown mesh currents.
e. The equations are solved to determine the mesh currents.
f. The required branch currents are found from the mesh currents determined.
g. In case the branch current determined is negative, then the branch current is flowing opposite to
the assumed direction.
h. In case the branch current determined is positive, then the branch current is flowing in the assumed
direction.

Node Voltage Analysis :

 A node is a point in a network that is common to two or more circuit elements.If three or more
elements are joined at a point, that point can be called a junction. It is also called as an independent
node or principle node.
 Usually the negative terminal of an active element is selected as the reference node or datum node and
its potential is assumed to be zero.
 The node voltage is the voltage of a given node with respect to the reference node or datum node.
 The node analysis method helps us to find the voltages at all the principle nodes with respect to the
reference node.
 Usually all the branch currents are assumed to be positive when the direction of the currents are not
known or not given in the circuit.
 At all the principle nodes, the currents flowing towards the node are considered negative and the
currents flowing away from the node are considered positive.
 The step by step procedure adopted to use the method of nodal analysis is:
a. Observe the circuit to find the number of principle nodes and identify the reference node.
b. Number the principle nodes serially and assume the node voltages.
c. Assume the currents to flow outward from the nodes in each branch.
d. Apply KCL to all the nodes and write the equations in terms of voltages and resistances.
e. The number of equations will be equal to the number of principle nodes.
f. The equations are solved to find the values of the assumed node voltages.
g. With the determined values of the node voltages all the branch currents are calculated.

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Superposition Theorem :
This theorem is very useful as it extends the use of Ohm’s law to circuits that have more than one source. It
is possible to calculate the effect of each source at a time and then superimpose results of all the other
sources.
Statement : “In a network with two or more sources, the current or voltage for any component is the
algebraic sum of the effects produced by each source acting separately”.
Step by step procedure to solve a network by superposition theorem :
Let us consider the circuit shown in figure-A, I1, I2 and I3
I1 I2
are the currents flowing in the circuit due to the two voltage 2Ω 6Ω
sources of 8 V and 12 V.
8V
I3 4Ω
12 V
To solve the circuit by using superposition theorem, only
one voltage source has to be considered to be acting at a FIGURE - A
time in the circuit.
I1 I 2
So the 8 V source is retained and the 12 V source is
removed, as it has no internal resistance the circuit is 2Ω 6Ω

I 3
4Ω
drawn as shown in figure-B. 8V
I 1 , I 2 and I 3 are the currents flowing in the circuit
′ ′ ′

FIGURE - B
as shown due to the 8 V source only. The equivalent
resistance of the circuit is calculated, the total current I1 I 2
and the branch currents are found using Ohm’s law.
2Ω 6Ω

I 3
Next considering the 12 V source only in the circuit 4Ω
12 V
the 8 V source is removed, as it has no internal
resistance the circuit is drawn as shown in figure-C. FIGURE - C
I ″, I and I
1 2″ 3″ are the currents flowing in the circuit as shown due to the 12 V source only. The total
current and branch currents are calculated.
The currents I1, I2 and I3 flowing in the circuit shown in figure-A, can be obtained by combining the values
of the currents flowing in figure-B and figure-C.
I1= I ′ − I ; I 2= I ″ − I and I 3 = I ′ + I
1 1″ 2 2′ 3 3″
So the branch currents of figure-A are

Thevenin’s Theorem :
This theorem is very much helpful in solving complicated networks possessing a number of voltage or
current sources. It helps in simplifying the process of solving for the unknown values of voltage and current
in a network.
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By Thevenin’s theorem, many sources and components, no matter how they are interconnected, can be
represented by an equivalent series circuit with respect to any pair of terminals in the network.
In fig. - 1 below the block at the left contains a network connected to terminals A and B, which can be
replaced by a single source of emf, VTH in series with a single resistance RTH.
Where VTH is the open circuit voltage across terminals A and B and R TH is the open circuit resistanceacross
terminals A and B
RTH
A A
A
+
+
+ RL
VTH NETWORK
NETWORK

B
B
Fig. - 1 B Fig. - 2

Statement : “Thevenin theorem states that the entire network connected to A and B can be replaced by a
single voltage source VTH in series with a single resistance RTH, connected to the same two terminals”.

Step by step procedure in Thevenizing a circuit :

The step by step procedure adopted to solve any network by Thevenin’s theorem is given below :
a. The load resistor RL of the network through which the current flowing has to be determined is
identified.
b. The load resistor RL is temporarily disconnected from the network.
c. Let the points be named A and B.
d. The open circuit voltage which appears across the points A and B is determined. This is called Thevenin
voltage VTH.
e. In order to determine the Thevenin resistance of the network behind the points A and B.
f. The voltage sources in the network are replaced by their internal resistances and the current sources
are replaced by an open circuit.
g. The equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B is determined which is called Thevenin
resistance RTH.
h. Replace the entire network by the Thevenin source, whose voltage is V TH and whose internal resistance
is the Thevenin resistance RTH.
i. Connect the load resistor RL back across the points A and B, from where it was removed earlier.
j. Calculate the current flowing through the load resistor using the relation :
V TH
I=
( RTH + R L )

Star-Delta relations :
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 When a three terminal circuit is encountered in any network the star delta relations can be used to
simplify the circuit.
 By initially converting the three terminal network from one form to another and by applying other
simplifying techniques the network can be solved.

Delta to star conversion :

A A

Rab Rca Ra

Rb Rc

B
Rbc B C
C

Let us consider aDelta circuit shown above. Let us find the resistance between the terminals A and C with
terminal B open.It is observed that the resistors R ab and Rbc will be in serieswith each other and this series
combination will be in parallel with Rca. Hence, the equivalent resistance between the terminalsA and C can
R ca ( Rab + R bc )
Rca =
be written as, R ab + Rbc + Rca

Rab ( R ca + R bc )
Rab=
Similarly, resistance between terminals A and B, R ab + Rbc + Rca

R bc ( R ab + Rca )
Rbc =
the resistance between terminals B and C, Rab + R bc + R ca

Considering the Star circuit shown above, the resistance between the terminals A and C =
Ra + R c

Between A and B =
Ra + Rb and between B and C = Rb + Rc

Equating resistance between similar terminals in the two circuits, we get,

R ca ( Rab + R bc )
Ra + Rc =
R ab + Rbc + Rca ………….….………(1)

Rab ( Rca + Rbc )

Ra + Rb =
Rab + R bc + R ca ………………….…..(2)

R bc ( R ab + Rca )
Rb + Rc =
Rab + Rbc + Rca ……………………(3)

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R ab⋅Rca − R ab⋅ Rbc
Ra − R b =
Subtracting equation (3) from equation (1), we get,
R ab + Rbc + Rca …..…..(4)
R ab ⋅ Rca
Ra =
Adding equation (2) to equation (4) and dividing by 2, we get, Rab + R bc + R ca ……….…….(5)

Rbc ⋅ R ab R ca ⋅ R bc
Rb = Rc =
Similarly, Rab + R bc + R ca ………….(6) and R ab + Rbc + R ca ……………….…..(7)

Hence the Star values of resistors in terms of the Delta resistors are expressed as:
R ab Rca R bc Rab Rca Rbc
Ra = Rb = Rc =
Rab + R bc + R ca ; Rab + R bc + R ca ; R ab + R bc + Rca

Star to delta conversion :

Let us consider a Star connected circuit shown above. The resistance between the terminals A and C is

found to be = Ra + Rc . The resistance between B and C = Rb + Rc and that between A and B = Ra + Rb .

A
A

Ra Rab Rca

Rb Rc
B
Rbc
B C
C

Let us consider the Delta connected circuit shown above, the resistance between the terminals A and C
R ca ( R ab + Rbc )
Rac =
with terminal B open can be written as, Rab + R bc + R ca

Rab ( R ca + R bc )
Rab=
Similarly, resistance between terminals A and B, R ab + Rbc + Rca

R bc ( R ab + Rca )
Rbc =
and the resistance between terminals B and C, Rab + R bc + R ca

Equating resistance between similar terminals in the two circuits, we get,

R ca ( Rab + R bc )
Ra + Rc =
R ab + Rbc + Rca ………………………(1)

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Rab ( Rca + Rbc )
Ra + Rb =
Rab + R bc + R ca …………………...…..(2)
R bc ( R ab + Rca )
Rb + Rc =
Rab + Rbc + Rca ………………..……(3)
R ab⋅R ca − Rab⋅ R bc
Ra − R b =
Subtracting equation (3) from equation (1), we get,
Rab + R bc + R ca ..………..(4)
R ab ⋅ Rca
Ra =
Adding equation (2) to equation (4) and dividing by 2, we get, Rab + R bc + R ca ……….….(5)
Rbc ⋅ R ab R ca ⋅ R bc
Rb = Rc =
Similarly, Rab + R bc + R ca ………….(6) R ab + Rbc + R ca ………………....…..(7)

From equations (5), (6) and (7), we get,

Ra R b + Rb R c + R c R a =
( R ab2 ⋅ Rbc ⋅Rca + Rbc 2 ⋅ R ab ⋅ R ca + R ca2 ⋅ Rab ⋅ R bc )
2
( Rab + R bc + R ca )
( R ab + Rbc + Rca ) ( Rab ⋅ R bc ⋅ Rca )
R a R b + Rb R c + R c R a = 2
( R ab + Rbc + R ca )
( Rab ⋅ Rbc ⋅ Rca )
Ra R b + Rb R c + R c R a =
( R ab + Rbc + Rca ) ………….…….(8)
Dividing Equation (8) by equation (7), we get,

( Ra R b + R b R c + Rc R a )
Rab =
Rc
Dividing Equation (8) by equation (5), we get,

( R a R b + Rb R c + R c R a )
Rbc =
Ra
Dividing Equation (8) by equation (6), we get,

( Ra Rb + Rb R c + R c Ra )
Rca =
Rb
Hence the Delta values of resistors in terms of the Star resistors are expressed as:

R a Rb + R b R c + R c R a Ra R b + R b Rc + R c Ra Ra R b + R b R c + Rc Ra
Rab = Rbc = Rca=
Rc ; Ra ; Rb

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