NAME – J i s h a n

Haque
PRN – 20240802800
DIV - F

Experiment No: 03A

AIM: To Verify principle of Superposition theoretically and practically using Tinkarcad.

STATEMENT:
Superposition theorem states that, in any linear complex network having several sources, the
response on a particular element can be determined as the algebraic sum of the responses caused
by the individual sources acting alone, while the other sources are non-operative.

While considering the effect of individual sources, other sources must be non-operative such that
they are replaced by their internal resistance. If the sources are ideal they are replaced by a short
circuit or open circuit for voltage source and current source respectively. And if the sources are
non-ideal they are replaced by their internal resistance.

Step by Step Procedure to solve Superposition Theorem

1. Identify the element in which the current or voltage is to be found and mark it as a load resistor
(RL).
2. Select any one source and replace the other sources by a short circuit or open circuit or leaving
behind its internal resistance.
3. Calculate the current or voltage across RL due to the one source.
4. Repeat step 2 and 3 for all other sources and find the current or voltage across RL caused by the
individual sources acting alone.
5. To find the total current flows through the load resistor, perform algebraic sum of individual
currents considering their direction of flow to the load resistor.
APPARATUS:

1. Resistors
2. Multimeter
OBSERVATION TABLE:

I1 I I
PARAMETERS 2

Theoretical Values 9.3 13.3 22.6

Practical Values 9.3 12 21.3

PRECAUTIONS
:

1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply.

2. Make sure of proper colour coding of resistors.
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.

CONCLUSION:
Thus we have Verified principle of Superposition theoretically and practically using
Tinkarcad.
 Experiment No: 03B

AIM:

To Verify & simulate Thevenin’s theorem using Tinkarcad

STATEMENT:

Any linear, bilateral network having a number of voltage, current sources and
resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage
source in series with a resistance, where the value of the voltage source is equal to the
open circuit voltage and the resistance is the equivalent resistance measured between
the open circuit terminals with all energy sources replaced by their ideal internal
resistances

Step by step procedure to solve Thevenin’s theorem

1. Identify the element for which the current or voltage is to be found and consider it
as load resistor (RL).

2. Open the load resistor and measure the voltage across the terminals by any of the
network simplification methods. This voltage is called as Thevenin’s voltage (Vth).
3. Remove the load resistor. Replace all voltage and current sources by their internal
resistance. Then measure the equivalent resistance as viewed from the open-
circuited terminals. This is the Thevenin’s resistance (Rth).

4. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with Thevenin’s voltage source in series
with Thevenin’s resistance followed by the load resistor.

5. Now find the current through load resistor by simply applying ohm’s law
 APPARATUS:
1. Multimeter
2. Bread Board
3. Resistors
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power supply

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit diagram &Remove Load resister &measure V TH

2. Short circuit the voltage source then measure RTH

3. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
4. Measurement IL &VL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Tinkercad Diagram:
 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

Vt 192 19.2

h 8 4.60

Rt 2.4A 2A

h 125 4.5

IL
VL

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply 2.
Make sure of proper colour coding of resistors
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.

CONCLUSION : Thus we have verified & simulate Thevenin’s theorem using Tinkarcad.
 Experiment No: 03C
AIM: To Verify Norton’s theorem using Tinkarcad

THEORY
Norton’s theorem is used to reduce a complex network into a simple circuit for circuit
analysis. In this post, you will learn the statement of Norton’s theorem for dc circuits
with solved examples including limitations, and applications.

Norton’s Theorem Statement

Norton theorem states that any two-terminal, linear active network with current
sources, voltage sources and resistors can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a single current source in parallel with a single resistor.

The value of the current source (IN) is the short-circuit current between the two
terminals of the network and the resistance is the equivalent resistance
measured between the terminals with all the energy sources are replaced by
their internal resistance.
When replacing the sources for simplification, replace the ideal voltage source with a
short circuit and ideal current source with an open circuit. If the sources have internal
resistance, place a resistor with its internal resistance value without open or short
circuit.

Step by step procedure to solve Norton’s theorem for DC Circuits

1. Identify the element for which the response is to be found.
 3 Bread Board
. Power supply
4 Connecting Wires
.
5
. PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure and note down the current flowing through R3 (2
Ohm) and let it be I. Verify for I=I1+I2 .
2. Compare the practical and theoretical currents.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Consider the given circuit and find the current through 2Ω resistor using superposition theorem.

Tinkercad Diagram:
 2. Remove the load resistor and make a short circuit. Find the current through the
short-circuited path by any circuit analysis method. This current is Norton’s current
(IN).
3. Remove the load resistor and replace the voltage or current source by their
internal resistance. Find the equivalent resistance of the network seen from the open-
circuited terminals. This is the thevenin’s resistance (RTH) or Norton’s resistance
(RN) of the network.
4. Redraw the network with Norton’s current source in parallel with Norton’s
resistance. Finally, add the load resistor in parallel with the above circuit and apply
current division rule to find the load current.
APPARATUS:
1 Multimter
2 Power supply
3 Bread Board
4 Resistors
5 Connecting Wires

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown.

2. The resistance between A and B are obtained by using. Voltmeter, ammeter
method and the ratio of V and I gives RN.
3. Draw Norton's equivalent circuit by connecting IN & RN in parallel and
find load current.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 Tinkercad Diagram:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Parameters
Theoretical Values Practical
Values
Isc/IN 2.40A 2.4A

RN 4.6 4.67
IL 1.2A 1.68A

VL 16.8 16.8

PRECAUTIONS:
i. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply
ii. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors
iii. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.

CONCLUSION : Thus we have Verified Norton’s theorem using Tinkarcad

 NAME –
J i s h a n J i s
h a PRN - 20230802379

Experiment No: 04
AIM: To determine and analyze the V-I characteristics of PN- junction diode.

THEORY:

A PN diode (also known as rectifier diode) is a two-terminal device, having

two active electrodes between which the signal of interest may flow, and most
are used for their unidirectional current property. It allows an electric current
to pass in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block it in
the opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be
thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. Real diodes do not display
such a perfect on-off directionality but have a more complex non-linear
electrical characteristic, which depends on the particular type of diode
technology. Diodes also have many other functions in which they are not
designed to operate in this on-off manner.

Fig.1. V-I characteristics of a P-N junction diode

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1. Bread Board -01

2. Diode (Si) - IN001 3.
Resistance - 1K
4. Multi-meter - 02
 5. Power supply - 0 – 30V DC

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURES:
:
(A)FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE
1. Make the connections as shown in the figure.
2. Vary the in built D.C. Supply voltage so that the diode voltage will vary in steps
of
0.1Vand note down the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings.
3. Plot the graph of forward voltage Vf (on X-axis) vs. forward current If (on Y-axis)

(B)REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE:

1. Make the connections as shown in the figure.
2. Vary the in- built D.C. Supply voltage and so that the diode voltage will vary in
steps of 1Vand note down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings.
3. Plot the graph of reverse voltage Vr (on X-axis) vs. reverse current Ir (on Y-axis)

Tinkercad Diagram
Forward Bias

Reverse Bias:
GRAPH REPRESENTATION
FORWARD BIAS:

Reverse Bias:

As you know there was no deflection in Ampere, which results in no plot in y- axis.
 Observation Table :

Forward Bias

SR.NO Vin VF IF
1 0.1mV 0.1mV 0A
2 0.2mV 0.2mV 0A
3 0.3mV 0.3mV 0A
4 0.4mV 0.395mv 0A
5 0.5mV VB=0.445mV 45.2µA
6 0.6mV 0.480mV 120µA
7 0.7mV 0.494mV 206µA
8 0.8mV 0.503mV 297µA
9 0.9mV 0.510mV 390µA
10 1mV 0.516mV 484µA

Reverse Bias

SR.NO Vin Vr Ir
1 0.1mV 0.1mV 0A
2 0.2mV 0.2mV 0A
3 0.3mV 0.3mV 0A
4 0.4mV 0.4mV 0A
5 0.5mV 0.5mV 0A
6 0.6mV 0.6mV 0A
7 7mV 7mV 0A
8 12mV 12mV 0A
9 19mV 19mV 0A
10 30mV 30mV 0A
PROCEDURE:
1. Plot a graph between voltage and current readings for forward and reverse PN diode.
2. Determine Cut-in voltage for PN diode from graph.

RESULT:
The cut in voltage of diode as determined from the graph for PN diode is (volts).

CONCLUSION: Thus we have determined and analysed the V-I characteristics of PN-
junction diode using Tinkercad.c