Folding

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 Folding
This is the bending of the crustal rocks due to earth movements. It occurs on fairly young crustal rocks of
sedimentary origin when they are still in semi elastic state. In much older and ancient rocks, the process
may not be well manifested as the rocks are likely to crumble and break into small pieces.
Factors influencing the degree of folding
The extent of folding basically depends on;
i. The intensity of the forces – weak forces cause slight bends while stronger forces result into
large bends.
ii. Nature of the rock material – young rocks of semi elastic state fold more than old rocks.
Process of folding
Folding is caused by compressional forces which are triggered off during earth movements. When folding
occurs, some parts of the earth surface bend upwards while others bend downwards. The uplifted parts are
called anticlines (up folds) while the sunken parts are called synclines (down folds). The uppermost part
of the anticline is called the crest while the lowest part of the syncline is called the trough. A line drawn
vertically through the centre of the anticline is called the axis of the fold. The rock layers on both sides of
the axis slope(dip) in opposite directions forming what are called limbs.
Parts of a fold

Types of folds
The main types of folds are;
1. Simple/ symmetrical fold – these are formed when compressional forces of equal strength
(relatively moderate) cause the rock layers to bend evenly from the central axis. The anticline
shows a degree of symmetry about its axis and the limbs dip in opposite direction.
2. Asymmetrical fold (monoclinal fold) – are formed when compressional forces of unequal
strength act on the crustal rocks causing one limb to bend slightly more than the other. This
happens when one of the forces is slightly stronger than the other. One limb is therefore steeper
than the other making them to be asymmetrical about the axis.
3. Over folds – are asymmetrical folds caused by a very strong force pushing against a very
resistant rock mass. This results to the upper part of the limb overriding the lower part of the
folded compressional limb. The upper limb is completely pushed over the lower limb.
4. Isoclinal folds – this is a group of folds which are packed closely together. They occur where
there is intense compressive stress. The limbs of the folds dip in an almost parallel position and
they all dip in the same direction. The folds may be vertical or inclined into over folds.
5. Recumbent folds – these are over folds which have been overturned to such an extent that the
limbs are nearly horizontal. Their axial plane are near horizontal.
6. Nappe/ over thrust folds – great pressure due to compressional forces within a fold may cause a
fracture to occur. when this happens, one limb is thrust over the other limb such that the overlying
fold slides forward along the surface of the fracture. The surface of the fracture along which the
upper limb is thrust forward is called the thrust plane.
7. Anticlinorium and synclinorium complex – initially a mass of sedimentary rock may be
subjected to an initial mild compressional force from both directions resulting in the formation of
minor folds on the surface. At much later time, the same rock could be subjected to much greater
compressional forces leading to the formation of greater anticlines and synclines. However, the
newly developed anticlines and synclines still bear the minor folds caused by the initial
compressional forces. Each of the new up folds is called an anticlinorium while the down folds is
referred to as synclinorium.
Features resulting from folding
i. Rolling plains - These are landscapes with gently sloping anticlines and very wide synclines.
They are formed when a low lying and relatively level land is subjected to weaker compressional
forces.

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 ii. Ridge and valley landscape - When a low lying and relatively level land is subjected to stronger
and uneven compressional forces, the landscape could be transformed into a series of
asymmetrical folds forming ridges and valleys.
iii. Escarpment - This forms when the crustal rocks are subjected to un equal compressional forces.
One of the forces is slightly stronger than the other. This leads to the formation of a feature with
one steep slope referred to as scarp slope and one gentle slope known as dip slope.
iv. Synclinal valleys - These are broad and shallow valleys with gently sloping basins formed when
a low lying and relatively level land is subjected to moderate compressional forces.
v. Depressions - Folding may also cause down warping. When this happens large depressions may
form on the earth’s crust. These depressions may be filled with water to form lakes.
vi. Inter montane plateau - This is a plateau that lies between fold mountains. It forms when the
middle parts of a region resists folding during the formation of fold mountains. The rocks at the
edge of the region becomes intensely folded resulting in the formation of fold mountains. The
two sets of mountain at the edges enclose an area which is largely unaffected by the folding
process. This area forms an inter- montane plateau. Example; Chotts plateau and Tibestian
plateau.
vii. Inter montane basins
These are fortmed on inter-montane plateaus. During the formation of the inter-montane plateaus,
some parts of the plateau could subside to form basins. Examples; Great basins of Navada and
Utah in U.S.A.
viii. Fold mountains - These result from pronounced folding in sedimentary bed rocks. They are the
most conspicuous features of folding. They form the world’s highest mountains.

Theories explaining the formation of fold mountains.

The origin of the fold mountains is not clearly known. However, several theories have been put forward
to explain their possible origin. These are; contraction theory, convectional current theory,
continental drift theory and plate tectonic theory
a) Contraction theory
This theory suggests that the Fold Mountains were formed during the formation of the earth.
During the formation of the earth, the surface rocks cooled and contracted faster than those of the
interior. Since the interior was cooling at a slower rate, the surface rocks started to wrinkle in
order to fit on the cooling and contracting rocks of the interior. These wrinkles became fold
mountains.
b) Convectional current theory
According to this theory, fold mountains were formed by convectional currents generated by high
temperatures and pressure in the mantle. The currents exerted a frictional drag on the crustal
rocks as they moved in a cyclic motion from beneath towards the surface. This caused the sima
rocks to move horizontally causing crustal rocks to bend upwards forming fold mountains.
c) Continental drift theory
The theory is based on the breakup of the continents. It asserts that fold mountains may have
formed when continents drifted towards each other. The crust and sediments between the
continents are squeezed and bend upwards to form fold mountains.
d) Plate tectonic theory
The theory is based on the breakup of the continents. It asserts that fold mountains may be
formed when two tectonic plates meet along compressional boundary. According to this theory,
when an oceanic plate meets a continental one, the denser oceanic plate sinks beneath the lighter
continental plate along the compressional boundary. Rocks on the edge of the continental plate
bend to form fold mountains.
Processes involved in the formation of fold mountains (folding)
The crustal rocs are subjected to the forces of compression. The rocks bend upwards forming anticlines
and downwards forming synclines. As a result, an extensive depression called a geosyncline is formed on
the surface of the earth. The geosyncline is then filled with water to form a sea. Extensive erosion in the

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surrounding land masses lead to deposition of sediments in the geosynclines. As more sediments
accumulate in the geosynclines, very thick layers are formed. These layers are later subjected to forces of
compression which could have been caused by the continued subsidence of the geosyncline drawing the
land masses together or by the convectional currents in the mantle which pulled the continental crusts
towards the geosynclines. The layers of sediments in the geosynclines then folded bending upward to
form mountains.
Fold mountain formation periods
The process of fold mountain formation/ building is referred to as orogenisis while the fold mountain
building period is referred to as orogeny. The fold mountain of the world are classified into four main
building periods (orogeies) namely;
i. Charnian orogeny – this is the first orogeny which dates back to the late pre-cambrian period.
Mountain in this orogeny are believed to have been formed about 600million years ago. These
mountains no longer exist as they have been eroded over the years forming plateaus.
Examples;
Lauratian Shield of North America.
The Deccan Plateau of India
The Russian Platform of Siberia
The African Block
ii. Caledonian orogeny - Mountains of this orogeny were formed during the late silurian period.
They date to 440million years ago. Most of these mountains have been reduced to hills and
plateaus. Examples;
The Akwapim Hills of Ghana.
The Scottish Highlands and Plateaus of Central France and Spain.
iii. Hercynian orogeny - these mountains were formed during the later part of the carboniferous
period and extended into the Permian period. The period dates back to 350million years ago.
Examples; The Appachalian Mountains of North America.
The Ural Mountains of Europe
The Cape Ranges of S. Africa.
iv. Alpine orogeny – these mountains were formed during the Palaeocene period. They form the
youngest fold mountains of the world. They are the most recently formed fold mountains and are
among the highest mountains of the world.
Examples; Atlas Mountain of Africa
The Alps of Europe
The Himalayas of Asia
The Rockies of N. America
The Andes of S. America

World distribution of Fold Mountains

Generally, fold mountains are found along the tectonic plate boundaries where convergence of plates have
occurred due to compressional forces. For example; The Atlas and the Alps were formed when the
African plate was pushed against the rigid Eurasian plate. The Rockies and the Andes developed as a
result of the Pacific and Nazca oceanic plates meeting with the respective American plate.

Significance of folding
Positive effects
1. Fold mountain areas receive heavy rainfall on the wind ward side. This promotes agriculture and
attracts settlement too.
2. The heavy rainfall received on the windward side of fold mountain support luxuriant growth of
forests. The forests provide timber used for building and construction purposes.
3. The heavy rainfall received on the fold mountains together with the snow that collects on some of
the mountains give rise to rivers. These rivers are source of water for both domestic and industrial
purposes.

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4. In the northern hemisphere the south slopes are warmer than the north facing slopes and vice
versa. They therefore attract settlement.
5. The process of folding could bring valuable minerals to the surface making them easily available
for mining. For example; coal mining in the Appalachian and tin mining in the Andesmountains.
6. Features produced by folding provide unique scenery which are tourist attraction e.g. the Atlas
Mountains and the Swiss Alps.
7. Fold mountains can act as protective barriers in times of war as they are like defense walls.

Negative effects
1. In some mountaneous areas, cold(fohn) winds descend to the lowlands and valleys hence cause a
lot of harm to crops since they facilitate the formation of frost.
2. The process of folding could burry some valuable minerals deep in the ground making them
inaccessible.
3. Mountains are barriers to transport and communication. Use of aircrafts may also be hindered due
to poor visibility.
4. The topography of some mountaneous areas discourage settlement due to their ruggedness.
5. Folding sometimes causes the crustal rocks to become weak as a result of faulting during folding.
This may trigger vulcanicity.