BUSS 401 Research Methods

UNIT#3
Sampling and
Scaling Techniques

Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques;

Kothari C.R. 2nd edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi.
ISBN :978-81-224-15223 8122415229
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

• By the end of this chapter you should:

1. Understand the sampling and need of sampling in

business and management research.
2. Understand types of probability and non probability
sampling design/techniques.
3. Be able to select appropriate sampling techniques for
a variety of research scenario and be able to justify
their selection.
4. Be able to apply the knowledge, skills and
understanding gained to your own research project
 Sampling Methods/Techniques/ or
Different types of Sample Designs

Non
Probability
Probability
Sampling
Sampling

Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2 nd edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN
:978-81-224-15223 8122415229
Sampling Methods/Techniques/Types

Sampling Techniques

Non-probability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Systematic Stratified Cluster Other

Random Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sampling Techniques
Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of probability

sampling in which every unit has an equal nonzero

chance of being selected

•Each element in the population has a known and equal

probability of selection.

•This implies that every element is selected independently of

every other element.
 Systematic Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling is a method of probability sampling in

which the defined target population is ordered and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval.
•The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking
every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.

•The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N by the

sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.

•For example, There are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample of
1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number
between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23, the sample
consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
EXAMPLE

1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91
2
3
4
5 15
6
7
8
9
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

N population is 100
n sample size 05

I (Interval) i= N/n
Stratified Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling is a method of probability sampling
in which the population is divided into different subgroups and
samples are selected from each

•A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations.

•Divide the target population into homogeneous subgroups or strata

•Draw random samples fro each stratum

•Combine the samples from each stratum into a single sample of the target
population

•A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision without

increasing cost.
Male Female

Mkt Marketing
Management
MIS
Accounting
Finance Management
Logistic
Sample 2 people

Accounting MIS

Logistics

Finance
DIAGRAM
 Cluster Sampling
•The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and

collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.

•Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability

sampling technique.
•For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the sample (one-stage)

or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically (two-stage).

•Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but clusters

themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each cluster should be a

small-scale representation of the population.

•In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are sampled with probability

proportional to size. In the second stage, the probability of selecting a sampling unit in a
selected cluster varies inversely with the size of the cluster.
 OR

Cluster sampling: If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a

convenient way in which a sample can be taken is to divide the area into a number
of smaller non-overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these
smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or
samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.
Thus in cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number of relatively
small subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then
some of these clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample.

Suppose we want to estimate the proportion of machine parts in an inventory which

are defective. Also assume that there are 20000 machine parts in the inventory at a
given point of time, stored in 400 cases of 50 each. Now using a cluster sampling,
we would consider the 400 cases as clusters and randomly select ‘n’ cases and
examine all the machine parts in each randomly selected case.

Cluster sampling, no doubt, reduces cost by concentrating surveys in selected

clusters. But certainly it is less precise than random sampling.
Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2 nd edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN
:978-81-224-15223 8122415229
 Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which
does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population
has of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different
names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling.
In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher;
his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability
sampling the organisers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out
of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole.
Or
Nonprobability sample is an arbitrary grouping that limits the use of
some statistical tests. It is not selected randomly.
Classifications of Nonprobability Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Judgment Sampling or Purposive Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2 nd edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN
:978-81-224-15223 8122415229
 Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of
convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the right
time.

• Use of students, and members of social organizations.

• Mail intercept interviews without qualifying the

respondents.

• “people on the street” interviews

 Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling
in which the population elements are selected based on the
judgment of the researcher.

• Test markets

• Engineers selected in industrial marketing research

• Expert witnesses used in court

A B C DEE
Quota Sampling

 Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling.

Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas
to be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on
how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of
the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion.
This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively
inexpensive. But the samples so selected certainly do not possess
the characteristic of random samples. Quota samples are
essentially judgement samples and inferences drawn on their
basis are not amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.
OR
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted
judgmental sampling.
1. The first stage consists of developing control categories,
or quotas, of population elements.
2. In the second stage, sample elements are selected
based on convenience or judgment.
Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
 Snowball Sampling
In Snowball Sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected,
usually at random.

• After being interviewed, these respondents are asked

to identify others who belong to the target population of
interest.

• Subsequent respondents are selected based on the

referrals.
Snowball sampling
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In sociology and statistics research, snowball sampling (or chain sampling, chain-
referral sampling, referral sampling) is a nonprobability sampling technique where
existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances. Thus the
sample group is said to grow like a rolling snowball. As the sample builds up, enough data
are gathered to be useful for research. This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations, such as drug users or sex workers, which are difficult for researchers to
access. As sample members are not selected from a sampling frame, snowball samples
are subject to numerous biases. For example, people who have many friends are more
likely to be recruited into the sample. When virtual social networks are used, then this
technique is called virtual snowball sampling.
It was widely believed that it was impossible to make unbiased estimates from snowball
samples, but a variation of snowball sampling called respondent-driven sampling has
been shown to allow researchers to make asymptotically unbiased estimates from snowball
samples under certain conditions. Snowball sampling and respondent-driven sampling also
allows researchers to make estimates about the social network connecting the hidden
population.

Snowball sampling is where research participants recruit other participants for a test
or study. It is used where potential participants are hard to find. It's called snowball
sampling because (in theory) once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more “snow”
along the way and becomes larger and larger
Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope
Determining Sample Size
•How many completed questionnaires do we need to have a
representative sample?
•Generally the larger the better, but that takes more time
and money.

•Answer depends on:

•How different or dispersed the population is.
•Desired level of confidence.
•Desired degree of accuracy.
 Example for Stratified sampling
How many items be selected from each stratum or how to
allocate the sample size of each stratum?
To illustrate it, let us suppose that we want a sample of size n = 30 to be drawn from a
population of size N = 8000 which is divided into three strata of size N1 = 4000, N2 =
2400 and N3 = 1600. Adopting proportional allocation, we shall get the sample sizes as
under for the different strata:
For strata with N1 = 4000, we have P1 = 4000/8000
and hence n1 = n . P1 = 30 (4000/8000) = 15

Similarly, for strata with N2 = 2400, we have

n2 = n . P2 = 30 (2400/8000) = 9, and
for strata with N3 = 1600, we have
n3 = n . P3 = 30 (1600/8000) = 6.

Thus, using proportional allocation, the sample sizes for different strata are 15, 9 and 6
respectively which is in proportion to the sizes of the strata viz., 4000 : 2400 : 1600. Proportional
allocation is considered most efficient and an optimal design when the cost of selecting an item
is equal for each stratum, there is no difference in within-stratum variances, and the purpose of
sampling happens to be to estimate the population value of some characteristic. But in case the
purpose happens to be to compare the differences among the strata, then equal sample
selection from each stratum would be more efficient even if the strata differ in sizes. In cases
where strata differ not only in size but also in variability and it is considered reasonable to take
larger samples from the more variable strata and smaller samples from the less variable strata,
we can then account for both (differences in stratum size and differences in stratum variability)
by using disproportionate sampling design by requiring:
EXAMPLE :
Example for Stratified sampling
A population is divided into three strata so that N1 = 5000, N2 = 2000 and N3 = 3000.
Respective standard deviations are:
s1 = 15, s2 = 18 and s3 = 5.
How should a sample of size n = 84 be allocated to the three strata, if we want optimum
allocation using disproportionate sampling design?

where σ1, σ 2 , ... and sk denote the standard deviations of the k strata, N1, N2,…, Nk denote the
sizes of the k strata and n1, n2,…, nk denote the sample sizes of k strata. This is called ‘optimum
allocation’ in the context of disproportionate sampling. The allocation in such a situation results in
the following formula for determining the sample sizes different strata:

Solution: Using the disproportionate sampling design for optimum allocation, the sample sizes for
different strata will be determined as under:
Sample size for strata with N1 = 5000

Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2 nd edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN
:978-81-224-15223 8122415229
 Total = 50 + 24 +10
= 84

Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2 nd edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN
:978-81-224-15223 8122415229
 Conclusion
In conclusion, it can be said that using a sample in
research saves mainly on money and time, if a
suitable sampling strategy is used, appropriate
sample size selected and necessary precautions
taken to reduce on sampling and measurement
errors, then a sample should yield valid and reliable
information.

Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2nd
edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN :978-81-224-15223
8122415229
Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2nd
edition (2004), New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN :978-81-224-15223
8122415229
 BUSS 401 Research Methods

UNIT#4
Data Collection

Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29 03:13:27.
 Definition…
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and
research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data
collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of
data.

STATISTICAL data are the basic material needed to make an

effective decision in a particular situation.

The
. main reasons for collecting data are as listed below:
•To provide necessary inputs to a given phenomenon or situation under study
•To measure performance in an ongoing process such as production service and so
on..
•To enhance the quality of decision –making by enumerating alternatives courses of
action in a decision –making process and selecting an appropriate one.
•To satisfy the desired to understand an unknown phenomenon.

•To assist in guessing the causes and probable’s effects of certain characteristics in
given situations.
Statistics is a tool for converting data into information:

Statistics

Data Information

Statistical data are the outcome of a continuous process

of measuring, counting and /or observing. These may
pertain to several aspects of a phenomenon which are
measurable, quantifiable, countable or classifiable. While
conducting a survey or making a study an investigator
develops a method to ask several questions to deal with
the variety of characteristics of the given population or
universe
 Types of Data
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Primary Data:
Data those which are collected for the first time and happen to be
original in character.

Secondary Data
Data those which have already been collected by someone and
already passed through statistical process.

According to W.A. Neiswanger- “A primary source is a publication in

which the data are published by the same authority which gathered
and analyzed them.
A secondary source is a publication, reporting the data which have
been gathered by other authorities and for which are responsible.”
 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in

an experimental research but in case we do research of the
descriptive type and perform surveys there are several methods of
collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii)
interview method, (iii) through questionnaires, (iv) through
schedules, and (v) other methods which include (a) warranty
cards; (b) distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels;
(e) using mechanical devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g)
depth interviews, and (h) content analysis.

The difference between an experiment and a survey can be depicted as under:

Survey Experiment
Can be studied through Determine

Possible relationships between the data and the unknowns in

the universe
Economic Psychological Others
 Methods of Data Collection

Methods of data collection

Secondary sources Primary sources

Documents
Observation Interviewing Questionnaire

-Government publications
-Earlier research Mailed
Participant Structured
-Census Questionnaire
-Personal records
-Client histories
-Service records Non- Collective
Unstructured
-Internet Participant Questionnaire
-Book
-Magazines'
 1- Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used
method especially in studies relating to behavioral
sciences. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection for the researcher, when it
serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and
controls on validity and reliability.
However, observation method has various limitations.
Firstly, it is an expensive method.
Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task

Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created
from dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29 03:13:27.
 2-Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation
of overall-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

•Personal Interviews
It is a method wherein a person known as the interviewer asks
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to a person or persons.

•Telephone Interviews
Collecting information consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself.
•It is more flexible
•It is faster
Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created
from dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29 03:13:27.
Merits of Interview Method
The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be
obtained.

(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if

any, of the respondents; the interview method can be made
to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.

(iii)There is greater flexibility under this method as the

opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
specially in case of unstructured interviews

(iv)Observation method can as well be applied to recording

verbal answers to various questions.

(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under

this method
Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created
from dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29 03:13:27.
Weaknesses of the interview method
Among the important weaknesses, mention may be made of
the following:

(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and

widely spread geographical sample is taken.

(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as

well as that of the respondent; there also remains the
headache of supervision and control of interviewers.

(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or

executives or people in high income groups may not be
easily approachable under this method and to that extent
the data may prove inadequate.
Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from
dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29 03:13:27.
3-Questionnaire Method
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of
big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research
workers, private and public organizations and even by governments

“The term questionnaire usually refers to a self administrated process

whereby the respondent himself reads the question and records his
answer without the assistance of an interviewer.” This is narrow
definition of a questionnaire.
• It consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite
order on a form or a set of forms.
A good questionnaire appears as easy to compose
as does a good poem

• When the questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are

expected to read and understand the question and write down the
reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.
The merits and demerits of questionnaire
method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely
spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be
reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be
made more dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-
response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the
approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29
03:13:27.
 Difference between Questionnaires and Schedules
I. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to
be answered as specified in a covering letter, but otherwise
further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally
filled out by the research worker or the enumerators who can
interpret questions when necessary.

II. Questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have

to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in
mailing the same to respondents. Schedules this relatively more
expensive. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.

III. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire and many

return the questionnaire without answering questions. Bias due
to non-response often remains indeterminate. Non-response is
generally very low in case of schedule. There remains the danger
of interviewer bias and cheating.
Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created
from dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29 03:13:27.
What are the Guidelines for Constructing a
Questionnaire?
1. The researcher must keep in view the problem. He must
be clear about the various aspects of his research
problems.
2. The researcher must decide whether to use closed or
open-ended question. Questions should be simple.

3. Relevance and accuracy are the two basics criteria a

questionnaire must meet to achieve the researchers
purposes.
A. A questionnaire is relevant if no unnecessary information is
collected and if the information that is needed to solve the business
problem is obtained.
B. Accuracy means that the information is reliable and valid.
 Cont ..
4. Rough draft of the questionnaire/schedule should
be prepared.

5. Researcher must re-examine and revise the

rough draft for a better one.
6. Pilot study should be conducted.
What is Pilot Study?
A pilot study, pilot project, pilot test, or pilot experiment is a small-scale preliminary study conducted to
evaluate feasibility, duration cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a

full-scale research project . Pilot experiments are frequently carried out before large scale quantitative
research (Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_experiment)

7. Questionnaire must contain simple and straight

forward questions that may not have any difficulty in
answering by the respondents.
Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created
from dhofar-ebooks on 2019-10-29 03:13:27. •.
Part A-Covering Letter
Part B personal Information or demographic Information

Part C- Research Questions

Questionnaire

To study Job satisfaction of the employees in Salalah

Municipality

Dear Sir/Madam

The purpose of this research study is to understand Job satisfaction of the

employees in Salalah Municipality. This is a part of my academic study to get
bachelor degree from Dhofar University

This questionnaire is intended to study the job satisfaction of the

employees in Salalah Municipality "

The information gathered from you will be kept completely confidential

No one will see this information and it will be used for only academic
purposes .

Thank you for your time and consideration

The researcher
Part B personal Information or demographic Information

The first part : Personnel information

1-Gender: Male Female

2- Nature of Leading function supervisory function

work
administrative function supportive services

3-Education Diploma Bachelor PHD

Master other

4-Age: 20-30 30-44 40-50 above 53

5-Experience Less than 10 years 10 years to 15 years

15 years to 20 years more than20 years

Part C- Research Questions
PART C The role of Job Satisfaction

Statements Likert Scale

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree
Strongly

neutral

Agree
Agree
1 The authorities of Salalah Municipality 1 2 3 4 5
takes into account the needs and expectations of staff
in reviewing their policies
2 The authorities of Salalah Municipality
adopt specific measures to ensure transparency for
its staff
3 The authorities of Salalah Municipality applies a
system that based on specific criteria to evaluate the
performance of staff on a regular basis
4 The authorities of Salalah Municipality empower the
staff in terms of granting and delegating powers and
providing the necessary training needs.
5 The authorities of Salalah Municipality involve staff in
the preparation of work plans and work mechanisms
and strategic objectives
CASE STUDY METHOD- Meaning:
The case study method is a very popular form of
qualitative analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a
person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even
the entire community
According to H. Odum, “The case study method is a
technique by which individual factor whether it be an
institution or just an episode in the life of an individual
or a group is analysed in its relationship to any other in
the group.”5

5 H. Odum, An Introduction to Social Research, p. 229

 Characteristics of case study :
The important characteristics of the case study method are as
under:
1. Under this method the researcher can take one single social
unit or more of such units for his study purpose; he may even
take a situation to study the same comprehensively.
2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in
minute details. Generally, the study extends over a long period
of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain
enough information for drawing correct inferences.

3. Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and

not quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected.
Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning
all aspects of life.
4. Under case study method the behavior pattern of the
concerning unit is studied directly and not by an indirect and
abstract approach.
Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology : Methods and techniques. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from dhofar-ebooks

on 2019-10-29 03:13:27 .
Comparison of Primary Data and Secondary Data:
Primary Data Secondary Data
Originate with the specific research Gathered for some other purposes but it
undertaking. may applicable to present investigation
or research.
Collection is expensive. Collection is not much expensive

The information is more valid ,reliable The validity of information should be

and relevant. judged or evaluated before using the
secondary data.
Data collection instruments are to No need of data collection instruments.
designed according to the need of
investigation.
It is time consuming activity It is less time consuming activity

Errors can be there due to interviewer There may be inaccuracies due to errors
and respondent biases. in recording or transferring of the
original data.
24 November
Test No 2
From unit no 3 and 4
 UNIT # 3 CONT….

Measurement and
scaling Technique

1
Sources /References Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2nd edition (2004), New Age International (P)
ltd. New Delhi. ISBN :978-81-224-15223 8122415229 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

• By the end of this topic/chapter you should:

1. Understand the various types of scale and need of

Scale in business and management research.
2. Understand different types of scaling techniques
3. Be able to select appropriate scale and scaling
techniques for a variety of research scenario and be
able to justify their selection.
4. Be able to apply the knowledge, skills and
understanding gained to your own research project

Sources /References : Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2nd edition (2004), New Age
International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN :978-81-224-15223 8122415229
 MEASUREMENT AND MEASUREMENT SCALE

 By measurement we mean the process of assigning

numbers to objects or observations ,the level of
measurement being a functions of the rules under
which the number assigned.

 Scale: tool or mechanism by which individuals are

distinguished as to how they differ from one another
on the variables of interest to our study.

Sources /References : Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques; Kothari C.R. 2nd edition (2004),
New Age International (P) ltd. New Delhi. ISBN :978-81-224-15223 8122415229
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALE:

THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

 Nominal Scale

 Ordinal Scale

 Interval Scale and

 Ratio Scale

Now we will discuss in detail

4
NOMINAL SCALE
 Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning numbers symbols
to events in order to label them
or
 A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign
subjects to certain categories or groups.
 For Example :
1-What is your gender?
O Male
O Female
2-What is your major specialization ?
O Marketing
O Management
O Finance and Economics
O Accounting
O Management Information Systems (MIS).

Nominal scale is the lowest level of measurement. And the

assigned number cannot added, subtracted, multiplied or
divided
 NOMINAL SCALE

6
© 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
©
www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran
 ORDINAL SCALE
 This is the next higher level of measurement than the
nominal scale measurement. The ordinal scale places
events in order and
 An ordinal scale measurement tells whether an object has
more or less of characteristics than some other objects .
However, it can not answer how much more or how much
less.
Or
 Ordinal scale: not only categorizes variables in such a way
as to denote differences among various categories, it also
rank-orders categories in some meaningful way*.
For example
What is the highest level of education you have completed?
O Less than High School
O High School/GED Equivalent
O College Degree
O Masters Degree 7
O Doctoral Degree
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ORDINAL SCALE

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 INTERVAL SCALE
 The interval scale measurement is the next higher level of
measurement.
 In the case of interval scale, the interval are adjusted in
terms of some rule that has been established as basis for
making the units equal. Interval scale can have an
arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them
what may called an absolute zero or the unique origin.

 The number on this scale can be added, subtracted

multiplied or divide. Statistical measures can be used like
• Arithmetic mean
• Standard deviation
• correlation coefficient
• regression analysis and 9
• Conduct a ‘t’-test, F-test and Z-test,
CONT …
Or
 Interval scale: whereas the nominal scale allows us
only to qualitatively distinguish groups by
categorizing them into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive sets, and the ordinal scale to
rank-order the preferences, the interval scale lets us
measure the distance between any two points on
the scale.
 EXAMPLE OF INTERVAL SCALE
 Circle the number that represents your feelings at this particular
moment best. There are no right or wrong answers. Please answer
every question.

1. I invest more in my work than I get out of it

I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely

2. I exert myself too much considering what I get back in return

I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely

3. How likely are you to buy anew car within next six months?

Definitely probably will Neutral probably will Definitely

will buy buy not Buy will not buy
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
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 INTERVAL SCALE

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 RATIO SCALE
 Ratio scale represent the actual amounts of variables.
Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height
distance etc. are examples
 This is the highest level of measurement and take cares of the
limitations of the interval scale measurement.
 Ratio scale: Overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary
origin point of the interval scale, in that it has an absolute (in
contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful
measurement point.
In this scale all the mathematical operations can be carried
out using ratio scale data. One can compute Geometric Mean
Harmonic Mean, Coefficient of Variation and other statisticals
techniques can be used.
 For Example : 13
 What is your age?
 RATIO SCALE

14
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PROPERTIES OF THE FOUR SCALES

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 SCALING
 Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers
to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
concepts.

 An attitude is viewed as an enduring disposition to respond

consistently In a given manner to various aspect of the world
,including persons events and objects. The attitude is derived
from the perceptions of the customer.if the customers
/consumers have favourable perception towards the
product/services the attitude will favourable therefore
attitude are indirectly observed and there is relationship
between attitude and behaviour.
GOODNESS OF MEASURES

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VALIDITY

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RELIABILITY
 Reliability of measure indicates extent to which it
is without bias and hence ensures consistent
measurement across time (stability) and across
the various items in the instrument (internal
consistency).

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 STABILITY
 Stability: ability of a measure to remain the same
over time, despite uncontrollable testing
conditions or the state of the respondents
themselves.
 Test–Retest Reliability: The reliability coefficient
obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a
second occasion.
 Parallel-Form Reliability: Responses on two
comparable sets of measures tapping the same
construct are highly correlated.

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© 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
 Internal Consistency of Measures is indicative of
the homogeneity of the items in the measure that
tap the construct.
 Interitem Consistency Reliability: This is a test of the
consistency of respondents’ answers to all the items
in a measure. The most popular test of interitem
consistency reliability is the Cronbach’s coefficient
alpha.
 Split-Half Reliability: Split-half reliability reflects
the correlations between two halves of an
instrument.

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