Unit Five

Sampling Design

BY: Kassa T. (MA)

Shawel A. (MBA)
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CONTENTS
 Census vs. Sample Survey
 The Need for Sampling

 Characteristics of a Good Sample

Design
 Steps in Sample Design

 Types of Sampling

 Sampling Error and Sampling Bias

 Sample Size Determination 2

DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
 Population (finite or infinite) refers to any
collection of specified group of human beings
or of non-human entities such as objects,
educational institutions, countries, states, clubs,
industries etc.
 A complete enumeration of all items in the
population is known as a census inquiry.

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 Sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a
given population.
 Sampling Frame: - A list of every individual in the population -
Frame is either constructed by the researcher or some existing list
of population is used
 Sampling frame should be a good representative of the population
and as far as possible free from (i) Incompleteness (ii)
Inaccurateness (iii)Inadequateness (iv) Out-of-date

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A sample (n) is a subset of a population (N)
to which the researcher has selected with a
due care and intends to generalize the
results of the study to the entire population.
Survey conducted on the basis of sample is
sample survey

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EXAMPLE:
Let’ssay you want to find the average
GPA of a student at your university.
Your university has 20, 000 students and
you select 100 students and ask them their
GPAs.
What is your population (N) ?
 What is your sampling frame?
 What is your sample (n)?

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WHY WE NEED SAMPLING?
Sampling makes possible the study of a large,
heterogeneous (different characteristics)
population.
The population to be studied maybe too large
or unlimited that it is almost impossible to
reach all of them.
Sampling makes possible this kind of study
because in sampling only a small portion of the
population maybe involved in the study, enabling
the researcher to reach all through this small
portion of the population. 7
Sampling is for economy.
Research without sampling may be too costly. Sampling
reduces the study population to a reasonable size that
expenses are greatly reduced.
Sampling is for speed .
Research without sampling might be too time consuming.
Sampling is for accuracy.
If it takes too long a time to cover the whole study
population, there maybe inaccuracy. The research must be
finished within a reasonable period of time so that the data
are still true, valid and reasonable.

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DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

If sampling is biased, or not representative,

or too small, the conclusion may not be valid
and reliable.
If the population is very large and there are
many sections and subsections, the sampling
procedure becomes very complicated.
If the researcher does not possess the
necessary skill and technical knowhow in
sampling procedure.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Truly representative
 Having small sampling error

 Economically viable

 Systematic bias is controlled (in a better way)

 Results can be applied to the population in general with a

reasonable level of confidence ⇒reliability
 Optimum size (adequately large)

 Similar to population-should have all the characteristics that are

present in the population

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STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
 Defining the population – target population
 Listing the population – sampling frame

 Selecting a representative sample – based on appropriate

method (probability or non- probability)
 Obtaining an adequate sample size –
 For statistical measurement > 30 sample size (Stutely 2003) or
 Use this formula n = ___N_______
1 + N(e2) (Pagoso , et al.
p.46)

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HOW TO APPLY THE FORMULA
 Determine the size of the population.
 Decide on the margin of error. (As much as possible the margin of
error should not be higher than 5%. Probably 3% is an ideal one)
 Use the formula n = ___N_______
1 + N(e2) (pagoso , et al. p.46)

n = sample size
N = the size of the population
e = the margin of error
 Compute the sample proportion by dividing the sample obtained by
the population.

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EXAMPLE,
Population is 5,346
Margin of error is 3%
Using the formula n = ___N______
1 + N(e2)

n = 1+ 5346(.03) 2
n = 920
Sample proportion (%) = 920 / 5346

= 17% 13
There are no fixed rules in determining the size
of a sample needed. There are guidelines that
should be observed in determining the size of a
sample.
 When the population is more or less homogeneous and only
the typical, normal, or average is desired to be known, a
smaller sample is enough. However, if differences are desired
to be known, a larger sample is needed.
 When the population is more or less heterogeneous and only

the typical, normal or average is desired to be known a larger

sample is needed. However, if only their differences are
desired to be known, a smaller sample is sufficient.

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 5.5. TYPES OF SAMPLING
 There are different kinds of sampling designs depending
on:
 the types of study being conducted and
 the kinds of conclusions the researcher would like to be able to
draw from the study results.
 Generallyspeaking, there are two broad categories of
sampling. These include the following:
- Probability sampling and
- Non-probability sampling

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TYPES OF SAMPLING

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1. PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Probability sampling (also called random
sampling) is based on the concept of
random selection.
In this type of sampling the units of the

population are chosen by means of certain

procedures which ensure, that every
members of the population has one fixed
probability of being included in the sample.
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 Probability sampling is the most preferred types of sampling
because of the following peculiar characteristics:
The units of the population are not selected based on the
discretion of the researcher.
Each unit in the population has some known probability
of entraining in the sample.
Weights appropriate to the probabilities are used in the
analysis of the sample
The process of sampling is automatic in one or more
steps of selection of units in the sample.

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A) SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

 this type of sampling is one in which every one in the

population of the inquiry has an equal chance of being selected
to be included in the sample.
 also called the lottery or raffle type of sampling.
 this may be used if the population has no differentiated levels,
sections, or classes.
 main advantage of this technique of sampling is that, it is easy
to understand and it is easy to apply too.
 disadvantage is that, it is hard to use with too large a population
because of the difficulty encountered in writing the names of
the persons involved.
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B) SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
 In systematic sampling, a researcher generally
starts with a list in which all the N units of the
population are listed in alphabetic or some other
order.
 To select a sample of size n, he has to select a
unit at random from the first K units of the list
and the every Kth subsequent unit is selected.
 The number K is so chosen that NK is less than
or equal to N (or K = N/n )
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SYSTEMATIC…
 While this approach is simple and less costly than
simple random sampling technique, the researcher
may run the risk of omitting key components from his
sample, and at times, his findings might become
unreliable.

 systematicrandom sampling could be effective if all

elements of the universe are ordered in a manner
representative of the total population i.e. the
population list in random order.
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 C) STRATIFIED SAMPLING
 If a population from which a sample is to be drawn
constitutes a heterogeneous group, stratified sampling
is generally applied in order to obtain a representative
sample.
 A stratified sample is obtained by separating the
population elements into non-overlapping groups,
called strata.
 The usual stratification factors include sex, age, socio-
economic status, educational background, academic
rank, residence (urban or rural) occupation, religion,
caste, general intelligence and so on. Eg. …
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 STRATIFIED…
 Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total
population, we are able to get more precise estimates for
each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of
the component parts; we get a better estimate of the
whole.
 Besides, the application of this procedure saves a
considerable amount of time and money.
 In short, the use of stratified sampling is more
economical, reliable and unbiased than that of systematic
random sampling technique.
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 STRATIFIED…
 The efficiency of the stratified random sample depends
upon the allocation of samples size to strata.
 The simplest and most common system of allocation of
sample units among strata is in proportion to the sample
size of the strata.
 Illustration….

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D) CLUSTER SAMPLING
 A clustersample is a type of random sample in
which sampling units is a collection, or cluster,
of elements.
 It involves division of elements of a population
into groups and then randomly select some of
these smaller groups (usually called clusters)
with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or
parts of) units in these clusters.

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CLUSTER…
 This type of sampling is applied when:
 the size of the study population extremely large
or infinite,
a list of population members does not exist,
the geographical distribution of the members is
scattered or
when the selection of individual members is not
convenient for a number of reasons.
To illustrate….
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CLUSTER…

Unlike stratified sampling, in which

every stratum is sampled, cluster
sampling samples among groups or
clusters.
Besides, in cluster sampling the exact
sample size may not be known before
the sample is selected.
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 E) MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING.
 This is a further development of the cluster sampling.
 This technique is used for large scale surveys or inquiries
extending to a considerably large geographical area like
an entire country or nation.
 In this case, the researcher may have to use two, three, or
four stage sampling.
 The first stage may be to select large primary sampling
units such as regional states, then administrative zones,
then woredas, and finally certain families within
woredas.
 Illustration …

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In general,
 Almost all random sampling techniques assume that
you have a complete and accurate list of all members of
the population from which you wish to select you
sample. However, in reality, this is rarely the case.
 For example, alumni files are notoriously incomplete.
Even rosters of currently enrolled students always
include a few students with missing, incomplete, or
outdated addresses. Surveys administered to a class in
person will miss absent students.

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 2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 In non-probability sampling, the units are selected at the

discretion of researcher.
 Such samples drive their control from the judgment of the
researcher.
 Some of the disadvantages of non probability sampling
include the following:
No confidence can be placed in the data obtained from
such samples as they do not represent the larger
population. Therefore, the results obtained cannot be
generalized for the entire population.
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 The selective sample is based on convenience affects the
variance within groups as well as between groups and so
sampling error of such samples cannot be determined.
 Non-probability sampling depend exclusively on
uncontrolled factors and researchers insight, and there is
no statistical method determine the margin of sampling
errors.
 Sometimes such samples are based on an obsolete frame
which does not adequately cover the population.

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Theobvious advantage of non-probability
sampling is that :
itis much less complicated,
much less expensive,
may be done on a spur-of-the-moment basis
convenient in the situations when the sample to be
selected is very small and
the researcher wants to get some idea of the
population characteristics or of the problem using
well-informed members in a short time.
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 The non-probability sample may prove
perfectly adequate if the researcher has no
desire to generalize his findings beyond the
sample, or if the study is merely a trail run for
a larger study.
 If the researcher plans to repeat the study at a
later date, he may initially be more interested
in perfecting the questionnaire that in the
sample and may find a non-probability
sampling adequate.

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There are five basic types of non-
probability sample, which include:
 Convenience sampling,
Quota sampling,
Dimensional sampling,

Purposive sampling, and

Snowball sampling.

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A) CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

 In convenience or accidental sampling, the

investigator merely chooses the closest live persons
as respondents.
 A common example is “captive audience” sampling,
as in the use of introductory social-science students
as questionnaire respondents.
 In general, the availability and willingness to
respond are the major factors in selecting the
respondents.
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 B) QUOTA SAMPLING
 Quota sampling is the non-probability sampling which is
equivalent to stratified sampling with added requirement
that each stratum is generally represented in the sample
in the same proportion as in the entire population.

 When stratified random sampling is impractical to use

because of difficulty of getting complete list of the units
in the strata of a population, quota sampling becomes
appropriate.
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 Inquota sampling one first decides which strata may
be relevant for the study to be conducted e.g.
 Republicans and Democrats for a study of voting
behavior in USA,
 Blacks, Whites, and Chicanos for a study of race
relation.
 Then the investigator sets a quota for each stratum
that is proportionate to its representation in the entire
population

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C) DIMENSIONAL SAMPLING

 Dimensionalsampling is basically a
multidimensional form of quota sampling.

 The idea is to specify all dimensions (variables) of

interest in the population and then to make sure that
every combination of these dimensions is
represented by at least one case.

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 Forefficient use of such a method; you must note the
following points:
 Explicitly delineate the population to which you eventually
wish to generalize,
 Spell out what appear to be the most important dimensions
along which the members of this population vary and
develop a typology that includes the various combinations.
 Use this typology as a sampling frame for selecting a small
number of cases from the population, typically drawing
one case from each cell of the typology (Amold, 1970 as
cited in Bailey, 1982.98)

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 This method is designed for studies in which only a
small sample is desired so that each case drawn can
be studied in more detail than is possible in a large
scale study.

 Itis designed to overcome the danger of missing

important variables in selection of small application
of this method as follows;

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D) PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
 Inpurposive or judgmental sampling, the researcher
uses his own judgment about which respondents to
choose, and picks only those who best meet the
purposes on the study,
 The obvious advantage of purposive or deliberate
sampling is that the research can use his research skill
and prior knowledge to choose respondents.

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 E) SNOWBALL SAMPLING
 the term, “snowball” stems from the analogy of a
snowball, beings small but becomes bigger and bigger
as it rolls downhill.
 Adapted from such a concept, a snowball sampling has
gained popularity among scholars conducting
observational research and community studies.
 Conducted in stages.
 In the first stage a few persons having requisite
characteristics are identified and interviewed.
 The second stage involves interviewing these persons, who
in turn lead to still move persons who can be interviewed in
the third stage, and so on. 44
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5.6. Sampling Error and Sampling Bias

 Sampling studies are subject to sampling and non

sampling errors which are of a random and/or of a
constant nature.
 The errors created due to sampling and of which the
average magnitude can be determined are called
sampling errors, while others are called sampling
bias.
 These concepts are discussed in detail below.

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A) SAMPLING ERRORS
 These are errors that are created because of chance only.
Although a sample is properly selected, there will be some
difference between the estimates obtained from the sample
(sample statistics) and the actual value in the population
(parameters).
 The mean of the sample might be different from the
population mean by chance alone.
 The standard deviation of the sample will probably be
different from the population standard deviation.
 We can therefore expect some difference between the sample
statistics (such as the mean and the standard deviation) and
the corresponding population values, know as parameters.
This difference is known as the sampling error. 47
 Such a difference can be minimized by developing a
sampling distribution for the sample means.
 In relation to this point, one should note that the mean
of the sampling distribution and the mean of the
population are equal.
 Besides, the variations due to random fluctuation (or
sampling error) decrease as the sample size increases.
However, it is impossible to avoid the sampling error
completely.

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 B) SAMPLING BIAS (SYSTEMATIC ERROR)

 Sampling bias is a non-sampling error which can be

created from errors in the sampling procedures, and it
cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample
size.
 Such error occurs because of human mistakes and not
chance.
 The possible factors that contribute to the creation of such
bias include:
 inappropriate sampling frame,
 accessibility bias,
 defective measuring device, and
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 non-response bias (or defects in data collection).
  INAPPROPRIATE SAMPLING

 If the sampling unit is misrepresentation of the

universe, it will result in sampling bias.
 This could happen when a researcher gathers data
from a sample that was drawn from some favored
locations.
 It occurs when there is a failure of all units in the
Universe to have some probability of being selected
for the sample (under coverage).

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  ACCESSIBILITY BIAS
 In a considerable number of research studies,
researchers tend to select respondents who are the
most accessible to them (easily reached).
 But it should noted that when all members of the
population are not equally accessible, the researcher
must provide some mechanisms of controlling so as
to ensure the absence of over- and under-
representation of some respondents.

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  DEFECTIVE MEASURING DEVICE
 In some instances, the questions may not be
phrased so they are fully understandable by
respondents. Consequently, the answers
obtained are not accurate.
 Further more, on any measuring device (or
instrument), most individuals are likely to be
mismeasured to some degree due to errors in
procedures of observation, interviewing,
coding, etc.
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  NONE-RESPONSE BIAS
 This is an incomplete coverage of sample or inability to get
complete responses from all the individuals initially included in
the sample. This arises due to:
 failure in locating some of the individuals of the population selected for
the sample or
 their refusal to respond.
 the respondents not possessing correct information or
 their giving deliberately biased responses.
 The respondents may intentionally give false information in response to
some sensitive questions.
 For instance, people may not tell the truth about drinking habits,

incomes, or opinions about minorities.

 
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 Sometimes the respondents may give wrong answers
because of ignorance.
 For example, a person may not remember the exact amount
he spent on clothes during the last years. If asked in a survey,
he may give an inaccurate answer.
 All of these examples result in non sampling errors.
 Note that non sampling errors can occur both in a
sample survey and in a census, whereas the sampling
errors occur only when a sample survey is conducted.
 Non-sampling errors can be minimized by preparing
the survey questionnaire and handling the data
cautiously
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 Samples Size Determination
  Thesize of the sample is determined by a number of
factors such as:
 the availability of resources (e.g., cost, time, and personnel),
 the nature of the population (degree of heterogeneity or
homogeneity),
 the degree of accuracy we seek or magnitude of difference
we wish to test
 the confidence levels we wish to use,
 the appropriate size of the population from which the sample
is drawn, and
 the response rate.
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In any case, the size of the actual sample
must be larger enough:
to allow for reliable analysis of cross-
tabulation;
to provide for desired levels of accuracy in
estimates of proportions, and
to test for significance of difference between
proportions.
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57
 Unit Six
Data Collection

BY: Shawel A. (MBA)

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 CHAPTER CONTENT
• Primary and Secondary Data
• Collection of Primary Data.
• Collection of data through questionnaires
• Collection of data through interview
• Collection of data through observation
• Collection of data through focus group discussion (FGD)
• Collection of Secondary Data

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 6.1. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
• The task of data collection begins after a research
problem has been defined and research design/ plan
chalked out.
• While deciding about the method of data collection
to be used for the study, the researcher should keep
in mind two types of data viz., primary and
secondary.
• The primary data are those which are collected
afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.
• The secondary data, on the other hand, are those
which have already been collected by someone else
and which have already been passed through the
statistical process. 60
 6.2 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA.
There is a wide variety of primary data gathering
tools available to researchers in the social sciences;
deciding which to use depend on:
 the particular methodology or type of research that has
been selected;
 What is feasible in a given research situation;
 What is likely to yield the most appropriate
information?
Some of the more important data collecting methods for
survey or descriptive research studies are:
 questionnaire,
 interview,
 observation,
 focus group discussions and
 case study methods. 61
 6.2.1. Collection of Data Through Questionnaires
• Quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.
• sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return
the questionnaire.
• consists of a number of questions printed or typed
in a definite order on a form or set of forms.
• The respondents have to answer the questions on
their own.
• The method of collecting data by mailing the
questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business
surveys.
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 The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as
follows:

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large

and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers
are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well
thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can
also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the
results can be made more dependable and reliable.

63
 The main demerits of this system can also be listed:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due
to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending
the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of
omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

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• Before using this method, it is always advisable to
conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for testing the
questionnaires.
• In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt
very much.
• Pilot survey is in fact the replica and rehearsal of the
main survey.
• Such a survey, being conducted by experts, brings to
the light the weaknesses (if any) of the
questionnaires and also of the survey techniques.
• From the experience gained in this way, improvement
can be effected.

65
 Main aspects of a questionnaire:
• Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart
of a survey operation. Hence, it should be very
carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then
the survey is bound to fail.
• This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a
questionnaire viz., the:
• general form,
• question sequence and
• question formulation and wording.
• Researcher should note these three main aspects of
a questionnaire:
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 1. General form:
• It can either be Structured or Unstructured questionnaire.
a) Structured questionnaires:
• are those questionnaires in which there are definite,
concrete and pre-determined questions.
• The questions are presented with exactly the same
wording and in the same order to all respondents.
• Resort is taken to this sort of standardization to ensure
that all respondents reply to the same set of questions.
• The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of
the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free
response).
• Structured questionnaires may also have fixed
alternative questions in which responses of the
informants are limited to the stated alternatives. 67
 Structured …
• Simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyze.
• The provision of alternative replies, at times, helps to
understand the meaning of the question clearly.
• But such questionnaires have limitations too. For instance,
– wide range of data cannot be obtained with structured
questionnaires.
– They are usually considered inappropriate to probe for
attitudes and reasons for certain actions or feelings.
– They are equally not suitable when a problem is being
first explored and working hypotheses sought.
• In such situations, unstructured questionnaires may be
used effectively.
68
 b) Unstructured Questionnaires:
• In an unstructured questionnaire, the
interviewer is provided with a general guide
on the type of information to be obtained,
• But the exact question formulation is largely
his own responsibility and the replies are to
be taken down in the respondent’s own words
to the extent possible; in some situations tape
recorders may be used to achieve this goal.

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 2. Question sequence:
• The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving,
• The first few questions are particularly important
• The opening questions should be such as to arouse human
interest. Therefore, avoid,
– questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of
the respondent;
– questions of a personal character;
– questions related to personal wealth, etc.
• Following the opening questions, we should have questions
that are really vital to the research problem and a connecting
thread should run through successive questions.
• Relatively difficult questions must be put towards the end
• Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the general
to the more specific.
70
 3. Question formulation and wording:
• question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding
can do irreparable harm to a survey.
• Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased
picture of the true state of affairs.
• Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a
logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan.
• In general, all questions should meet the following standards
—
a) should be easily understood;
b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;
c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the
respondent’s way of thinking.
• (For instance, instead of asking. “How many razor blades do you use
annually?” The more realistic question would be to ask, “How many razor
blades did you use last week?”) 71
• Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about
two principal forms, viz.,
– close-end /multiple choice questions and
– open-end question.
a) Close-end question.
• In the close-end questions, the respondent selects
one of the alternative possible answers put to him,
whereas, in the open-end questions he has to supply
the answer in his own words.
• The question with only two possible answers (usually
‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken as a special case of the
multiple choice question, or can be named as a
‘closed question.’

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 Close-end questions have the following advantages and
disadvantages:
• advantages :
– Easy handling, simple to answer, quick and relatively
inexpensive to analyze.
– They are most amenable to statistical analysis.
– helps to make clear the meaning of the question.
• drawback:
– “Putting answers in people’s mouths”.
– They are not appropriate when the issue under
consideration happens to be a complex one and also
when the interest of the researcher is in the
exploration of a process.
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 Answer categories in the questionnaire
• In view of Bailey (1982:128), the basic rule for writing
answer categories is to provide all possible answers in
as clear and uncluttered a fashion as possible.
• Nominal scales.
• Inventory method.
• Grid format
• Ordinal/ Likert scales.
• Semantic differential responses.
• Ranked responses.
• Interval scales. (Reading)

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 b) Open-end question.
• Open-ended questions which are designed to permit a free response
from the respondent rather than one limited to certain stated
alternatives are considered appropriate.
• Advantages and disadvantages:
Permit a free response from the respondent rather than limited to
certain stated alternatives.
• Such questions give the respondent considerable latitude in phrasing
a reply.
• Getting the replies in respondent’s own words.
But;
• from an analytical point of view, open-ended questions are more
difficult to handle, raising problems of interpretation, comparability
and interviewer bias.
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• In practice, one rarely comes across a case when
one questionnaire relies on one form of
questions alone.
• The various forms complement each other. As
such questions of different forms are included in
one single questionnaire.
– For instance, multiple-choice questions constitute the
basis of a structured questionnaire, particularly in a
mail survey.
– But even there, various open-ended questions are
generally inserted to provide a more complete
picture of the respondent’s feelings and attitudes.
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• Researcher must pay proper attention to the wordings
of questions since reliable and meaningful returns
depend on it to a large extent.
• Since words are likely to affect responses, they should
be properly chosen.
– Simple words, which are familiar to all respondents, should
be employed. Words with ambiguous meanings must be
avoided.
– Similarly, danger words, catch-words or words with
emotional connotations should be avoided.
– Caution must also be exercised in the use of phrases which
reflect upon the prestige of the respondent. Question
wording, in no case, should bias the answer.
– In fact, question wording and formulation is an art and can
only be learnt by practice. 77
 Essentials of a good questionnaire:
To be successful, Questionnaire should be :
– comparatively short and simple
– proceed in logical sequence moving- from easy to more
difficult questions.
– Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be avoided
– dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice
(alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
– There should be some control questions in the questionnaire
which indicate the reliability of the respondent. Eg;…
– Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be
avoided.

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 Essentials…
• Adequate space for answers should be provided.
• There should always be provision for indications of
uncertainty, e.g., “do not know,” “no preference” and so on.
• Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire
should invariably be given in the questionnaire itself.
• The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the
cooperation.
• The quality of the paper, along with its color, must be good
so that it may attract the attention of recipients.
• A great deal of questionnaires contains a mixture of both.
Eg;…

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 Cover Letter or Introductory Statement of a
Questionnaire.
• Questionnaire construction consists of writing an
introductory statement or cover letter.
• It justifies the study to the respondent and often
determines whether she/he cooperates or not.
• It should be concise, courteous and businesslike.
• The cover letter is usually written on the
letterhead of the organization conducting or
sponsoring the survey in order to help legitimize
the survey to be conducted to the respondent.

80
 In addition, the introductory statement should:
1. state the purpose of the study and its significance;
2. explain who the data collector is, the basis of its authority, and
why it is conducting the study;
3. tell how and why the respondents were selected;
4. explain why their answers are important;
5. tell how to complete the format and list the person to call if help is
needed to complete the form;
6. provide assurance of confidentiality and anonymity when
appropriate;
7. explain how the data will be used;
8. explain who will have access to the information;
9. Provide mail-back instructions (if necessary); and
10. Present the response efforts as a favor and thank the
respondents for their cooperation.
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See example,…
 6.2.2. COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
INTERVIEW
•  The interview method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.

• This method can be used through personal

interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.

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 (a) Personal interviews:
It requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other
person or persons.
• This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal
investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation.
• In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer
has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned.
• He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from
whom data have to be collected.
• This method is particularly suitable for intensive
investigations.
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• But in certain cases it may not be possible or
worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned
or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the
direct personal investigation technique may not be
used.
• In such cases an indirect oral examination can be
conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-
examine other persons who are supposed to have
knowledge about the problem under investigation and
the information obtained is recorded.
– Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government
to carry on investigations make use of this method.

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• The method of collecting information through
personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews
as structured interviews.
• Such interviews involve the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly
standardized techniques of recording.
• Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking
questions in a form and order prescribed.

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• Unstructured interviews are characterized by:
– a flexibility of approach to questioning.
– do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardized techniques of recording information.
– the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask.
Relatively greater freedom while recording the
responses to include some aspects and exclude others.
– But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability
of one interview with another and the analysis of
unstructured responses becomes much more difficult
and time-consuming.

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 – Unstructured interviews also demand deep
knowledge and greater skill on the part of the
interviewer.
– Unstructured interview, however, happens to be
the central technique of collecting information in
case of exploratory or formulative research
studies.
• But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the
technique of structured interview because of its being more
economical, providing a safe basis for generalization and
requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.
 

87
 Major advantages of personal interviews
• More information and that too in greater depth
can be obtained.
• Can overcome the resistance,
• yield an almost perfect sample of the general
population.
• greater flexibility .
• Observation method can as well be applied.
• Samples can be controlled more effectively - non-
response generally remains very low.

88
 Major advantages of personal interviews …
• The interviewer can usually control which person (s)
will answer the questions.
• Group discussions may also be held.
• The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and
thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions.
• The language problem can be avoided.
• Supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment can collected.

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 Weaknesses of the interview method.
– It is a very expensive method, especially…
– Possibility of the bias and problem of
supervision and control of interviewer
– Certain types of respondents may not be
easily approachable and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate.
– More time-consuming
– The presence of the interviewer on the
spot may over-stimulate the respondent. 90
 Weaknesses of the interview method. …
– Under the interview method the organization
required for selecting, training and supervising the
field-staff is more complex with formidable
problems.
– Interviewing at times may also introduce
systematic errors.
– Effective interview presupposes proper rapport
with respondents that would facilitate free and
frank responses. This is often a very difficult
requirement. 
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 b) Telephone interviews:
• consists in contacting respondents on telephone
itself.
• It is not a very widely used method,
• The chief merits of such a system are:
– It is more flexible in comparison to mailing
method.
– It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of
obtaining information.
– It is cheaper than personal interviewing method.
– Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
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 Telephone interviews: …
– There is a higher rate of response than what we have in
mailing method; the non-response is generally very low.
– Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment
to respondents.
– At times, access can be gained to respondents who
otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the
other.
– No field staff is required.
– Representative and wider distribution of sample is
possible.
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 Some of demerits telephone interview
• Little time is given to respondents for considered answers;
• Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities.
• Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted.
• It is not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive answers are required to various questions.
• Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
• Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are
difficult to handle.

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 6.2.3. COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH OBSERVATION
•  The most commonly used method especially in studies
relating to behavioral sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated
research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and
is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
• Under the observation method, the information is sought by
way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking
from the respondent.
– For instance, in a study relating to consumer behavior, the
investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by
the respondent, may himself look at the watch.
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 The main advantage
• Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately.
• The information relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past
behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
• Independent of respondents’ willingness to respond.
• Particularly suitable in studies which deal with
subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of
giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason
or the other.

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 Limitations of observation method

• it is an expensive method.
• the information provided by this method is
very limited.
• sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere
with the observational task.
• At times, the fact that some people are rarely
accessible to direct observation

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 6.2.4. COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH FOCUS GROUP
DISCUSSION (FGD)
•  With origins in sociology, widely applicable in
business research.
• A FGD is a discussion made by a panel of 8 to 12
respondents led by a trained moderator. …
• The output of the session is a list of ideas and
behavioral observations with recommendations of
the moderator.
• Particularly, in exploratory research, the qualitative data
that focus groups produce may be used for enriching all
levels of research questions and hypotheses and
comparing the effectiveness of design options. 98
 Qualities of a moderator:
• The moderator should be equipped with sufficient skill so
that… he/she can maintain a high degree of interaction
among group members.
• It is only with interaction the focus group
discussion can:
– Provide the desired spontaneity of response by
participants,
– Produce the degree of emotional involvement
essential to produce "depth" level responses, and
– Produce the kind and degree of rapport which
facilitates a "give and take " exchange of attitudinal
and behavioral information. 99
 6.3. COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Secondary data means data that are already
available i.e., they refer to the data which
have already been collected and analyzed by
someone else.
• When the researcher utilizes secondary data,
then he has to look into various sources from
where he can obtain them.
• Secondary data may either be published data
or unpublished data.

100
• Usually published data are available in:
a) various publications of the central, state are local
governments;
b) various publications of foreign governments or of
international bodies and their subsidiary organizations;
c) technical and trade journals;
d) books, magazines and newspapers;
e) reports and publications of various associations connected
with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities,
economists, etc. in different fields; and
g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and
other sources of published information.
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• The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be
found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies and also may be available with
scholars and research workers, trade associations,
labor bureaus and other public/ private, individuals
and organizations.
• Researcher must be very careful in using secondary
data. - secondary data may be unsuitable or may be
inadequate in the context of the problem
• In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley: “ it is never safe to
take published statistics at their face value without
knowing their meaning and limitations”

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Before using secondary data, the researcher must see
that they possess following characteristics:

– The already available data should be used by the

researcher only when he finds them reliable,
suitable and adequate.
– But he should not blindly discard the use of such
data if they are readily available from authentic
sources and are also suitable and adequate for
in that case it will not be economical to spend
time and energy in field surveys for collecting
information.
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The End !
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