BDM 310 – RESEARCH

METHODS
SAMPLING

Sumankuuro, Joshua (PhD)

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 Sampling in research

In order to answer research questions, it is doubtful that

researcher should be able to collect data from all cases.
Thus, there is a need to select a sample. The entire set of
cases from which research sample is drawn is called the
population.
Since, researchers neither have time nor the resources to
analyse the entire population, they apply sampling technique
to reduce the number of cases.

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 Definition of terms in sampling

Study population: -

Total of items about which information is desired. It can be classified into two categories- finite and infinite.

The population is said to be finite if it consists of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate in its totality.
Examples of finite population are student population in SDD-UBIDS, the number of workers in the University, etc.

An infinite population is that population in which it is theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. In an infinite
population the number of items is infinite. Example of infinite population is the number of stars in sky. From practical
consideration, we use the term infinite population for a population that cannot be enumerated in a reasonable period of time.

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Definitions cont’d

• Sample: It is part of the population that represents the characteristics of the population.
• Sampling: It is the process of selecting the sample for estimating the population characteristics. In other
words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
• Sampling unit: It refers to any single person, animal, plant, product or ‘thing’ being researched.
• The term sampling unit refers to a singular value within a sample database. For example, if you were
conducting research using a sample of SDD-UBIDS students, a single university student would be a sampling
unit.
• Another example of a sampling unit could be if you were conducting online research with 50 households,
one household would be a singular sampling unit. Sampling units are taken from an entire population, such
as a country, customer database or region, and put into a smaller group to form a research sample.

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 Sampling frame: A list containing all sampling units is
known as sampling frame. Sampling frame consists of a
list of items from which the sample is to be drawn.

Target Population: A target population is the entire

Definitions group about which information is desired and
conclusion is made. Sampled Population: The
cont’d population, which we actually sample, is the sampled
population. It is also called survey population.
Sample Design: Sample design refers to the plans and
methods to be followed in selecting the sample from the
target population and the estimation technique/formula
for computing.

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Definitions cont’d

Sample
population
Sample
frame
Target
population

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Definitions cont’d

• Sampling Method: The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be
selected. The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the research,
availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be
investigated.
• All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-
probability sampling.
• Sample Size: The sample size calculation depends primarily on the type of sampling designs used.
However, for all sampling designs, the estimates for the expected sample characteristics (e.g.
mean, proportion or total) desired level of certainty, and the level of precision must be clearly
specified in advanced. The statement of the precision desired might be made by giving the
amount of error that we are willing to tolerate in the resulting estimates. Common levels of
precisions are 5% and 10%.

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 Definitions cont’d

Sampling Plan: the specifications and

decisions regarding the implementation
Select the Sample: The final step in the
of the research process. As the
sampling process is the actual selection
interviewers and their co-workers will
of the sample elements. This requires a
be on field duty of most of the time, a
substantial amount of office and
proper specification of the sampling
fieldwork, particularly if personal
plans would make their work easy and
interviews are involved.
they would not have operational
problems.

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 types/ There are two basic approaches to sampling: Probability
procedures/ Sampling and Non-probability Sampling.
Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is also known as
approaches/ random sampling or chance sampling. In this, sample is taken
in such a manner that each and every unit of the population
methods/ has an equal and positive chance of being selected. In this
way, it is ensured that the sample would truly represent the
techniques of overall population. Probability sampling can be achieved by
random selection of the sample among all the units of the
sampling population.
Major random sampling procedures are:
• Simple Random Sample
• Systematic Random Sample
• Stratified Random Sample, and
• Cluster/ Multistage Sample.

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Simple
random Simple Random Sample: For this, each member of the population
is numbered. Then, a given size of the sample is drawn with the
help of a random number chart. The other way is to do a lottery.
Write all the numbers on small, uniform pieces of paper, fold the
papers, put them in a container and take out the required lot in a
random manner from the container. It is relatively simple to
implement but the final sample may miss out small sub groups.
• The sample will be free from Bias (i.e. it’s random!).
• Difficult to obtain. Due to its very randomness, “freak” results
can sometimes be obtained that are not representative of the
population. In addition, these freak results may be difficult to
spot. Increasing the sample size is the best way to eradicate this
problem.

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 Simple random sampling cont’d
The simple random sample means that every case of the population has an
equal probability of inclusion in sample. Disadvantages associated with simple
random sampling include:
• A complete frame ( a list of all units in the whole population) is needed;
• In some studies, such as surveys by personal interviews, the costs of obtaining
the sample can be high if the units are geographically widely scattered;
• The standard errors of estimators can be high.

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 Systematic Random Sampling: It also requires
numbering the entire population. Then every nth
number (say every 5th or 10th number, as the case
may be) is selected to constitute the sample. It is
Systematic easier and more likely to represent different
random subgroups.
sampling • The advantage of this sampling technique is its
simplicity.
• Can eliminate other sources of bias.
• Can introduce bias where the pattern used for the
samples coincides with a pattern in the
population.

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 Definitions contd
• Stratified Random Sample: At first, the population is first divided into groups
or strata each of which is homogeneous with respect to the given
characteristic feature. From each strata, then, samples are drawn at random.
This is called stratified random sampling. For example, with respect to the
level of socio-economic status, the population may first be grouped in such
strata as high, middle, low and very low socio-economic levels as per pre-
determined criteria, and random sample drawn from each group.
• The sample size for each sub-group can be fixed to get representative sample.
This way, it is possible that different categories in the population are fairly
represented in the sample, which could have been left out otherwise in simple
random sample.

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Stratified sampling cont’d
Alternatively, stratified sampling is where the population is divided into
strata (or subgroups) and a random sample is taken from each subgroup.
• A subgroup is a natural set of items. Subgroups might be based on
company size, gender or occupation (to name but a few).
• Stratified sampling is often used where there is a great deal of variation
within a population.
• Its purpose is to ensure that every stratum is adequately represented.

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Definitions
Quota sampling: is defined as a non-probability sampling method in
which researchers create a sample involving individuals that represent
a population. Researchers choose these individuals according to
specific traits or qualities.

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Stratified cont’d
• Yields more accurate results than simple random sampling.
• Can show different tendencies within each category (e.g. men and
women).

• As with stratified samples, the population is broken down into different

categories. However, the size of the sample of each category does not
reflect the population as a whole.
• The Quota sampling technique can be used where an unrepresentative
sample is desirable (e.g. you might want to interview more children than
adults for a survey on computer games), or where it would be too difficult
to undertake a stratified sample.

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 Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is where the whole population is divided into clusters or
groups. Subsequently, a random sample is taken from these clusters, all of
which are used in the final sample.
Cluster sampling is advantageous for those researchers whose subjects are
fragmented over large geographical areas as it saves time and money.
The stages to cluster sampling can be summarized as follows:
• Choose cluster grouping for sampling frame, such as type of company or
geographical region.
• Number each of the clusters .
• Select sample using random sampling.
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 Multi-staged sampling
• Multi-stage sampling is a process of moving from a broad to a narrow sample,
using a step by step process.
• If, for example, UBIDS were to conduct a survey on students programme
decision-making across universities in Ghana, it could simply take a random
sample of students within the entire tertiary student population in the
country.
• Obviously, this is both expensive and time consuming. A cheaper alternative
would be to use multi-stage sampling. In essence, this would involve dividing
Ghana into a number of geographical regions.
• UBIDS could also decide to use the current 16 regions. Subsequently, some of
these regions are chosen at random, and then subdivisions are made, perhaps
based on local governance structures.
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Multi-stage sampling…
• Next, some of these are again chosen at random and then divided
into smaller areas, such as towns or cities. The main purpose of multi-
stage sampling is to select samples which are concentrated in a few
geographical regions. Once again, this saves time and money.

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Non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is any sampling method where some
elements of the population have no chance of selection (these
are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'under covered'),
or where the probability of selection can't be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based on
assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms
the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is non-random, non-probability sampling does not
allow the estimation of sampling errors.

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 Non-probability sampling …..?
Non-probability sampling is a non-random and subjective method of
sampling where the selection of the population elements comprising the
sample depends on the personal judgment or the discretion of the
sampler. Non-probability sampling includes:
• Convenience/ Opportunity/ Availability/ Haphazard/ Grab/Accidental
Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Purposive/Judgment/ Subjective Sampling
• Snowball Sampling.

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 Convenience/ Accidental Sampling …
Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, convenience or opportunity
sampling) is a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand.
That is, a sample population selected because it is readily available and
convenient. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make
generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not
be representative enough.
For example, if the interviewer was to conduct such a survey at a shopping centre
early in the morning on a given day, the people that s/he could interview would be
limited to those given there at that given time, which would not represent the
views of other members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be
conducted at different times of day and several times per week.
This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

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Convenience sampling ……
• Convenience sampling is selecting participants because they are often
readily and easily available. Typically, convenience sampling tends to
be a favored sampling technique among students as it is inexpensive
and an easy option compared to other sampling techniques (Ackoff,
1953). Convenience sampling often helps to overcome many of the
limitations associated with research
• The primary problem with availability sampling is that you can never
be certain what population the participants in the study represent.
The population is unknown, the method for selecting cases is
haphazard, and the cases studied probably don't represent any
population you could come up with.

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Quota sampling ….
• In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually
exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is
used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a
specified proportion.
• Quota sampling is a non random sampling technique in which
participants are chosen on the basis of predetermined characteristics
so that the total sample will have the same distribution of
characteristics as the wider population (Davis, 2005).

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 Quota sampling ……
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60. In quota sampling the selection of the sample is
non-random.
• For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most
helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not
everyone gets a chance of selection.
• This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has
been a matter of controversy for many years.

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Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
• In this sampling, the sample is selected with definite purpose in view
and the choice of the sampling units depends entirely on the
discretion and judgment of the investigator.
• This sampling suffers from drawbacks of favouritism and nepotism
depending upon the beliefs and prejudices of the investigator and
thus does not give a representative sample of the population

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Purposive sampling …..
• This sampling method is seldom used and cannot be recommended
for general use since it is often biased due to element of subjectivity
on the part of the investigator. However, if the investigator is
experienced and skilled and this sampling is carefully applied, then
judgment samples may yield valuable results. Some purposive
sampling strategies that can be used in qualitative studies are given
below. Each strategy serves a particular data gathering and analysis
purpose.
• Extreme Case Sampling: It focuses on cases that are rich in
information because they are unusual or special in some way. e.g. the
only community in a region that prohibits felling of trees.

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Purposive sampling …..?
• Maximum Variation Sampling: Aims at capturing the central themes that cut
across participant variations. e.g. persons of different age, gender, religion and
marital status in an area protesting against child marriage.
• Homogeneous Sampling: Picks up a small sample with similar characteristics to
describe some particular sub-group in depth. e.g. firewood cutters or snake
charmers or bonded laborers.
• Typical Case Sampling: Uses one or more typical cases (individuals, families /
households) to provide a local profile. The typical cases are carefully selected
with the co-operation of the local people/ extension workers.
• Critical Case Sampling: Looks for critical cases that can make a point quite
dramatically. e.g. farmers who have set up an unusually high yield record of a
crop.
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Purposive sampling …..
• purposive sampling is best used with small numbers of
individuals/groups which may well be sufficient for understanding
human perceptions, problems, needs, behaviours and contexts, which
are the main justification for a qualitative audience research.

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 Snowball sampling …..
• Snowball sampling is a non random sampling method that uses a few cases to
help encourage other cases to take part in the study, thereby increasing
sample size. This approach is most applicable in small populations that are
difficult to access due to their closed nature, e.g. secret societies and
inaccessible professions.
• Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is a method in which a researcher
identifies one member of some population of interest, speaks to him/her, and
then asks that person to identify others in the population that the researcher
might speak to. This person is then asked to refer the researcher to yet another
person, and so on.

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 Snowball sampling …..
• This sampling technique is used against low incidence or rare populations.
Sampling is a big problem in this case, as the defined population from which
the sample can be drawn is not available. Therefore, the process sampling
depends on the chain system of referrals.
• Although small sample sizes and low costs are the clear advantages of
snowball sampling, bias is one of its disadvantages.
• The referral names obtained from those sampled in the initial stages may be
similar to those initially sampled.
• Therefore, the sample may not represent a cross-section of the total
population. It may also happen that visitors to the site or interviewers may
refuse to disclose the names of those whom they know.
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 Panel Sampling:
• Panel sampling is the method of first selecting a group of participants
through a random sampling method and then asking that group for the
same information again several times over a period of time. Therefore,
each participant is given the same survey or interview at two or more time
points; each period of data collection is called a ‘wave’.
• This sampling methodology is often chosen for large scale or nation-wide
studies in order to gauge changes in the population with regard to any
number of variables from chronic illness to job stress to weekly food
expenditures.
• Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about within-person
health changes due to age or help explain changes in continuous
dependent variables such as spousal interaction.
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 A voluntary sample is made up of people who
self-select into the survey. Often, these folks
have a strong interest in the main topic of the
Voluntary survey. Suppose, for example, that a news
Sample: show asks viewers to participate in an on-line
poll. This would be a volunteer sample. The
sample is chosen by the viewers, not by the
survey administrator.

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Sampling error and survey bias

• Survey results are typically subject to some error.

• Total errors can be classified into sampling errors and non-
sampling errors.
• The term ‘error’ here includes systematic biases as well as
random errors. Sampling errors and biases: Sampling errors
and biases are induced by the sample design. They include:

• Selection bias: When the true selection probabilities differ

from those assumed in calculating the results.
• Random sampling error: Random variation in the results
due to the elements in the sample being selected at
random.

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 Non-sampling error: Non-sampling errors are
other errors which can impact the final survey
estimates, caused by problems in data
collection, processing, or sample design. They
Sampling include:
error and • Over-coverage: Inclusion of data from outside of the
survey bias population.
• Under-coverage: Occurs when some members of the
population are inadequately represented in the sample.
Under-coverage is often a problem with convenience
samples.
• Measurement error: When respondents misunderstand a
question, or find it difficult to answer.
• Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.

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Non-response …..

Non-response: Failure to obtain complete data from all selected individuals.

Two major types of non-response exist:
1. unit non-response (referring to lack of completion of any part of the survey) and
2. item non-response (submission or participation in survey but failing to complete one or more
components/questions of the survey).
• In survey sampling, many of the individuals identified as part of the sample may be unwilling to participate, not have
the time to participate (opportunity cost), or survey administrators may not have been able to contact them.
• In this case, there is a risk of differences, between respondents and non-respondents, leading to biased estimates of
population parameters.
• This is often addressed by improving survey design, offering incentives, and conducting follow-up studies which make a
repeated attempt to contact the unresponsive and to characterize their similarities and differences with the rest of the
frame.
• The effects can also be mitigated by weighting the data when population benchmarks are available or by imputing data
based on answers to other questions.

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Non-response …
• Non-response is particularly a problem in internet sampling. Reasons for
this problem include improperly designed surveys, over-surveying (or
survey fatigue), and the fact that potential participants hold multiple e-mail
addresses, which they don’t use anymore or don’t check regularly.
• Bias Due to Measurement Error: A poor measurement process can also
lead to bias. In survey research, the measurement process includes the
environment in which the survey is conducted, the way that questions are
asked, and the state of the survey respondent. Response bias refers to the
bias that results from problems in the measurement process.
• Some examples of response bias are:

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 Leading questions: The wording of the question may be loaded in some way
to unduly favor one response over another. For example, a satisfaction
survey may ask the respondent to indicate where she is satisfied, dissatisfied,
or very dissatisfied. By giving the respondent one response option to express
satisfaction and two response options to express dissatisfaction, this survey
question is biased toward getting a dissatisfied response.

Social desirability: Most people like to present themselves in a favourable

light, so they will be reluctant to admit to unsavoury attitudes or illegal
activities in a survey, particularly if survey results are not confidential.
Biases ….. Instead, their responses may be biased toward what they believe is socially
desirable.

Increasing the sample size tends to reduce the sampling error; that is, it
makes the sample statistic less variable. However, increasing sample size
does not affect survey bias. A large sample size cannot correct for the
methodological problems (under-coverage, non-response bias, etc.) that
produce survey bias.

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Determination of
sample size
Determination of sample size is probably one of the most
important phases in the sampling process. Generally the
larger the sample size, the better is the estimation. But
always larger sample sizes cannot be used in view of time and
budget constraints. Moreover, when a probability sample
reaches a certain size the precision of an estimator cannot be
significantly increased by increasing the sample size any
further. Indeed, for a large population the precision of an
estimator depends on the sample size, not on what
proportion of the population has been sampled. It can be
stated that whenever a sample study is made, there arises
some sampling error which can be controlled by selecting a
sample of adequate size.

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 Sample size determination …
• In order to generalize from a random sample and avoid sampling errors or
biases, a random sample needs to be of adequate size. What is adequate
depends on several issues which often confuse people doing surveys for the
first time. This is because what is important here is not the proportion of the
research population that gets sampled, but the absolute size of the sample
selected relative to the complexity of the population, the aims of the researcher
and the kinds of statistical manipulation that will be used in data analysis. While
the larger the sample the lesser the likelihood that findings will be biased does
hold, diminishing returns can quickly set in when samples get over a specific
size which need to be balanced against the researcher’s resources. To put it
bluntly, larger sample sizes reduce sampling error but at a decreasing rate.
Several statistical formulas are available for determining sample size.
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 Quantitative sample size determination
Quantitative sample size
Cochran’s formula: with study population, Cochran’s formula for obtaining a representative sample size for
cross-sectional studies can be used. This is calculated as follows:
n = Z2pq/e2.
• Where n = minimum sample size required to detect statistical association; Z = standard normal deviate =
1.96; p = prevalence rate (e.g., proportion of births attended by TBAs in the Upper West Region is
estimated at 40%);
q = 1 – p; and e = degree of accuracy, set at 95% (or 0.05).

Therefore:

n = (1.96)2 x 0.6 x 0.5

(0.05)2

= 458

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Quantitative sample size determination ….?
• There are numerous approaches, incorporating a number of different
formulas, for calculating the sample size for categorical data.
n= p (100-p)z2
E2
• Where;
n is the required sample size
P is the percentage occurrence of a state or condition
E is the percentage maximum error required
Z is the value corresponding to level of confidence required.

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Sample size determination ……
• There are two key factors to this formula (Bartlett et al., 2001). First,
there are considerations relating to the estimation of the levels of
precision and risk that the researcher is willing to accept.
• ‘E’ is the margin of error(the level of precision) or the risk the
researcher is willing to accept (for example, the plus or minus figure
reported in e.g., newspaper poll results ). In the social research a 5%
margin of error is acceptable.

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Sample size determination ….
• ‘Z’ concern the level of confidence that the results revealed by the
survey findings are accurate.
• What this means is the degree to which we can be sure the
characteristics of the population have been accurately estimated by
the sample survey.
• Z is the statistical value corresponding to level of confidence required.
The key idea behind this is that if a population were to be sampled
repeatedly the average value of a variable or question obtained would
be equal to the true population value.

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Research sampling procedure
Clearly define target
population

Select sampling frame

Choose sampling
technique

Determine sample size

Collect data

Evaluate response rate

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Reading list ….
• Ackoff, R. L (1953): The Design of Social Research, Chicago, University
of Chicago Press.
• Bartlett, J. E., Kotrlik, J. W. & Higgins, C. C. (2001): Organizational
research: determining appropriate sample size in survey research.
Learning and Performance Journal, 19, 43-50.
• Davis, D. (2005): Business Research for Decision Making, Australia,
Thomson South-Western.

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