FIRE TECHNOLOGY & ARSON INVESTIGATION

SFO3 Ronnie A. Malijan. M.S. Crim.

INTRODUCTION

 The development of methods and tools for using and controlling fire was critical in human evolution
and is believed to have allowed early humans to spread northward from the warm climate of either
origin into the more severe environment of Europe and Asia. The evidence of early fire use is often
ambiguous because of the difficulty in determining whether the archeological evidence is the result of
accidental fire or its deliberate use. Such evidence include finds of occupation sites with fired or
baked soils, bones or stones that have been changed through the application of heat, and areas
containing thick layers of ash and charcoal that might have hearth structures.

 The earliest finds, in Kenya and Ethiopia, date from about 1.5 million years ago. Less equivocal
evidence exist for deliberate fire use in the Paleolithic period, beginning about 500,000 years ago.
Neolithic sites have yielded object that may have been used in fire, making drill for producing
friction , heat in wood and flints for striking sparks from iron pyrites.

 In legend and religion, fire is common thing. For example, in Persian literature fire was discovered
during a fight of a hero with a dragon. A stone that the hero used as a weapon missed the monster and
struck a rock. Light shone forth and human beings saw a fire for the first time. In Greek Mythology,
Prometheus was bestowed with god liked powers when he stole god's fire to give it to humanity. Fire
has also played a central role in religion . It has been used as a god and recognized as a symbol of
home and family in many cultures. Fire has also been a symbol of purification and of immortality and
renewal, hence the lighting of flames of remembrance. The temple of Vesta in Rome was an
outstanding example of the importance of fire to the Romans. Vesta was originally the goddess of the
fire and her shrine was in every home.

 We can only guess that pre historic people may have gained knowledge fire from observing things in
nature so the origin of the fire before dawn of civilization may be traces to an erupting volcano, or
forest fire, started by lighting. No really knows where on earth surface or what stage of early history
man learned how to start a fire and how to make use of it. Yet today man has had fire as;
1) Source of warmth and light
2) Protection against enemies
3) Cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to be digested to suit man’s body structure.
4) Provides processes for modifying chemicals into medicines.
5) Provide heat to convert wood, metals and bones into domestic tools or instruments for
aggressions.

 While the application of fire has served man’s needs. Its careless and wanton use exact an enormous
and careful toll from society in life and property. Hence man’s understanding of fire would enable
him to develop the technology of prevention and control to a considerable advance state.

THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

A. Basic Definitions

1) Technology
 is a branch of knowledge that deals with the industrial arts and sciences.
 It is the application of such knowledge that is used to produce the materials necessities of society.
2) Chemistry
 is the branch of science which deals with the study of composition and the study of matter, changes
matter undergo, energy involved in a given change and conditions necessary to bring about changes
in matter.

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3) Atoms
 are fundamental particles of matter. It is the smallest particles of an element that takes part in a
chemical reactions and cannot be further subdivided by ordinary physical and chemical means. The
structure of the atom is conceived to be made of central core known as the nucleus that contains
protons which is positively charge and neutron are principal energy levels where electrons, which is
negatively charged travel in orbit.
4) Elements
 are pure substance made up of only one kind of atom. Metallic elements are good conductors of heat
and electricity but non-metallic elements are either poor or non- conductor of heat and electricity.
5) Molecules
 are combinations of two or more atoms.
6) Compounds
 are two or more different atoms combined in definite proportions
7) Atomic Weight of an Element
 is the relative weight of element as compared to the weight of an atom of carbon, arbitrarily assigned.
8) Molecular weight of a compound
 is the sum of the atomic weight of all atoms in one molecule of the compound.
9) Chemical Formula
 is an abbreviated way of writing the substance using the symbols of elements composing the
substance and the subscripts of whole numbers to denote the proportion at which they combine.

B. Physical Properties of Matters related to Fire:

1) Specific Gravity
 is the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of water. In
general the higher the specific gravity of a substance, the greater the amount of heat is necessary to
decompose it.
2) Vapor Density
 is the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a volume of dry air at the same
temperature and pressure. The property is commonly used in fire protection; Vapor density of less
than 1 indicates that the gas is lighter than air.
3) Vapor Pressure
 when a liquid is heated in a liquid container, the molecules in a liquid state escape to form gaseous
molecules, the gas molecules strike one another as well as the walls of the container and may return
to the liquid state. The force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at equilibrium is
called Vapor Pressure.
4) Reactions between fuel and Temperature
 is the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
 Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature which can be expressed in C (Celsius or
centigrade), F (Fahrenheit) and K (Kelvin or absolute).
5) Boiling point
 is the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
 is the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate or
cause self contained combustion without the addition of heat from outside sources.
6) Ignition Temperature or Kindling Temperature
 is the minimum to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate or cause self
contained combustion without the addition of heat from outside sources.
7) Fire Point
 is the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are evolved fast enough to
support continuous
8) Flash Point is the temperature at which a flammable liquid form a vapors
 air mixture that ignites. The minimum and maximum temperature are referred to as the lower and
upper flash point in air respectively

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIRE

1) Endothermic reaction
 are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
2) Exothermic Reactions
 are those that release or give off energy (heat thus they produce substance with less energy than the
reactants.
3) Oxidation
 is a chemical change that is exothermic. In connection with fire technology, it is simply defined as a
chemical change in which combustible materials (fuel) and an oxidizing agent like oxygen, react.
4) Flames
 are incandescent gases. In order to be sustain, it should maintain a high temperature and a
concentration of short lived intermediate chemical oxidizer.

There are different TYPES OF FLAMES, categorized;

A. Based on color and completeness of combustibility of fuel:

1) Luminous Flames
 is orange red-will deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated due to incomplete combustion
of fuel and has a lower temperature.
2) Non-luminous Flame
 is blue, forms no soot deposit due to almost complete combustion of the fuel and has relatively high
temperature.

B. Based on fuel and air mixture;

1) Premixed Flame
 is exemplified by the Bunsen burner type laboratory burner where the hydrocarbon is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
2) Diffusion Flame
 is observed when gas (fuel alone is force through a nozzle into the atmosphere which diffuse in the
surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable mixture.

C. Based on smoothness:

1) Laminar Flame
 when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
2) Turbulent Flames
 are those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies. As physical size, gas density or velocity is
increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.

CHEMISTRY AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

 The phenomenon of fire has fascinated humanity since the beginning of time. Our ancestor defied it,
we still respect it. Its value as a weapon of war and as a tool of devastation has long been recognized.

FIRE
 is a series of chemical reactions.
 It is often defined as the visible active phase of combustion.
 Combustion is a chemical process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light. More, accurately,
it is the rapid oxidation of a fuel so as to produce flame (burning gases), heat and light.
 The most common form of combustion, and to which we address our attention, is due to oxidation.
This occurs when an atom, the fundamental particle of an element, combines ( i.e., forms chemical
bond) with an atom of oxygen though there are other types of combustion supported by other gases,
such as nitrous oxide (laughing gas ), the overwhelming majority of fires are oxygen related.

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THE THEORY OF FIRE
 Fire is a result of chemical reactions of fuel (reducing agent) with certain elements as oxygen or
chlorine or fluorine (oxidizing agent).
 At kindling temperature this reaction is known as oxidation.

1) Oxidation Reaction
 Oxidation reaction involves in fires are exothermic.
 In order for an oxidation reaction to take place, a combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent
must be present.
 For practical purposes, it can be stated that any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbon) can be oxidized.
 The most common oxidizing agent is OXYGEN in air.

2) Ignition and combustion

 Combustion is one kind of oxidation which is the same as actual burning. It is a rapid oxidation
accompanied by heat and light. When the heat generated by combustion becomes sufficient to cause
the material being oxidize to take fire, the material has reached its burning kindling temperature.
 Condensed phase combustion is usually referred to as glowing combustion.
 Gas phased combustion is known as FLAME.
 If the process is confined so that an appreciable pressure occurs, it is called an EXPLOSION.
 The combustion process is observed as occurring in two (2) modes: The flaming type (including
explosion) and the flameless surfaced type (including glow and deep seated glowing ember).

PYROLYSIS – is defined as the chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat.

COMPONENTS OF FIRE

 Traditionally, fire has been portrayed as having three components: HEAT, OXYGEN AND FUEL.
 This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle which symbolized, in the most basic terms, a chemical
relationship that would have required hours to explain. We now realized, however that the fire
triangle falls short of integrating the entire component involved in producing flaming combustion.
 Today, the fire triangle technically used to explain glowing combustion, which occurs when a fuel
mass glows without flaming. This is referred to as a solid to gas reaction (fuel being a solid, and the
oxidizing agent a gas).
 The additional component needed to explain flaming combustion is a chemical chain reaction. Such
a reaction yield energy or products that cause reactions of the same kind, and this is self sustaining.
To show the interrelation of all four components, a more sophisticated geometric figure than a
triangle is needed; the three dimensional, four faceted tetrahedron is the most appropriate and
commonly used.
 In flaming combustion, fuel and the oxidizing agent are both in the gaseous state; hence this is
referred to as a gas to gas reaction.

HEAT
 A fire /arson investigator must be able to understand and recognize how heat is produced and
transferred and how it applies to the fire ignition and development.
 HEAT is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to molecular activity . Heat should not
be confused with TEMPERATURE, which is the measurement of the relative amount of heat energy
contained within a given substance.
 TEMPERATURE is an intensity measurement, with units in degrees on either the Celsius
centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin scale.
 HEAT is a measurement of quantity and is given in British Thermal Units (Btu). One Btu is the
amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit ( 1 F).

THEORIES OF COMBUSTION

Fire Triangle Theory

 The graphical representation of the three elements of fire namely; OXYGEN, HEAT AND FUEL.
 Each side is just as important as either of the other two sides.
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  There cannot be fire without all the three parts present in equal proportion.
 Using the same theory, there are THREE WAYS TO EXTINGUISH FIRE.
a) Remove the fuel
b) Cut off the oxygen supply
c) Reduce the temperature (cooling)

Elements of fire:

1) Heat
 is a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in combustion or
burning.
2) Oxygen
 a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is approximately 21% by volume.
3) Fuel
 any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.

FIRE TETRAHEDRON
 The Fire tetrahedron theory describes the three elements of a fire as a chemical reactivity or chemical
reaction.

PHASES OF BURNING / THE THREE STAGES OF FIRE:

 The methods of firefighters use to extinguish a fire will depend largely on the phase in which they
find the fire.
 Factors to be considered in determining phases of burning:
a) the amount of time the fire has burned.
b) the ventilation characteristics of the confining structure;
c) the amount and type of combustible present.

A. Incipient /Beginning Phase – it is the initial stage base on the above factors;

Characteristics
a) Normal room temperature
b) Oxygen Plentiful
c) Thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point.
d) Flame temperature of 1000 degrees Fahrenheit.
e) Producing pyrolysis products (C02,CO,& OTHER GASES)

B. Free-Burning Phase – the second phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in
the presence of adequate oxygen.

Characteristics:
a) Fire has involved more fuel
b) Oxygen is depleted
c) Heat accumulates at upper area
d) Temperature exceeds 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit
e) Area is fully involved

C. Hot Smoldering Phase – the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat
completely fill the confined room.

Characteristics:
a) Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or super heated fuel under pressure with little
oxygen.
b) Intense heat will vaporize lighter fuel components, such as hydrogen and methane, increasing
the hazard.
c) Temperature throughout the building is very high and normal breathing is not possible.
d) Oxygen deficiency may cause backdraft.

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Stages of Fire

1) Incipient
 there is no visible smoke or flame.
2) Smoldering
 there is smoke but no flame.
3) Flame Stage
 presence of smoke and flame.
4) Free Burning Stage
 there is uncontrolled spread of superheated air.
5) Decay Stage
 Rate of flame starts to decline.

Sources of Heat Energy

There are five (5) ways to produce heat:

1) Chemical
 As we have already seen, chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.
 The speed of the oxidative reaction is an important factor; rust is also the product of oxidation, but of
very slow oxidation.

2) Mechanical
 Mechanical heat is the product of friction.
 Our ancestors would rub sticks together to generate enough heat to start a fire.
 Internal metal components of machinery can overheat, due to lubricant breakdown or to ball bearing
failure and cause ignition of available combustibles.

3) Electrical
 electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting, or other electrical malfunction.
 Poor wire connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing through an
improperly gauged wire are other sources of electrical heat.

4) Compressed gas
 when gas is compressed. Its molecular activity is greatly increased.
 Consider the action of a diesel engine.
 The gaseous fuel is compressed within the cylinder, increasing its molecular activity.
 The heat generated by this activity eventually reaches the ignition temperature of the fuel itself.
 The resulting contained explosion forces the piston back to the bottom edge of the cylinder, and the
process repeats over and over again.
 The drive train converts the energy produced into a mechanical action that causes the vehicle to
move.

5) Nuclear
 Nuclear energy is the product of carefully controlled splitting or fusing of atomic particles (fission or
fusion, respectively.
 The tremendous heat energy that results is used to produce steam to turn steam turbines.

1. Chemical Heat Energy

a) Heat of combustion
 is the amount of heat released during the complete oxidation where the organic fuel is
converted to water and carbon dioxide.
b) Spontaneous Heating
 is the process of increase in temperature of a material as a result of slow oxidation that is
without drawing heat from its surrounding, until the ignition temperature results into
combustion.

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  The three (3) conditions that determine whether or not oxidation reaction will cause
dangerous heating are;
c) Heat of decomposition
 is the heat released by the decomposition of compounds requiring, the addition of heat for
their formations.
d) Heat of solution
 is the released when a substance is dissolves in a liquid.

2. Electrical Heat Energy

 Electrical energy produces heat when electric current flows through a conductor or when a spark
jumps on air gap. In a current flow through a conductor, electrons are passed along from one atom to
another within the conductor.

a) Resistant Heating
 is when the rate of heat generation is proportional to the resistance and square of the current.
Singles wires can carry more current than bundled or closely grouped wires.
b) Heat generated by lighting
 the distance of an electrical charge on a cloud to an opposite charge on another cloud or on
the ground is called lighting. Lighting passing between the cloud and the ground can develop
very high temperature in any material of high resistance in its wood or masonry.
c) Inductive Heating
 whenever atoms are subject to electric potentials gradient s from external sources, the
arrangement of the atom (or the molecules of several atoms) is distorted with a tendency for
electrons to move in the direction of opposite direction. Potential differences appear in the
conductor whenever it is subject to the influence of a fluctuating or alternative magnetic field,
whenever a conductor is in motion across the line of a force of a magnetic field. Food in
microwave oven is heated by the molecular friction induced by absorbed microwave energy.
d) Static electricity
 or Frictional electricity
 is an electric discharge that accumulates on the surface of two materials that have been
brought together and then separated. If the substances are not bonded so that spark discharges
of sufficient energy to ignite a flammable vapor.
e) Heat from Arcing
 arcing result when an electric circuit which is carrying current interrupted, either intentionally
(as by a knife switch) or accidentally (as when a contact or terminal becomes loosened). The
temperature of are very high, and the heat released may be sufficient to ignite combustible
materials within the vicinity.

3. Mechanical Heat energy:

 Although there are a few notable examples of ignition by the mechanical heat energy released by
compression, most fires by this source are due to frictional heat.

a) Frictional Heat
 results when mechanical energy is used in overcoming the resistance to motion when two
sides are rubbed together.
b) Overheating of machinery
 may caused fires from heat accumulating from the rolling, sliding, or friction in machinery or
between two hard surfaces, at least one of which is metal.
c) Heat of compression
 a heat released when gas is compressed.
 This is also known as the diesel effect.

4. Nuclear Heat Energy:

 is released in the form of heat pressure and nuclear radiation.

a) Nuclear Fission
 the nucleus then splits into two lighter nuclei (the fission products), and at the same time
released tremendous amount of energy in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragment.
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 The device in which the nuclear fission chain is initiated, maintained and controlled, so that
the accompanying energy is released at a specified rate is called nuclear reactors.
b) Nuclear Fusion
 Includes all nuclear reactions in which two light nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus, with
the emissions of other particles or gamma rays.

HEAT TRANSFER
 There are only three ways to transfer heat: conduction, convection and radiation.

a) Conduction
 This refers to the transfer of heat via molecular activity within material or medium, usually a
solid. If you touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a direct result of conducted heat passing
from stove directly to the hand that is in contact with it. Direct contact is the underlying factor
in heat transferred through conduction.
 Conduction –is transferring of heat from molecule to molecules.
 Thermal conductivity is the ability of a substance to conduct heat. Heat conduction cannot be
completely stopped by any “heat insulating material. Heat insulating materials have low heat
conductivity. No matter how thick the insulation, solidly insulating the space between the
source of heat and the combustion materials may not be sufficient to prevent ignition. If the
rate of heat conduction through the insulating materials greater than the rate of dissipation
from the combustible materials, heat may increase to the point of ignition.
b) Convection
 heat transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures.
Convection entails the transfer of heat via circulating medium, usually air or a liquid. A
Superheated gases the evolved from a fire are lighter than air and consequently rise. As they
travel through and collect in the upper reaches of the structure, they can and do initiate
additional damage.
c) Radiation
 radiated heat moves in waves and rays much like sunlight or x-rays. Radiated heat energy
travels at the same speed as does visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily
responsible for the exposure hazards that develop and exist during a fire. The heat waves
travel in direct or straight line from their source until they strike an object. The heat that
collects on the surface of the object or building in the path of the heat waves is subsequently
absorbed into its mass) through conduction.
 Radiation – Transfer of heat energy through electromagnetic waves.
 All bodies are capable of absorbing and emitting radiation, but they differ in degree. It has
been proven that dark surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of electro magnetic
radiation while polished or white surfaces are poor absorber and poor emitters. This is why
dark colored T-shirt dry faster than light colored ones and during summer we feel comfortable
when in light colored clothes.

INTENSITY of a fire is a measure of the rate at which heat is produced.

Factors that determine fire intensity:
a) The amount of material present that can burn and the way it is arranged.
b) The quantity of heat energy locked in the chemical composition of a material which can be released
by burning.
c) The adequacy of supply of oxygen to the fire.
d) The total surface area of material available for combustion.
e) The length of flames produced, flames radiate heat and the size of the flames will effect the intensity
of the fire.

HEAT MEASUREMENTS
 Heat of materials is measured by its temperature. A material is conceived to be made up of minute
particles called molecules that are in constant motion. The temperature of the material is the
condition which determines whether it will transfer heat to or from other materials.

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 a) Temperature Units Celsius Degree (also called centigrade) – a Celsius or centigrade degree ( c) is
1/100 the different between the temperature of melting ice and boiling water at one atmospheric
pressure.
b) Fahrenheit Degree ( F) is 1/180 the different between the melting point of ice and boiling point of
water at one atmospheric pressure. On the Fahrenheit scale, the melting point of ice is 32 F while
boiling point of water is 212 F.
c) Kelvin or absolute – (K or A) is the scale as the Celsius degree but the melting point of ice is 273 and
the boiling point of water is 373. There is 1/100 difference between the melting point of ice and
boiling point of water at one atmospheric pressure.

 The device that measures the temperature defend either on the physical change (expansion , solid to
liquid) or energy change ( changes in intensity of electrical energy in emission intensities or spherical
distribution) Most common device is the thermometer. It consists of a tube partially filled with
liquid which measures the expansion and contraction of the liquid which changes on temperature.

FUELS AND ITYS PHYSICAL STATES

FUELS
 is matter, and matter exists in the three (3) physical states; gas, liquid and solid. Solids melt to
become liquids, and they may vaporize to become gases.

 The state of a substance is, therefore, an accepted characteristic of that substance unless the
conditions of temperature and pressure are specified. Ordinary conditions are a temperature of 65- 70
F and a pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch.
 The basic rule, unusual conditions and circumstances notwithstanding, is that at sufficiently high
temperatures all fuels can be converted to gases. Gasoline as a liquid does not burn; it is the vapors
rising from the liquid that burn. Likewise, wood, the most common solid fuel, is not flammable, but
gives off flammable resin vapors. Although these burn, the structure of the wood itself decomposes,
yielding other flammable vapors. Each of the physical states exhibits different physical and chemical
properties that directly affect a fuel’s combustibility.

GAS
 Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movements and random motion. They have
no definite shape or volume and assume the shape and volume of their container. Other properties
include compressibility, expandability, permeability and diffusion.

 Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential for changes in volume.

 A gas will spread and eventually equalize its distribution (pressure) throughout a fixed room or
container. Its volume is directly related to two other factors, pressure and temperature. The nature of
this interrelation is as follows:

PV=KT
Where:
P is pressure,
V is volume,
T is temperature, and
K is proportionality constant.

 An increase (decrease) in the temperature will cause a proportional increase (decrease) in the volume
if the pressure is constant or in the pressure if the volume is constant.
 An increase (decrease) in the pressure will cause a proportional decrease (increase) in the volume if
the temperature is constant, or increase (decrease) in the temperature will if the volume is constant.
 An increase (decrease) in temperature will proportionally increase (decrease) the pressure if the
volume is fixed, or the volume if the pressure is constant.

Diffusion

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  is the uniform distribution, seemingly in contradiction to the laws of gravity, of molecules of one
substance through those of another. The rate at which a gas diffuses is inversely proportional to the
square root of its density (Graham’s Law).
 Permeability means simply that other substances may pass through or permeate a gas

 How well a gas diffuses in air depends on its vapor density or density relative to air. The nearer this is
to the vapor density of air (which has a value of 1.0), the greater the ability of the gas to mix with air.
The vapor densities of several gas fuels are as follows;
Methane = 0.6 (lighter than air)
Ethane = 1.0 (same as air)
Propane = 2.5 (heavier than air)

 When a gas fuel (or vapor from a liquid fuel) diffuses sufficiently into air, the mixture may ignite or
explode. The percentage of gas to air at which this occurs is them lower limit of that gas’s flammable
(explosive) range. The upper limit is the percentage at which the mixture is too concentrated to ignite
(that is, there is too little oxygen, for natural gas, this range is 5% -15%).

Classification of Gas According to Physical Properties:

1) COMPRESSED GAS
 is one which at all normal atmospheric temperature inside its container, exist solely in the gaseous
state under pressure.
2) LIQUIFIED GAS
 is one , which at normal atmospheric temperature inside its contained, exist partly in the liquid a state
and partly in the gaseous state and under pressure as long as any liquid remains in the container.
3) CRYOGENIC GAS
 is a liquefied gas which exist in its container at temperature far below normal atmospheric
temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point and correspondingly low moderate pressure.

Classification of Gases According to Usage:

1) FUEL GASES
 are flammable customarily used for burning with air to produce heat which in turns is utilized as
power, light comfort and process.
2) INDUSTRIAL GASES
 include a large number of gases used for industrial processes as those in welding and cutting (oxygen,
acetylene);refrigeration (Freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide; chemical processing (hydrogen, nitrogen,
ammonia chlorine); water treatment (chlorine, fluorine etc)
3) MEDICAL GASES
 are those use for treatment such as for anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous ,oxide) and respiratory therapy
(oxygen)

LIQUID
 Liquid, like gases, assume the shape of the container and may diffuse. Unlike gases, they have a
definite volume (through they may be compressed slightly).
 Liquids exhibit a free surface and, if left to stand uncovered, will evaporate.
 Evaporation occurs when individual molecules of the liquid escape as gas into surrounding
atmosphere. Any increase in temperature will cause an increase in the rate of evaporation and
consequently, an increase in the vapor pressure.
 The temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas by producing continuous vapor bubbles is called its
boiling point. At this temperature, the vapor pressure is equal to normal atmospheric pressure (14.7
pounds per square inch).
 Because a liquid’s boiling point evinces its readiness to vaporize, it is one measure of the volatility of
a liquid fuel.
 A low boiling point means high volatility and an increased risk of fire. Other indicators include flash
point and fire point.

Flammable Liquids
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  refers to any liquid having a flash point below 37.8 C (100 F) and having a vapor pressure not
exceeding 40 psi at 37.8 C.

Combustible liquids
 are those with flash point with flash point at or above 37.8 C (100 F)
Flammable and Combustible Liquids,
 Strictly speaking will not cause fire. It is then the vapors from the evaporation of these liquids when
exposed to air and under the influence of heat, which will burn or explode. Gasoline is the most
widely used flammable liquid.

Fire Point
 Temperature at which a liquid produces vapors that will sustain combustion. This is several degrees
higher than the flash point. For example, the fire point of gasoline is 495 F; for kerosene, 110 F.
 The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) define a flammable liquid as one whose flash point
is below 140 F. A liquid with a flash point of 140 F or higher is a combustible liquid. (The
temperature used to distinguished flammable from combustible liquids is defined as 100 F by the
National Fire Academy and as 80 f by the US Department of Transportation.)

SOLID
 Solid have a definite shape and volume . A solid fuel’s combustibility is directly affected by the size
and configuration of its mass. Finely divided, powdered fuels differ from bulky or large dimension
solid fuels with respect to combustibility because of the obvious difference in their masses; the larger
the mass of the solid fuel, the greater the potential loss due to conduction. One of the requirements in
the formation of fire is combustible materials which must be heated to its ignition temperature before
it will burn.

Solid Combustible Materials

A. Wood and Wood Based Products

 Wood is very versatile material which is commonly used for combustion, furniture and interior
decoration among others. When the thermal environment is conducive to a given reaction, they will
char, smoulder, ignite and burn. However, wood and wood based products can be used for fire
protection. For instance, an insulated plywood faced wood and wood stud wall will provide a greater
degree of fire endurance than one without insulation.

1) Chemical Composition of Wood

a) The physical components of wood are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with smaller quantities of
nitrogen, sulfur and other elements.

2) Factors Influencing Ignition and Burning – Characteristics of wood and wood products.
a) Physical Form
 Wood used for kindling are chop to smaller pieces in order to speed up burning. Heavier wood
logs or timber shows considerable resistance to ignition.
b) Moisture Content
 Since the specific heat of water is high, the amount of heat necessary to drive off moisture is quite
considerable. In addition, the large quantities of water vapor that are driven of dilute the oxygen
in the air surrounding this combustible and so with the ignition or continued burning of these
combustible vapors. The rate of burning is also influenced by the moisture content of the
materials.
c) Heat of Conductivity
 is a measure of the rate at which absorbed heat will flow through the mass materials. It is the
inverse property of insulating. The best of conductivity of a particular material plays a major role
in its behavior under fire condition. For example, wood is a poor conductor of heat, thus it has a
high insulating value. An illustration of this fact is that the wood match stick burning at one end
can be held at the other end between the fingers, In contrast, a steel needle of the same size as a
match stick when heated at one end cannot be held at the other end with equal case.
d) Rate and period of Heating
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  influence the susceptibility of wood and wood products to ignition. Combustible solids are
usually considered less hazardous compared to flammable liquids or gases because they do not
vaporize readily nor do they give off flammable vapors at ordinary temperature and atmospheric
pressure. Ignition of solid combustible usually requires contact between the heat source and the
material for a long period enough to permit release of flammable vapors.
e) Rate of Combustion
 is markedly influence by physical form of combustible, the air supply present, the moisture
content and other factors but for complete combustion to proceed, there should be progressive
vaporization of the solid.
f) Ignition Temperature
 Specific Ignition temperature of wood is difficult to determine because of the variables
concerned.
 Ignition Temperature of wood varies widely depending on a number of variables, among which
are:
a. The specific gravity of a sample
b. The physical characteristics of sample; i.e., its size, its form, and its moisture content.
c. The rate and period of heating
d. The nature of heat source
e. The air (oxygen) supply

Fibers and Textiles

 Almost all textile fibers are combustible. Since textiles are an intimate part of daily living – clothes
we wear, carpets, curtains upholstery, beddings, etc. - there is a high involvement of textiles in fire.

Factors that Influence the Burning Of Textiles:

a) Chemical composition of the textile fiber
b) The finish of the fabric.
c) The fabric Weight
d) The tightness of the weave.
e) The flame retarded treatment

1. Chemical Composition

 Classification of fibers according to composition:

Natural fibers
a) Vegetables b) Animal c) Mineral
Synthetic or Artificial fibers
a) Organic this fiber imitates vegetable fibers, divided into cellulose, as for example
rayon which is reconstituted cellulose with acetic non-cellulose includes rayon.
b) Inorganic-like fiber glass and steel.

2. Fiber Finish
 If sufficient combustible coating or decorative materials are placed on fabric this will support
continued flaming.
 Many synthetic fabrics shrink when exposed to temperature approaching their melting or
decomposition temperature.
3. Fabric Weight
 The heavier the fabric of the same composition, the more considerable resistance to ignition.
4. Tightness of Weave
 The closer the fibers are in the we3aving of fabrics the more it will minimize the air spaces between
them and thus delay the rate of burning.
5. Flame Retardant Treatment
 The effect of chemical treatments in reducing the flammability of combustible fabrics are varied and
complex.

PLASTIC
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  other than cellulose nitrate, are classified as ordinary combustibles. They comprise a group of group
of material consisting mainly of organic substance or high molecular weight substance. They are
solid in the finish state although at some stage of manufacture plastics can be made to flow into a
desired shape, usually through the application of heat or pressure or both.

PYROLYZABLE AND NONPYROLYZABLE

Pyrolysis
 is the chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat. This decomposition may take
place in the absence of oxygen, and the vapors released may include both combustible and
noncombustible gases.
Pyrolizable solid
 fuels include many of the ordinarily accepted solid combustibles; wood paper, and so on. The vapor
released via their chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This exemplifies a gas to
gas reaction: the vapors released mix with oxygen in the air to produce flame.
Nonpyrolyzable
 solid fuels are difficult to ignite. Chemical decomposition does not occur because there are no
pyrolyzable elements present. No vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is an
example of a gas to solid reaction.

CHEMICAL CHAIN REACTION

 As mentioned earlier until recently it seemed clear that: combustion oxidizing agent (oxygen) +
combustible material (fuel + ignition source (heat). In the past decade, however, it became evident
that some unknown factor played a direct role in the combustion process. This chain reaction is a
complex series of events that must be continuously and precisely reproduced in order to maintain self
sustained flaming combustion. Among the events required are these two;
a) The oxidation reaction produces sufficient heat to maintain continued oxidation.
b) The fuel mass must be broken down into simpler compounds and liberated (vaporized) from
the mass itself, in turn, these unburned vapors must combine with available oxygen and be
continuously drawn up into the flame.

Combustion Products and some of their Effects

COMBUSTION
 is a chemical change which brings about new substances. These products of combustion can be
divided into four categories.

1. SMOKE
 Matter made up of very fine solid particles and condensed vapor as a consequence of combustion is
known as a smoke. Frequently, smoke provides warning of fire and contributes to panic because of its
irritating effects. The solid and liquid particles in suspension in the gases (smoke particles) have
harmful effects. Some particles are irritating when inhaled and long exposure to smoke particles may
cause damage to respiratory system. Then the particles are lodged in the eyes they cause tears which
may impair victim’s vision; when settled in the nostril and throaty they may cause sneezing and
coughing.
 STACK EFFECT – is the natural effect air movement through the building caused by the difference
in temperature and densities between the inside and outside air.
 The predominant factors that cause smoke movement in the tall building are;
a) The expansion of gases due to the temperature
b) The stack effect
c) The influencing of external wind forces
d) The forced air movement within the building.

2. FIRE GASES
 The term “Fire Gases” refers to gases that remain when the products of combustion are cooled to
normal temperature. Gases form by a fire depends on many variables which are:
a) The chemical Composition of the burning materials.
b) The amount of oxygen available for combustion.
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 c) The temperature.
 Most fuel contain carbon to form the very toxic carbon monoxide when the amount of oxygen is
limited but forms carbon dioxide when there is plenty of supply of oxygen for burning. Some other
gases formed are hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, nitrous oxide, nitric
oxide, phosgene and hydrogen chloride.
3. FLAMES
 An incandescent gas that accompanies rapid oxidation of a combustible material is called flames. It is
considered a distinct product of combustion. The observer can be sure that there is a fire when flames
are present. Burns can be caused by direct contact with flames.
 These burns are classified as first degree burns, Second Degree burns, third degree burns.

4. HEAT
 The combustion product mostly responsible for the spread of fire in buildings is heat. The
physiological effect ranges from minor injury to death. Exposure to heat may result in dehydration,
heat exhaustion, blockage of respiratory tract due to fluids and burns and also increased heart rate.
 When the intensity of heat goes beyond the threshold of human tolerance it is fatal.

FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION:

 The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and thermal
imbalance.
 Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire , the normal behavior when the
pattern is undisturbed. Thermal Imbalance on the other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to
the interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in
determining the exact point where the fire originated.

DANGEROUS BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

 Fire is so fatal when the following conditioned occurred:

a. Backdraft - it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that
occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur becuase of improper ventilation. If a room is
not properly ventilated , highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door
or window is suddenly opened the room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and
simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur, which may happen as an explosion (combustion
explosion).

b. Flashover - it is a sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is

incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by
a spark or flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When
accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is
capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of fireballs. Fireballs can
travel to a hundred yards with in a few seconds.

c. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations
and became stronger and bigger instead.

d. Flashfire =better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post is
completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lighting. The dust particles covering the
metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very
bright flash followed by an explosion.

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE FIRE DEPARTMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

1900s
 On August 7, 1901, the first fire department was establishes in Manila during the American
occupation.
1935
 On October, 1935 the first Filipino Fire Chief in the name of Captain Lorenzo Jacinto was appointed
and began the American Policy to transfer the reign of responsibility to Filipinos.
1940
 Fire department were established in neighboring cities and towns each has their own organizational
set-up
1973
 Fire services recognition day, pursuant to P.D. 1312 issued by the late Ferdinand E. Marcos signed on
his behalf by executive secretary Melchor in commemoration to the unforgettable incident during the
MERALCO Rockwell Power Plant in Makati on the 14th day of December 1973.
1975
 Integration of the Local Fire Department in the City/Municipality police forces under national police
organization called Philippine Constabulary –Integrated National Police (PC-INP)
1976
 President Ferdinand E Marcos issued Proclamation No. 115-A or thereafter as the observance of Fire
Prevention month.
1977
 Highlighted by the promulgation of P.D. 1185 known as the Fire Code of the Philippines on August
26, 1977 and the complete publication of the arson investigation manual subsequent to the creation of
anti-Arson Task Force (AATF) under C-2, PC-INP
1990
 R.A. 6975 was enacted establishing a separate fire protection bureau designated to be a national in
scope and civilian in character.
1991
 August 2, 1991 considered as the inaugural date of BFP official function marked by its preparation of
operation plans and Budget as a distinct agency of the government.
1999
 Highlighted by the launching and MOA signing of project EARNET on August 23, 1999 and pulling
into operation the Fire Control Operation Center (FCCC) which coordinates the dispatch of
firefighting apparatus, ACIS ambulances and 911 type rescue vehicles.
P.D. 1185
 otherwise known as the Fire Code of the Philippines-is a law which define what acts and condition
constitute a fire hazard and penalizes such acts or conditions
August 26, 1977
 P.D. 1185 was signed into law by the late Pres. Ferdinand E. Marcos of the Philippines the
implementing rules and regulation of Fire Code of the Philippines was issued on March 20, 1978 and
was approved on March 25, 1978.
May 28, 1978
 is the publication of P.D. 1185
June 27, 1978
 P.D. took effect
R.A 9514
 OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE ‘ FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES OF 2008”
December 19,2008
 R.A 9514 was signed into law
January 20 2009
 R.A 9514 took effect.

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FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (R.A.9514) OF 2008

Introduction
 The New Fire Code of the Philippines was signed into law last December 19, 2008 and took effect
last January 20, 2009. Pursuant to the provision of Section 5 of Republic Act No. 9514,
entitled “AN ACT ESTABLISHING A COMPREHENSIVE FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES,
REPEALING PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1185, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES”, the
implementing Rules and Regulations were crafted in order to carry out the provisions of the Code.

Section 1.
 This Act shall be known as the "Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008".
Section 2.
 It is the policy of the State to ensure public safety and promote economic development through the
prevention and suppression of all kinds of destructive fires and promote the professionalization of the
fire service as a profession. Towards this end, the State shall enforce all laws, rules and regulations to
ensure adherence to standard fire prevention and safety measures, and promote accountability for fire
safety in the fire protection service and prevention service.
Section 3.
 Definition of Terms. - As used in this Fire Code, the following words and phrases shall mean and be
construed as indicated:

1) Abatement
 Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.
2) Administrator
 Any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a building for him.
3) Blasting Agent
 Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to set off explosives.
4) Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose
 A highly combustible and explosive compound produced by the reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose
material.
5) Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin)
 Any plastic substance, materials or compound having cellulose nitrate (nitro cellulose) as base.
6) Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable
 Descriptive of materials that are easily set on fire.
7) Combustible Fiber
 Any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton, oakum, rags, waste cloth, waste paper, kapok,
hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior and other similar materials commonly used in commerce.
8) Combustible Liquid
 Any liquid having a flash point at or above 37.8_C (100_F).
9) Corrosive Liquid
 Any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or with certain chemicals.
10) Curtain Board
 A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials attached to and extending below the bottom
chord of the roof trusses, to divide the underside of the roof into separate compartments so that heat and
smoke will be directed upwards to a roof vent.
11) Cryogenic
 Descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of its reaction with other elements produces
a rapid drop in temperature of the immediate surroundings.
12) Damper
 A normally open device installed inside an air duct system which automatically closes to restrict the
passage of smoke or fire.
13) Distillation
 The process of first raising the temperature in separate the more volatile from the less volatile parts and
then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to produce a nearly purified substance.
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14) Duct System
 A continuous passageway for the transmission of air.
15) Dust
 A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the proper proportion and ignited will cause
an explosion.
16) Electrical Arc
 An extremely hot luminous bridge formed by passage of an electric current across a space between two
conductors or terminals due to the incandescence of the conducting vapor.
17) Ember
 A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has partially burned, and is still oxidizing without the
manifestation of flames.
18) Finishes
 Materials used as final coating of a surface for ornamental or protective purposes.
19) Fire
 The active principle of burning, characterized by the heat and light of combustion.
20) Fire Trap
 A building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or because it lacks adequate exits or fire
escapes.
21) Fire Alarm
 Any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warm the occupants of the building or
firefighting elements of the presence or danger of fire to enable them to undertake immediate action to
save life and property and to suppress the fire.
22) Fire Door
 A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in fire separation walls or partitions.
23) Fire Hazard
 Any condition or act which increases or may cause an increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire,
or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with firefighting operations and the safeguarding of life
and property.
24) Fire Lane
 The portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and unobstructed at all times for the
expedient operation of firefighting units.
25) Fire Protective And Fire Safety Device
 Any device intended for the protection of buildings or persons to include but not limited to built-in
protection system such as sprinklers and other automatic extinguishing system, detectors for heat, smoke
and combustion products and other warning system components, personal protective equipment such as
fire blankets, helmets, fire suits, gloves and other garments that may be put on or worn by persons to
protect themselves during fire.
26) Fire Safety Constructions
 Refers to design and installation of walls, barriers, doors, windows, vents, means of egress, etc. integral to
and incorporated into a building or structure in order to minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes
or panic before the building is evacuated. These features are also designed to achieve, among others, safe
and rapid evacuation of people through means of egress sealed from smoke or fire, the confinement of fire
or smoke in the room or floor of origin and delay their spread to other parts of the building by means of
smoke sealed and fire resistant doors, walls and floors.
 It shall also mean to include the treatment of buildings components or contents with flame retardant
chemicals.
27) Flash Point
 The minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in sufficient concentration to form an
ignitable mixture with air.
28) Forcing
 A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or dimensions.
29) Fulminate
 A kind of stable explosive compound which explodes by percussion.
30) Hazardous Operation/Process
 Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, etc., that uses or produces materials which are likely to
cause fires or explosions.
31) Horizontal Exit
 Passageway from one building to another or through or around a wall in approximately the same floor
level.
32) Hose Box

17
  A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are stored and arranged for firefighting.
33) Hose Reel
 A cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is wound and connected.

34) Hypergolic Fuel

 A rocket or liquid propellant which consists of combinations of fuels and oxidizers which ignite
spontaneously on contact with each other.
35) Industrial Baking And Drying
 The industrial process of subjecting materials to heat for the purpose of removing solvents or moisture
from the same, and/or to fuse certain chemical salts to form a uniform glazing the surface of materials
being treated.
36) Jumper
 A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in an electrical system.
37) Occupancy
 The purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or intended to be used.
38) Occupant
 Any person actually occupying and using a building or portions thereof by virtue of a lease contract with
the owner or administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter.
39) Organic Peroxide
 A strong oxidizing organic compound which releases oxygen readily.
 It causes fire when in contact with combustible materials especially under conditions of high temperature.
40) Overloading
 The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw or consume electrical current beyond
the designed capacity of the existing electrical system.
41) Owner
 The person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a building or real property.
42) Oxidizing Material
 A material that readily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.
43) Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning Equipment
 Type or burner where the fuel is subjected to pressure prior to discharge into the combustion chamber
and/or which includes fans or other provisions for the introduction of air at above normal atmosphere
pressure into the same combustion chamber.
44) Public Assembly Building
 Any building or structure where fifty (50) or more people congregate, gather, or assemble for any
purpose.
45) Public Way
 Any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the sky, deeded, dedicated or
otherwise permanently appropriated for public use.
46) Pyrophoric
 Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to air.
47) Refining
 A process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are removed from a mixture in order to produce a
pure element of compound. It shall also refer to partial distillation and electrolysis.
48) Self-Closing Doors
 Automatic closing doors that are designed to confine smoke and heat and delay the spread of fire.
49) Smelting
 Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so as to separate impurities from pure metals.
50) Sprinkler System
 An integrated network of hydraulically designed piping installed in a building, structure or area with
outlets arranged in a systematic pattern which automatically discharges water when activated by heat or
combustion products from a fire.
51) Standpipe System
 A system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be attached on each floor, including a
system by which water is made available to the outlets as needed.
52) Vestibule
 A passage hall or antechamber between the outer doors and the interior parts of a house or building.
53) Vertical Shaft
 An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor, as well as from the base to the top
of the building.

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Section 4. Applicability of the Code. –
 The provisions of the Fire Code shall apply to all persons and all private and public buildings,
facilities or structures erected or constructed before and after its effectivity.
Section 5- GRACE PERIOD (for P.D. 1185)
 The owner, administrator or occupant of buildings or structure existing at the time of the effectivity of the
Fire Code is given two (2) years to comply with the provisions thereof on fire safety construction and on
protective and warning system.
 However the Director General of the Integrated National Police may prescribed a shorter period
depending upon the degree of hazard to be corrected and the cost and extent of the work to be done.

Section 6- RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THIS CODE (P.D.1185)

 The fire service, under the direct supervision and control of the Director General of the Integrated
National Police, hereinafter referred to as the “Director General” shall be responsible for the enforcement
of this code, as well as pertinent provisions of other laws pertaining to Fire Protection of fire safety.

Section 5 RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THIS CODE (R.A.9514)

 This Code shall be administered and enforced by the Bureau of Fire Protection under the direct
supervision and control of the Chief of the BFP through the hierarchy of organization as provided for in
Chapter VI of R.A 6975. With the approval of the secretary of the DILG; the chief BFP, is hereby
authorize to;

Section 7- TECHNICAL STAFF (P.D. 1185) (SECTION 6 R.A. 9514)

 The Director General shall constitute as technical staff of highly qualified persons who are knowledgeable
on fire prevention, fire safety, and Fire suppression. They may be drawn not only from the organic
members of the Integrated National Police and other government offices and agencies, but also from other
sources . In the latter case, they will either be appointed into the service or hired as consultants in
accordance with law. The technical staff shall study, review and evaluate latest developments and
standards on fire technology; prepare Plans/programs in fire safety, prevention and suppression and
evaluate implementation thereof; develop programs on the professionalization of the Fire service;
coordinate with appropriate government and private institutions for the offering of college course on
fire technology and fire protection engineering; propose amendments to the fire Code; advice the Director
General on any matter brought to his attention; and perform such other functions directed on any matter
brought to his attention and perform such other functions as may be appropriate.

Section 8- INSPECTION, SAFETY MEASURES, FIRE SAFETY, CONSTRUCTION AND PROTECTIVE

AND/ OR WARNING SYSTEM
 As may be defined and provided in the rules and regulations, owners, administrator or occupants of
buildings, structure and their premises or facilities and other responsible persons shall be required to
comply with the following, as may be appropriate:

a) Inspection requirements- A fire safety inspection shall be conducted by the Director General of
his duly authorized representatives as a pre-requisite to the grants of permits and or licenses by
local governments and other government agencies concerned for the:
1. Use or occupancy of building, structures, facilities or their premises including the
installation or fire protection and fire safety equipment, and electrical system in any
building structure or facility.
2. Storage, handling and or use of explosive or of combustible, flammable, toxic and other
hazardous materials.
3. Safety measure of hazardous materials
4. Provision on Fire safety construction, protective and warning system

Section 9-PROHIBITED ACTS- The following are declared as prohibited acts and omissions
a. Obstructing or blocking the exit ways or access to building clearly marked for fire safety purposes, such
as but not limited to aisles in interior rooms, any part of stairway or exit of any kind, or tolerating or
allowing said violations.
b. Constructing gates, entrances and walkways to building components and yards, which obstruct the orderly
and easy passage of fire fighting vehicles and equipment.

19
 c. Prevention, interference or obstruction of any operation of the fire service, or of duly organized and
authorized fire brigades.
d. Obstructing designed fire lanes or access to fire hydrants
e. Overcrowding or admission of persons beyond the authorized capacity in movie houses, theaters,
coliseums, auditoriums or other public assembly buildings, except in other assembly areas on the ground
floor with open sides or open doors sufficient to provide safe exits.
f. Locking fire exit during periods when people are inside the building
g. Prevention or obstruction of the automatic closure of fire doors or smoke partitions or dampers
h. use of fire protective or firefighting equipment of the fire service other than for firefighting except in
other emergencies where their use are justified.
i. Giving false or malicious alarm
j. Smoking in prohibited areas as may be determined by fire service, or throwing of cigars, cigarettes,
burning objects in places which may start or cause fire.
k. Abandoning or leaving a building or structure by the occupant or owner without appropriate safety
measures.
l. Removing, destroying, tampering, or obliterating may authorized mark, seal, sign or tag posted or
required by the Fire service for fire safety in any building, structure or processing equipment.
m. Use of jumpers or tampering with electrical wiring or overloading the electrical system beyond its
designed capacity or such other practices that would tend to undermine the fire safety features of the
electrical system.

Section 10- ABATEMENT OF FIRE HAZARD (P.D.1185)

 Fire hazards shall be abated immediately. For this purpose, the Director General or his duly authorized
representative may orders for such abatement. If the owner, administrator or occupant of buildings,
structure and their premises or facilities does not abate the same within the period fixed in said order, the
occupancy permit or permit to operate shall be cancelled. Any building or structure declared as a firetrap
or is causing clear and present danger to adjoining establishment and habilitations shall be declared
building or structure is not more than twenty thousand (20,000.00) pesos, the owner, administrator, or
occupant thereof shall abate the hazard within thirty (30) days or if the assessed value is more than
twenty thousand (20,000.00) pesos, within sixty (60) days from receipt of the order declaring said
building or structure a public nuisance, otherwise, the Director General or his duly authorized
representatives shall mean corrective measures undertaken to abate hazards which shall include but is not
limited to remodeling, repairing strengthening , reconstructing, removal and demotion, either partial or
total of the building or structure. The expense incurred by the government for such summary abatement
shall be borne by the owner; administrator or occupant. These expenses shall constitute a prior lien such
property.

Section 9 VIOLATIONS, PENALTIES AND ABATEMENT OF FIRE HAZARDS (RA 9514)

 Fire hazard shall be abated immediately. The Chief BFP or his /her authorized representative, upon the
report that a violation of this Code or other pertinent laws and regulations is being committed, shall issue
notice/ or order to comply to the owner, administrator, occupant or other person responsible for the
condition of the building or structure indicating among other things the period within prescribed
compliance shall be effected, which shall be within ten (10) to 15 days after the receipt of the notice or
order.
 If after the lapse of the aforesaid period, the owner, administrator, occupant or other responsible person
failed to comply, the Chief BFP or /her authorized representative shall put up a sign in front of the
building or structure that it is a fire hazard, which shall remain posted until such that the owner,
administrator, occupant or other person responsible for the condition of the building, structure and their
premises or facilities abate the same. But such period shall not exceed 15 days from the lapse of the initial
period given in the notice or order to comply
 Finally, with the failure of the owner, administrator, occupant or other person responsible for the
condition of the building, structure and their premises or facilities to comply within the period specified
above, the Chief BFP may issue order for such abatement. If the latter still failed to comply the said order
to abate the hazard, the Chief BFP or his/her authorized representative notwithstanding any permit,
clearance or certificate earlier issued by the local authorities shall give order for the closure of the said
building or structure or facilities.
 NOTE; If the assessed value of the nuisance or the amount to be spent in abating the same is not more
than P 100,000.00, the owner, administrator or occupant thereof shall abate the hazard within 15days or if
the assessed value is more than P 100,000.00 within 30 days from receipt of order declaring said building
or structure a public nuisance.

20
Section 11- ENFORCEMENT OF THE LIEN
 If the owner, administrator or occupant fails to reimburse the government of the expenses incurred in the
summary abatement within ninety (90) days from the completion of such abatement, the building or
structure shall be sold at public auction in accordance with existing laws and rules. No property subject
of lien under section 10 hereof, may be sold a price lower than the government if the highest bid is not at
least equal to the abatement expenses.

Section 12- PENALTIES

A. Administrative fines
 any person who violates any provisions of this Fire Code or any of the rules and regulations promulgated
under section 6 hereof shall be penalized by an administrative fine of not exceeding twelve thousand
(12,000.00) pesos (P50,000.00 R.A. 9514) or in the proper case by stoppage of operations of closure of
such buildings, structures and their premises or facilities which do not comply with the requirements or
by both such administrative fine and closure/stoppage of operation to be imposed by the Director General
provided, that the payments of the fine stoppage of shall not absolve the violator from correcting the
deficiency or abating the fire hazard. The decision of the defense, within fifteen (15) days from the date
or receipt of the order imposing the administrative fine, stoppage the operations and or closure. The
decision of the secretary of National defense shall be final and executory.

B. Punitive
 In case of willful failure to correct the deficiency or abate the fire hazard as provided in the preceding
subsection, the violator shall, upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment of not less than six (6)
months nor more than six (6) years, or by a fine of not more than twenty thousand (20,000.00) pesos
(P 100,000.00 R.A. 9514) or both such fines and imprisonment; provided, however, that in the case of a
corporation, firm, partnership or associations the fine or imprisonment shall be imposed upon its officials
responsible for such violations, and in case the guilty is an alien in addition to the penalties herein
prescribes, he shall immediately be deported; provided, finally that where the violation is attended by loss
of life and or damage or property, the violator shall be proceeded against under the applicable provisions
of the Revised Penal Code.

SECTION 11 (RA 9514) PENALTIES

1) AGAINST THE PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS

A. ADMINISTRATIVE FINES
 Any person who violates any provision of the fire code or any of the rules and regulations promulgated
under this act shall be penalized by an administrative fine of not exceeding p50,000.00 or in the proper
case, by stoppage of operations or by closure of such buildings, structure and their premises or facilities
which do not comply with the requirements or by both administrative fine and closure/stoppage of
operation to be imposed by the chief BFP , Provided, that the payment of the fine, stoppage of operations
and /or closure of such buildings, structure and their premises or facilities shall not absolve the violator
from correcting deficiency or abating the fire hazard. The decision of the Chief BFP under this
subsection, maybe appealed to the Secretary of Interior and Local Government. Unless ordered by the
Secretary of the Interior and Local Government, the appeal shall not the execution of the order of the
chief BFP. The decision of the Secretary of the Interior and local Government shall be final and
executory.

B. PUNITIVE
 In case of willful failure to correct the deficiency or abate the fire hazard as provided in the preceding
subsection the violator shall upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment of not less than 6 months
nor more than 6 years, or a fine of not more P100,000.00 or both such fine and imprisonment.
Provided, however that incase of a corporation, firm, partnership or association, the fine and /or
imprisonment shall be imposed upon its officials responsible for such violations, and in case the guilty
party is an alien, in addition to the penalties herein prescribe, he shall immediately be deported; Provided,
finally, that where the violation is attended by injury , loss life and or damaged to property, the violator
shall be proceeded against the under the applicable provisions of the Revised Penal Code.

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  Any person who without authority, maliciously removes the sign that a building or structure is a fire
hazard/ fire trap placed by the authorized person in this code shall be liable for imprisonment for
30days or a fine not more than P100,000.00 pesos or both in the discretion of the court.

 Any person who disobeys the lawful order of the fire ground commander during a fire fighting
operations shall be penalized with imprisonment of one (1) day to 30 days and a fine of P5,000.00 pesos.

2) AGAINST THE PUBLIC OFFICER/EMPLOYEE

A. ADMINISTRATIVE - The following acts or omissions shall render the public officer/employee in charge of
the enforcement of this code, IRR and other pertinent laws, administratively liable, and shall be punished by
reprimand, suspension or removal in the discretion of the disciplining authority depending on the gravity of
the offense and without prejudice to the provisions of other applicable laws;
1) unjustified failure of the public officer /employee to conduct inspection of buildings or structures at
least once a year;
2) Deliberate failure to put up a sign in front of the building or structure within his /her AOR found to
be violating this code. Its IRR or other pertinent laws, that the same is a 'FIRE HAZARD OR FIRE
TRAP;
3) 3.Endorsing to the Chief BFP or his /her duly authorized representative for the certification, or
submitting a report that the building or structure complies with the standard set by this code, its IRR
or other pertinent laws when the same is contrary to fact.;
4) Issuance or renewal of occupancy or business permit without the fire safety inspection certificate
issued by the Chief BFP OR HIS/HER AUTHORIZED REPRESENTATIVE;
5) Failure to cancel the occupancy or business permit after the owner, administrator occupant or other
person responsible for the condition of the building, structure and other premises failed to comply
with the notice/order for compliance with the standards set by this code, its IRR and other pertinent
laws with the specified period;
6) Failure to abate a public nuisance within 15 days after the owner, administrator, occupant or other
responsible person failed to abate the same within the period contained in the notice to abate.
7) Abusing his/her authority in the performance of his duty through acts of corruption and other
unethical practices ;
8) Other willful impropriety or gross negligence in the performance of his duty as provided in this act or
its IRR.

B. Punitive
 In case of willful violation involving the abovementioned acts or omissions enumerated under Section 11
subparagraph 2(A), the public officer/employee shall, upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment of
not less than six (6) months nor more than six (6) years, or by a fine of not more than One hundred
thousand pesos (P100,000.00) or both such fine and imprisonment: Provided, That where the violation
is attended by injury, loss of life and/or property, the violator shall be proceeded against under the
applicable provisions of the Revised Penal Code.

SECTION 12. APPROPRIATION AND SOURCES OF INCOME. -

a) To support the manpower; infrastructure and equipment needs of the fire service of the BFP, such amount
as may be necessary to attain the objectives of the Fire Code shall be appropriated and included in the
annual appropriation of the BFP.
b) To partially provide for the funding of the fire service the following taxes and fees which shall accrue to
the general fund of the National Government, are hereby imposed:

(1) Fees to be charged for the issuance of certificates, permits and licenses as provided for in Section 7
(a) hereof;

(2) One-tenth of one per centum (0.1%) of the verified estimated value of buildings or structures to be
erected, from the owner thereof, but not to exceed Fifty thousand (P50,000.00) pesos, one half to be
paid prior to the issuance of the building permit, and the balance, after final inspection and prior to the
issuance of the use and occupancy permit;

(3) One-hundredth of one per centum (0.10%) of the assessed value of buildings or structures annually
payable upon payment of the real estate tax, except on structures used as single family dwellings;
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 (4) Two per centum (2%) of all premiums, excluding re-insurance premiums for the sale of fire,
earthquake and explosion hazard insurance collected by companies, persons or agents licensed to sell
such insurances in the Philippines;

(5) Two per centum (2%) of gross sales of companies, persons or agents selling fire fighting equipment,
appliances or devices, including hazard detection and warning systems; and

(6) Two per centum (2%) of the service fees received from fire, earthquake, and explosion hazard
reinsurance surveys and post loss service of insurance adjustment companies doing business in the
Philippines directly through agents.

SECTION 13. COLLECTION OF TAXES, FEES AND FINES. - All taxes, fees and fines provided in this Code
shall be collected by the BFP: Provided, That twenty percent (20%) of all such collections shall be set aside and
retained for use by the city or municipal government concerned, which shall appropriate the same exclusively for
the use of the operation and maintenance of its local fire station, including the construction and repair of fire
station: Provided, further, That the remaining eighty (80%) shall be remitted to the National Treasury under a
trust fund assigned for the modernization of the BFP.

SECTION 13-A. ASSESSMENT OF FIRE CODE TAXES, FEES AND FINES. - The assessment of fire code
taxes, fees and fines is vested upon the BFP. The BFP shall, subject to the approval of the DILG, prescribe the
procedural rules for such purpose.

SECTION 13-B. COLLECTION AND ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL TAXES, FEES AND FINES. - The
collection and assessment of taxes, fees and fines as prescribed in the Local Government Code, except those
contained in this Code, shall be the function of the concerned local government units.

SECTION 13-C. USE OF INCOME GENERATED FROM THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE FIRE CODE.

 The Chief, BFP is authorized, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government, to use the income generated under the Fire Code for procurement of fire protection and
firefighting investigation, rescue, paramedics, supplies and materials, and related technical services
necessary for the fire service and the improvement of facilities of the Bureau of Fire Protection and
abatement of fire hazards.
 The BFP shall determine the optimal number of equipment, including, but not limited to, fire trucks and
fire hydrants, required by every local government unit for the proper delivery of fire protection services in
its jurisdiction.

 In the procurement of firefighting and investigation supplies and materials, the Bureau of Product
Standards of the Department of Trade and Industry shall evaluate, determine and certify if the supply so
procured conforms to the product standards fixed by the BFP. For this purpose, the BFP shall submit to
the Bureau of Product Standards a detailed set of product standards that must be complied with in the
procurement of fire fighting and investigation supplies and materials within six (6) months from the
effectivity of this Act.

SECTION 13-D.

 MONITORING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FIRE CODE AND THE AMOUNT OF THE FEES
COLLECTED. - The Chief, BFP shall, within six (6) months from the effectivity of this Code, submit to
the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government for his/her approval, a management tool or
mechanism that would ensure effective monitoring of the enforcement of the Fire Code to include the
amount of Fire Code fees collected.

SECTION 14.

 Within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this Act, the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government
shall issue the rules and regulations for its effective implementation.

SECTION 15.

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  Presidential Decree No. 1185 is hereby repealed. All laws, presidential decrees, letters of instructions,
executive orders, rules and regulations insofar as they are inconsistent with this Act, are hereby repealed
or amended as the case may be.

SECTION 16. In case any provision of this Act or any portion thereof is declared unconstitutional by a
competent court, other provisions shall not be affected thereby.

SECTION 17. This Act shall take effect fifteen (15) days after its publication in the Official Gazette or in two (2)
national newspapers of general circulation.

Approved: December 19, 2008

SMOKE AND FLAME COLORS FOR CERTAIN FUELS

Smoke Color Flame Color Fuel

Gray to brown Red to yellow wood/paper/cloth

Black Red to white Gasoline
White to gray Yellow to white Benzine
Black to brown Yellow to white turpentine
Black Dark red to orange yellow Kerosene
Black Blue white to white Naphtha

DEFINITION OF TERMS (Firefighting Tools And Equipment)

1) Aerial Ladder
 this type of ladder that a mounted on a turntable, capable of extending up to 30.5 meters (100 feet), may have
three or four metal fly section of ladder that can be raised or lowered by hydraulically controlled cables.
2) Chafing blocks
 tools used to prevent damage to the hose where the hose is subjected to rubbing from vibrations.
3) Extension Ladder
 this consist of a bed and one or more fly ladder. The fly ladder slide through guides on the upper end of the
bed ladder. It contains locks (pawls or dogs) which hook over the rungs of the bed ladder.
4) Gated Wyes
 these are used to divide a line of hose into two or more line.
5) Hose Bridge
 a hose tool used to prevent damage to the hose when vehicles cross a street, or where the traffic can not be
diverted.
6) Hose Clamp
 a tool used to stop the flow of water in a fire hose without shutting off the source of water supply.
7) Hose Jacket
 a hollow cylindrical or barrel shaped device that opens lengthwise through the center on a set of hinges. It is a
rubber lined to make it water tight.
8) Hose Strap
 It is a 36 inch length of cloth strap with a handle on one end and hook on the other. It is used for moving hose
layouts usually up ladders or staircases.
9) Hydrant Wrench
 are used to open and close fire hydrants and to remove hydrant outlet caps. It is usually equipped with a
pentagon opening in its head that fits most standard fire hydrant opening nuts..
10) Rubber Mallet
 a hose tool used to strike the lugs of a coupling to tighten or loosen the coupling without damaging the lugs. It
is used to make a coupling completely airtight.
11) Siamese
 appliances that have two or more female inlet connections and one male discharge connection.
12) Spanner Wrench
 is use to tighten leaking connections and to loosen that are too tight to “break” with hands alone.
13) Straight Ladder
 this is a type of ladder that contains only one section. It ranges in length from 12 to 16 feet.
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14) Universal Thread Adapter
 is a very useful tool on any fire vehicle. It can make a very quick connection to damaged or unusual size male
hose connections

FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Legal Basis for BFP to investigate all types of fire incident:

 During the PC/INP days, arson and related cases were under the jurisdiction of the PC, Police and
Fire Service. Now, investigating arson and related cases is done by the Bureau of Fire Protection.
 Under R.A 6975 – An act establishing the Philippine National Police , Bureau of Fire Protection and
BJMP and others under a Reorganized Department of Interior and Local Government and for other
purposes.
 The law on arson in the Philippines is covered by Articles 320 to 326 of the Revised Penal Code, as
amended by PD No. 1613, PD No. 1744, and Ra 6975, Chapter IV Sec. 54. Power and Functions, -
The Fire Bureau shall have the power to investigate all cases o fires and, if necessary, file the proper
complaint with the City/Provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over arson cases.

Investigation
 Is an inquiry of the facts
Criminal Investigation
 It is an art of identifying the location of the offender and provides evidence of his guilt through
criminal proceedings.
Fire Investigation
 Is conducted to determine the cause, origin, and nature of fire.
Arson Investigation
 It is conducted to establish the elements of the crime, identity of the suspect/s and gather evidence to
prove his guilt.

Purposes of Fire Investigation:

a) To determine what property was damage;
b) What is that cause and reasons;
c) The number and extent of injuries involved;
d) The recommended corrective actions to prevent similar recurrence.

Technical Investigation
 It is an in-depth investigation to determine more specific details of the cause and effects and to
establish necessary corrective actions.

Reasons to conduct technical investigation:

1. There is suspicion of arson in connection w/ any fire;
2. There is suspicion of negligence or violation of regulation;
3. The cause of any fire is undetermined (to establish probable cause;
4. There is evidence of negligence or mismanagement in the fire suppression or rescue
operation;
5. Loss of life or disabling as a result of fire.

Role of an Investigator
1. To determine that a crime has been committed.
2. To identify the victim and offender.
3. To locate and apprehend the suspect.
4. To present evidence of guilt in a criminal proceeding

COMPLEXITY OF FIRE INVESTIGATION:

 While fire investigation generally follows the principles of crime investigation, it is more unique and
complex than other police inquiry.
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  It is more unique in the sense that the fire destroys evidence.
 It is more complex because for one thing.
 If is incendiary or arson, it does not strictly conform to the character of “consummated offense” as
provided for in par. 2, Art. 6 RPC.
 For another, the crime of arson is planned, motivated committed in secret and rarely can an
eyewitness be found who can testify to the sitting of fire.

ARSON
 is the malicious burning of one’s property or property of another.

ARSON INVESTIGATION
 The direct result of the basic or technical investigation or it may be brought about from outside
knowledge.

Characteristics of Qualified Arson Investigator:

1.He should possess knowledge of investigative technique;
2.He should have an insight of human behavior;
3.He should have a firsthand knowledge of the chemistry of fire a d its behavior;
4.He should be resourceful;
5.He should have a keen power of observation and accurate descriptions.

In so far as fire investigation is concerned, these must be establishing first:

1. CAUSE – that which made the fire starts;
2. REASON – that which led to the cause of fire (motive leading to the action.

FOUR GENERAL CLASSES OF FIRE

1. Natural – fire caused naturally w/ out human intervention or aid;
2. Accidental – fire causes where human action is involved directly or indirectly;
3. Arson – fire cause as a result of the willful and criminal action of some persons
4. Unknown fire – cannot be classified as to the cause.

PERSON/S RESPONSIBLE TO EXAMINE AND INSPECT THE FIRE SCENE

1. Fire Marshall
2. Fire Chief
3. Assistant Chief for technical service
4. Fire Inspector responsible for the specific building
5. Senior Fire Officer at the fire scene
6. Photographer
7. Utilities personnel (particularly electrician)

FIRE REPORT
 Reports of all fires regardless of sizes should be completed.
 This report should be initiated and completed w/ out delay.

The contents of the fire report may contain the following:

a) Time of incident;
b) Location of incident;
c) Size and nature of fire;
d) Fire involvement;
e) Fire department plant response
f) Injuries and fatalities;
g) Time fire extinguished;
h) Most probable cause;
i) Follow-up and corrective action require

Determining the cause of fire

 There are several factors which can be observed when arriving at the scene of a fire which will
facilitate efforts to determine the cause.
a) Color of Smoke and flame
 Burning substances can often be identified by the color emitted during the burning process.
26
 b) The odors connected w/ that particular fire
 gasoline, alcohol, insulation, chemicals, solvents, have distinct odors which can be
recognized.
c) Size, intensity and spread
d) Methods of extinguishments
e) One or more fire involved
f) Evidence indicating actual cause of fire

Basic Method Of A Fire Investigation

 Using the scientific method in most fire or explosion incidents should involve the following six major
steps from inception through final analysis.

1. Receiving the assignment

 The investigator should be notified of the incident, what his/her role will be, and what
he/she is to accomplished.
2. Preparing for the investigation
 The investigator should marshal his/her forces and resources and plan the conduct of the
investigation.
3. Examination of the scene
 The investigator should conduct the examination of the scene and collect basic data
necessary to the analysis.
4. Recording the scene
 The scene should be photographed and diagrammed, and notes of the progress of the
investigation should be made. Valuable empirical data should be noted and preserved.
5. Collecting and preserving evidence
 Valuable physical evidence should be recognized, properly collected, and preserved for
further testing and evaluation or courtroom presentation.
6. Analyzing the incident
 An incident scenario or failure analysis should be described, explaining the origin, cause,
and responsibility for the incident. This analysis should be reported in the proper forum to
help prevent reoccurrence.

LEGAL CONSIDERATION
 Legal consideration impact upon every phase of a fire investigation. Whatever the capacity in which
a fire investigator functions (public or Private), it is important that the investigator be informed
regarding all relevant legal restrictions, requirements, obligations, standards, and duties. Failure to do
so could jeopardize the reliability of any investigation and could subject the investigator to civil or
criminal liability.

Preliminary Legal Considerations

1) Authority to conduct the investigation

 The investigator should ascertain the basis and extent of his or her authority to conduct the
investigation. Normally the authority is public or governmental or otherwise private (e.g., in the event
of investigation conducted in anticipation of litigation).
 Proper identification of the basis of authority will assist the investigator in complying with applicable
legal requirements and limitations.
 The scope of authority granted to investigators from the public or governmental sector is usually
specified within the codified laws of each jurisdiction, as supplemented by applicable local, agency,
and department rules and regulation. If such requirements are not followed, the results of the
investigation may not be admissible and the investigator may face sanctions.

2) Right of Entry
 The fact that an investigator does not necessarily mean that he or she has the legal right to enter the
property that was involved in the fire. The Right of Entry is frequently enumerated by statues, rules
and regulation. Illegal entry upon the property could result in charges against the investigator.

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  Once a legal right of entry onto the property has been established, the investigator should notify any
officer or authority then in charge of the scene of his or her entry. Once on the property, extreme
caution should be exercised to preserve the scene and protect the evidence.

3) Method of Entry
 Whereas “right of Entry” refers to the legal authority to be on a given premise, or fire scene, this
section concern itself with how that authority is obtained.
 There are four (4) general methods by which entry may be obtained; CONSENT, EXIGENT
CIRCUMSTANCE, ADMINISTRATIVE SEARCH WARRANT, and CRIMINAL SEARCH
WARRANT.

Consent
 The person is lawful control of the property can grant the investigator permission or consent to
enter and remain on the property. This is a voluntary act on the part of the responsible person and
can be withdrawn at any time by that person. When consent is granted,. The investigator should
document it. One effective method is to have the person in lawful control sign a written waiver.

Exigent Circumstances
 It is generally recognized that the fire department has the legal authority to enter a property to
control and extinguish a hostile fire. It has also been held that the fire department has an
obligation to determine the origin and cause of the fire in the interest of the public good and
general welfare.
Administrative Search Warrant
 The purpose of an administrative search warrant is generally to allow those charged with the
responsibility, by ordinance or statute, to investigate the origin and cause of a fire and fulfill their
obligation according to the law.
 An administrative Search Warrant may be obtained from a court of competent jurisdiction upon
showing that consent has not been granted or has been denied. It is issued upon that traditional
showing of: “probable cause”, as is the criminal search warrant, although it is still necessary to
demonstrate that the search must be justified by a showing of reasonable governmental interest. If
a valid public interest justifies the intrusion, then valid and reasonable probable cause has been
demonstrated.
 The scope of an administrative search warrant is limited to the investigation of the origin and
cause of the fire. If during the search permitted by an administrative search warrant, evidence of a
crime is discovered, the search should be stopped and a criminal search warrant obtained.
Criminal Search Warrant
 the purpose of a criminal Search warrant is to allow the entry of government officials or agents to
search for and collect any evidence of crime. A criminal Search Warrant is obtained upon the
traditional showing of probable cause, in that the investigator is required to show that probable
cause exist that a crime has been committed.
 The investigator’s application for obtaining a criminal search warrant typically includes; the
purpose and scope of the search; the location, against whom the search is directed, the time in
which the search is to initiated and concluded, and the evidence that can be expected to be
recovered.

4) Evidence
 Rules of evidence regulate the admissibility of proof at trial. The purpose of rules of evidence is to
ensure that the proof offered is reliable. A goal of every fire investigation is to produce RELIABLE
documents, samples, statements, information, data and documents.

RULES FOR THOSE INVESTIGATING CASE OF FIRE

1) First appearance on the scene

A} Note time of arrival
2) Inspect building and surrounding area
A} Note stages of spread of fire C} Note ventilation arrangements and air passages
B} Note shape and color of flames and smoke D} Verification of person on the spot:
1} person present
2} Person unexpectedly absent

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 3} Behavior and actions of person present
E} Note means of access to the spot
3) Inspection of objects razed from fire.
1} Where were the Placed? 3} In what state are they?
2} When was discovered?
4) Analysis of the first statements.
1} Who discovered the fire? 8} What persons are familiar with the place where
2} When was it discovered? the fire broke out?
3} How was it discovered? 9} What persons had been there recently?
4} When was the first suggested? 10} Who placed the objects found in safe place?
5} From whom did they hear about it? a} Where were taken from?
6} When did they leave the fire station? b} Where were they taken to?
7} When did they arrive at the fire?

In searching the fire scene for evidence, the investigator should be looking for “Plants and Trailers” as
priority:

 The word plants refers to the preparation and gathering of materials to start afire. Newspaper, combustible
plastic, rags, clothing and other combustible materials have been used as plants. However, in many arson fires
in the City of Manila, fire setters commonly used many rolls of toilet paper which they will weave into a rope
to connect several glass jars full of gasoline. Then they will place quantities of old newspaper around the
glass jars. A wax candle is usually used as the device to start the fire, whether alone or connected with an
ordinary alarm clock.

 An accelerant which is often a combustible liquid to hasten the start of the fire is used in connection with the
plant. The most commonly used accelerants are gasoline, fuel oil, paint thinner and lighter fluid. These
accelerants may be sprayed or poured on the filled combustible materials. A plant may be placed around an
ignition device, which may range from something simple as matches or a candle to some sophisticated
electronic mechanism. However, the most common ignition device could either be a match or a lighted candle

 When searching the point of origin (inverted cone pattern of the most devastated area} do not overlook the
possibility that a match or a candle has been used as the device to start the fire. In connection with the match,
search for partially burned matches or matchbox or packages. Any of these found at the point of origin should
be carefully preserved for examination by the police chemist. In connection with the candle, if the ashes under
the inverted cone pattern are carefully sifted the fragile remains of wax and the wick of the candle used to
start the fire may be recovered. This too is evidence and should be meticulously preserved for the benefit of
the police chemist.

 In order to spread the fire within the room or throughout the structure, a device called trailer is utilized by
arsonist. Flammable liquids, usually gasoline are used by pouring them on the floor as stated before, toiled
tissue paper, adroitly woven into ropelike pattern were used to conduct one plant and accelerant to another
scattered strategically in a room or throughout the building.

 The investigator must be able to recognize plants and trailers as well as the accelerants, in whatever form or
shape they may be. He must preserve and mark them for identification to aid the chemist and other expert
who will examine them later on.

 Sometimes, the fire setter will use more exotic fuels, Sometimes an arsonist will attempt to disguise the odor
of the flammable liquids. This is done by spraying strong odorants, such as ammonia, perfume or deodorants
in the area to power the odor of the accelerant. If the firemen encounter an odor of ammonia when no
ammonia should be present an explanation is necessary.

MOTIVES
 Fires are set by two types of the fire setters:

1) Person with motive:

a) Those with desire to defraud the insurer.
b) Employees or such other persons who have a grievance – fire of revenge
c) Those who desire to conceal evidence of other crime
d) Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation.
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2) Persons without Motive
a) Mental cases c) Pyromaniacs
b) Pathological Fire Setters d) Psychos

In determining motive an investigator concentrates on the three Major Factors:

1) Point of Origin of the fire 3) Identity of persons who might benefit from
2) Modus Operandi of arsonist fire.

 The first two factors aid in discoveries if the fire was set by an arsonist with a rational motive or by a
pyro. The mental Case arsonist uses those portions of the building accessible to the public as the point of
origin of his fires. Fire bugs don’t set fire to their own homes or place of business they set fire in places
where they can make ready entry and hurried exit. The fire bugs do not also use extensive preparation as
an arsonist with a normal motive. The Pathological fire setters use few twist of newspaper, rubbish and
possible anything found on the place which can easily be flame and match ignition device. The arsonist
with rational motive employs more elaborate preparation usually marked by accelerants.

Classification of Fire According To Motive:

1) Fire for profits

a. Fraud Fires b. Business Fires
c. Partnerships/ Household fires

2) Fires for indirect profit

a. To stifle competition b. To stimulate new business
c. To secure employment

3) Hate Fire
a. ANGER FIRES
 an anger fire is usually set within minutes of hours of the incident which has flamed a person to
such fury than he wants to hurt his enemy by burning him out. The trouble may be business
dispute, quarrel between neighbors, fight between husband and wife.
b. SPITE FIRE
 This is usually set within hours or days otherwise the desire to get even fades out under the more
pressing demands of daily life. The fire setters feeling have been hurt and has became resentful
but he is the type who cannot attack directly the subject of his hatred. The opportunity to set a fire
must be a convenient one.
c. REVENGE FIRES
 a revenge fire is so termed because it is set by a person who may have harbored a grudge for
years which may severe to trigger the fire. The strange things about revenge motivation is that
hatred lasts for so many years. A revenge fire is characterized by its direct attack against another
person. It is far closer to an anger fire than those of blazes set for spite. Persons who seek
revenge have permitted their anger to smolder before breaking out.

4) Crime and Arson

 Arson is now employed either to facilitate the commission of a crime o to destroy evidence of a
crime.
 Three Methods which may help in solving the problem of proving that the fire was or was not a
criminal design.
1} Positive evidence – competent witness or witnesses speaks for itself
2} Circumstantial evidence
3} Confession
 To prove the guilt of the accused beyond a reasonable doubt.
1. Fire – building in question was burned; the burning was by criminal design and by a person
criminally responsible.
2. Incendiary Motive – not necessary to prove by direct and positive evidence.
3. Motive – not an essential element of the crime necessary for conviction.

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 4. Proof of guilt – it is necessary to show by facts or circumstances or both, that he could and
actually did set the fire in question. If he procured another to set the fire of if he aided or
abetted the real incendiary, he is equally guilty and liable to prosecution.

TECHNIQUES OF ARSON

1) Fuel used in arson

 The most commonly used fuel in arson are gasoline, fuel motor oil, alcohol and other flammable
liquids. Some fuels explode; some very difficult to ignite unless large quantities are used; or some
volatile flammable liquids is used as primer. Others leave tell-tale traces or give detectable smoke
and odors.

 The choice of fuels readily points the skill and ability of the suspect in the arson case, The fuels that
are more difficult to obtain and those of a more complex mixture, are of the type likely to be selected
by the professional arsonist. The impulsive, amateurish fire setter who is setting his first fire for profit
will select a more common and available fuels. He or she will show little planning or foresight in the
selection and will often use so much fuel that traces are left behind for the investigator.
2) Chemical Igniters
 Chemical Igniters are propellants that are self-igniting usually comprising two constituents. The
chemical referred to are some exotic compounds found only in laboratories.

EXAMPLE: calcium hypochlorite + brake fluid

Potassium Chlorate + sugar + sulfuric acid
Metallic sodium + water

EQUIPMENT TO DETECT ACCELERANTS:

1) Catalytic Combustion Detectors

2) Flame Ionization Detectors
3) Detector Using Chemical Color Tests
4) Gas Chromatography
5) Infra-Red Spectrophotometers

THE FATAL FIRE:

Identification of the victim or victims:

1) The sex of the body. In cases of badly burned, almost destroyed bodies, sex may still be determined by
an examination of the torso by the pathologists. The deep seated organs in the pelvic region the prostate
of the male and the uterus of the female are usually among the last organs to be destroyed by fire.
2) Fingerprints. Probably the most accurate and positive means of identification is by fingerprints.
3) Dental Features. Teeth have individual characteristics that provide another reliable method of
identification. This rare utilized because very few Filipinos, except the very rich, x-rayed their teeth.
Likewise, not all dentists keep an up-to-date dental record of their patients.
4) Skeletal Features. Bones resist the effects of harsh environmental conditions even heat.
5) Serologic and cytological studies. These may be used to determine blood group and RB type, as well as
other factors such as whether the sample is animal blood or human blood.
6) Autopsy examination. A postmortem examination may reveal such things as occupational scars and
marks, tattoos, evidence of pre-existing diseases or prior injuries, congenital defects, operative scars and
the absence of organs due to surgical procedures. These may be compared with the medical and
employment records of the victim.

Determination of the Cause of Death

1) The absence of any carbon monoxide in the blood of a dead body found in a burned structure will be
strong circumstantial evidence that the person was dead when the fire began. Was the victim alive during

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 the fire? There are occasions when the fire victim will die from the fire without any carbon monoxide
being present in the blood and soot in natural airways to the lungs.

2) This occurs when the victim is hit on the face with an extremely hot fire, such as the blast from a
flammable liquid explosion, the backfire from a furnace, or the fire ball from a rear and automobile
accident.

3) The pugilistic position that may bodies assume in a fire means nothings. To the uniformed, the pugilistic
position demonstrates the victim’s attempt to defend him. This is not true. The position is the result of the
contraction of larger muscle from the heat of the fire. The posture, in which a body is found in a fire-
death, has no connection with its postmortem posture. The shock that the body experience after a burn is
the cause of many fire deaths.

Determination of the Manner of Death

1) Natural Causes- ex. Heart attack, chronic disease or any other natural disease process.
2) Accidental Causes.
3) Homicide. A fire is often used as a means to hide homicide.
4) Suicide
Handling of Evidence/s

1) The investigator must wear a pair of sturdy rubber gloves when collecting any evidence in the fire scene.
The gloves protect the hands from the undue effects of the accelerants or any caustic chemicals found in
the debris; they prevent exposure of the hands to infection, cuts or the entrance of foreign materials into
open wounds or cracks; they preserve the evidence from contamination with the investigator’s
fingerprints.
2) Top collect samples of wood, wire, pipe and other materials for evidence, the investigator will need a kit
of hand tools and a tool-box to transport them.
3) As the evidence is collected and marked for identification purposes, it should be entered on some type of
inventory sheet. This inventory sheet should be at least in duplicate and should carry the name or similar
data to that found in the evidence thing.
4) The evidence collected and packaged property must be transported to the CI-Laboratory with the chain
custody intact. The result must determine if an accelerant is present; it can analyze traces from the fire
debris and positively identify a charred wick and wax of a sperm candle used by the arsonist in starting a
fire. It can also match marks made by a tool against the suspected tool. It can take partially burned
matches and compare the torn ends with the stubs in the matchbooks. It is noteworthy to remember that if
the investigator does his job properly in the collection and submission of evidence, the laboratory can
help establish the guilt or innocence of the suspect. However, the laboratory is not substantial for a good
investigation. It is merely one of the tools used by a good professional investigator.

LIGHTNING
 it is a form of static electricity or an electrical current of great magnitude, producing tremendous
amperage.
 the discharge of an electrical charge on a cloud or to an opposite charge on another cloud or on the
ground.
 Lightning strike result in fires only when sufficient heat is produced to ignite combustible materials.

Two (2) General types of Lightning Bolts:

1) The HOT BOLT – is one of longer duration and will ignite combustible.
2) The COLD BOLT – is of shorter duration has a tendency to shutter and splinter the building materials or
even literally blown a structure apart.

Spontaneous Heating:
 Spontaneous heating and ignition is the result of the slow oxidation of a combustible material. If this
slow oxidation, with its heat production (exothermic decomposition-or a chemical change in which
there is a liberation heat) continues long enough and the heat is confined, the ignition temperature of
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 the material will be reached. At this point, spontaneous ignition can take place. This has been defined
as burning of a combustible material without an external source of fire.

Two (2) General categories of Spontaneous Heating:

1) Easily OXIDIZED COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS that produce sufficient exothermic decomposition at

ordinary temperature to reach their ignition points. Ex. Vegetable and animal oils and Metallic sulphides
2) ORGANIC AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS subject to fermentation. Ex. Hay and grains.

ACCIDENTAL FIRE CAUSES:

1) Smoking- due to carelessness of the smoker or careless disposal of smoking materials.

2) Electrical Fire Causes:
 The source of almost all electrical fires can be classified as originating from three (3) conditions:
a) Arcing
b) Spark
c) Over heating

Arcing
 if a short circuit or break in an electrical conductor occurs, the electric current tries to continue to
flow in the open space created. It creates an arc. The intensity of the arc depends upon the voltage
and amount of current flowing.
 The temperature necessary for fire to burn through a conductor is in the neighborhood of 2,000 F.

Sparks
 most commonly occur as the result of electric (arc) welding operations or from the arcing of short
circuits.
 The tremendous heat created during the electrical welding process creates a bond between the
electrode and the material being bonded (merged or united). This also creates many sparks and
glowing globules of hot metal. If combustibles materials are in the vicinity, the sparks and molten
metal can cause a fire.

Sparks (defined)
 (fiery particle)-a small piece of a burning substance through off in combustion or produced
friction.
Spark (defined)-(electricity)
 electric discharge a quick bright discharge of electricity between two (2) conductors.

Overheating
 damage to electrical conductors can result from heat, exposing them in two (2) ways;
a) The fire that heats the conductors from the outside.
b) Overheating from an internal source.

External Heating
 can result from a fire that begins to melt a copper conductor by constant application of heat.
 When the wires have reached their melting point (approximately 2,000 F) Blistering will occur on the
surface of the wire. Shortly thereafter, the wire will begin to distort, usually elongating or thinning.

Internal Heating
 is most often caused by continuous over-current or short circuits.
 However, the short circuiting is often the result of the continuous internal overheating. As the
conductor begins to overheat, it will transmit this heat throughout the circuit. The first will be
softening of the insulation, which may be rubber or plastic. If plastic, it is usually Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC). After the insulation is softened, the continued heat will begin to char and crack it, eventually
destroying it. As the insulation is ruined, adjacent conductors can contact each other, creating short
circuits and the resulting arcing.

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Incendiary Fire Causes:
 When all accidental and providential causes have been eliminated, the investigator begins to look for
an incendiary cause.
 This requires the answers to a series of questions about the fire.
 A well trained fire investigator will automatically look for the unusual, the absence of the normal, the
presence of something different from what one would normally expect for the occupancy.

Plants and Trailers:

 In searching the fire scene for evidence, the investigator should be looking for “Plants” and
“Trailers” as a priority.

Plants
 refers to the preparation and gathering of materials to start a fire.
 Ex. Newspaper, Rags, combustible plastics, clothing, curtains cotton waste etc.
Trailers
 refers to any devices used by the arsonist to insure the spread of fire with in the room or
throughout the structure.
 Ex. Gasoline, paint, thinner, lighter fluids these accelerant may be sprayed or poured on the
filled materials (Plants.)
LEGAL ASPECT OF FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION:

ARSON defined –
 is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.
 It is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be proved
otherwise, no crime exist. The law presumes that a fire is accidental , hence criminal design must be
shown. Fire cause by accident or criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or
negligence does not constitute arson.

What is motive?

 According to black law dictionary, Motive is cause or reason that moves the will and induces action.
 It is also an inducement, or that which leads or tempts the minds to indulge a criminal act.

Motive- is the moving power which impels to action for a definite result.
Intent – is the purpose to use a particular means to effect such result.

 Arson according to Lewis and Yarnell in their book Pathological Fire setting state that “ARSON is a
very personal crime. It is also a very secretive crime. It can be committed without confronting the
victim or victims. The crime is personal in that frequently the victim can provide the investigator with
both the motive and the suspect. Although the victim may not be responsible for the crime, he may
the information of vital importance to the investigator. It is not unusual for the fire setter to be in
some manner closely associated with the victim.

What constitute Arson?

1) Burning
o to constitute burning pyrolysis must takes place. In other words, there must be burning or
changing i.e the fiber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.
2) Willfulness
o means intentional, and implies that th act was done purposely and intentionally.
3) Malice
o it denoted hatred or desire for revenge.
4) Motive
o is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.
5) Intent
o is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.

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Motives of Arson:

a. Desire to gain profit. d. Desire to conceal i. Sabotage

b. Incendiarism in another crime j. Riots
Industry e. Jealousy k. Radical terrorism
c. Revenge and Spite f. Intimidation
g. Juvenile Delinquency l. Suicide
h. Insanity

Three (3) types of Pyromania according to Wilhelm Stekel’s book:

1) A person who is sexually excited by watching the fire.

2) Uses fire as a defense, sitting fires during a period of enforced sexual abstinence.
3) A person uses fire setting as a total sexual substitute, to free the fire setter from an undesirable sexual
habit.

Methods of Proof in Arson

 Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed. Corpus Delicte must
be shown and identity of the arsonist must be established. Corpus Delicte (body of the crime) is the
fact of that;

1) Burning
o that there was a fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint, firemen responding
to the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also indicate location.

2) Criminal Design
o must show that it was willfully and intentionally done. The presence of incendiary devices,
flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is not accidental.

3) Evidence of Intent
o when valuables were removed fro the building before the fire , ill-feeling between the
accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to put off the fire and
such other indications.

THE TELL TALE SIGNS OF ARSON;

 These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the scene will suspects arson or they maybe so
well concealed that moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will be required.

1. Burned Building
o the type of the building may indicate a set of fire under certain circumstance. A fire of
considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it is modern
concrete or semi-concrete building.

2. Separate fires
o when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building. The fire is certainly suspicious.

3. Color of Smoke
o some fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The observation of the smoke
must be made at the start of the fire scene once the fire has assumed a major proportion, the
value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used by the
arsonist.

4. Direction of Travel
o while it is admitted that no two fires burn in an identical fashion, yet it can be shown that fire
makes normal progress through various types of building materials, combustibility of

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 contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an
experienced investigator can determine whether a fire spread abnormally fast.

5. Intensity
o the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes indicate that some
accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a building and the investigator
must look for further evidence pointing to use of such accelerant. Difficulty in extinguishing
the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of such fluid as gasoline and kerosene.

6. Odor
o the odor of gasoline , alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often used as
accelerant is characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this telltale sign.
Most of fire -setters are inclined to use substance which will make the blaze certain and at the
same time burn up any evidence of their crime.

7. Condition of Content
o persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects of value either materially
or semi-mentally. Store and other business establishments oftentimes remove a major portion
of their content or replace valuable merchandise without of style articles.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1613 AMENDING THE LAW OF ARSON

SECTION 1. ARSON- any person who burns or sets fire to the property of another shall be punished by prison Mayor.
The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire to his own property under circumstances which expose to
danger the life of property of another.
SECTION 2. DESTRUCTIVE ARSON- the penalty of Reclusion Temporal in its maximum period of Reclusion
Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:
1) Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or combustible materials
are stored.
2) Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture, education or social
services.
3) Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble.
4) Any train, airplane, or any aircraft, vessel or water craft or conveyance for transportation of peron or
property.
5) Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or other official
proceeding
6) Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public or private
market, theater or movie house or any similar place or building.
7) Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested area.
SECTION 3. Other Cases of Arson - The penalty of Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if
the property burned is any of the following:
1) Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies
2) Any inhabited house or dwelling
3) Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel
4) Any plantation, farm, pastureland, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest
5) Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill, or mill central
6) Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse.
SECTION 4. Special Aggravating Circumstances in Arson.-The penalty in any case of arson shall be imposed in its
maximum period:
1) If committed with intent to gain
2) If committed for the benefit or another
3) If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property burned
4) If committed by a syndicate- The offense is committed by a syndicate if it planned or carried out by a group of
three (3) or more persons.
SECTION 5. Where Death Results From Arson- If by a reason of or on the occasion of arson death results, the
penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to death shall be imposed.
SECTION 6. Prima Facie Evidence Of Arson:
1) If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment
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 2) If substantial amount of flammable substances or materials are stored within the building not necessary, in the
business of the offender nor for household use.
3) If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or materials soaked therewith or
containers thereof, or any chemical, electrical, mechanical or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, or
ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burn building or property.
4) If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of the issuance of the
policy.
5) If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two (2) fires have occurred in the
same or other premises own or under the control of the offender and or insurer.
6) If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effect insured and stored in a building or property have been
withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
7) If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made were the fires in exchange for the desistance of
the offender or for the safety of the person or property of the victim.
SECTION 7. Conspiracy to Commit Arson- conspiracy to commit arson shall be punish by prison mayor in its
minimum period.
SECTION 8. Confiscation Of Object Of Arson- The building which is the object of arson including the land on
which it is situated shall be confiscated and escheated to the state, unless the owner thereof can proved that he has no
participation in nor knowledge of such arson despite the exercise of due diligence on his part .
SECTION 9. Repealing Clause- The provisions of article 320-326 B of the RPC and all laws, executive orders, rules
and regulations, or part thereof, in consistent with the provision of this decree are hereby repealed or amended
accordingly.
PENALTY
a. Reclusion perpetua from 20 years and 1 day or d. Prison correctional 6 months and 1 day to 6
40 years years
b. Reclusion Temporal 12 years and 1 day to 20 e. Arresto Mayor 1 month and 1 day to 6 months
years f. Arresto Menor 1 day to 30 days
c. Prison mayor 6 years and 1 day to 12 years
-------END-------

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