Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON ONVESTIGATION
Chapter 1
FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
Introduction:
The development of methods and tools for using and controlling fire was
critical in human evolution and is believed to have allowed early humans to spread
northward from the warm climate of either origin into the more severe
environment of Europe and Asia. The evidence of early fire use is often
ambiguous because of the difficulty in determining whether the archeological
evidence is the result of accidental fire or its deliberate use. Such evidence include
finds of occupation sites with fired or baked soils, bones or stones that have been
changed through the application of heat, and areas containing thick layers of ash
and charcoal that might have hearth structures.
The earliest finds, in Kenya and Ethiopia, date from about 1.5 million years
ago. Less equivocal evidence exists for deliberate fire use in the Paleolithic period,
beginning about 500,000 years ago. Neolithic sites have yielded objects that may
have been used in fire, making drill for producing friction, heat in wood and flints
for striking sparks from iron pyrites.
In legend and religion, fire is common thing. For example, in Persian
literature fire was discovered during a fight of a hero with a dragon. A stone that
the hero used as a weapon missed the monster and struck a rock. Light shone forth
and human beings saw fire for the first time. In Greek mythology, Prometheus was
bestowed with god like powers when he stole the god’s fire to give it to humanity.
Fire has also played a central role in religion. It has been used as a god and
recognized as a symbol of home and family in many cultures. Fire has also been a
symbol of purification and of immortality and renewal, hence the lighting of
flames of remembrance. The Temple of Vesta in Rome was an outstanding
example of the importance of fire to the Romans. Vesta was originally the goddess
of the fire and her shrine was in every home.
We can only guess that pre-historic people may have gained knowledge of
fire from observing things in nature. So the origin of fire before the dawn of
civilization may be traced to an erupting volcano, or a forest fire, started by
lighting. No one really knows where on the earth surface or at what stage of early
Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 1

history man learned how to start a fire and how to make use of it. Yet, today, man
has had fire as:
 source of warmth and light
 protection against enemies
 cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to suit man’s body structure
 provides processes for modifying chemicals into medicines
 provides heat to convert wood, metals, and bones into domestic tools or
instruments for aggression
While the application of fire has served man’s needs its careless and wanton
use exact an enormous and dreadful toll from society in life and property. Hence,
man’s understanding of fire would enable him to develop the technology of
prevention and control to a considerable advance state (Abis).
WHAT IS FIRE?
Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel

and an oxidizer- typically the oxygen in the air. Such rapid chemical reaction
releases energy in the form of heat and light.
Fire is heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of oxygen, or in
some cases gaseous chlorine, with other materials. The light is in the form of a
flame, which is composed of glowing particles of the burning material and certain
gaseous products that are luminous at the temperature of the burning material.

THE START OF FIRE
All matters exist of one of the three states – solid, liquid and gas (vapor).
The atoms or molecules of a solid are packed closely together, and that of a liquid
is packed loosely, the molecules of a vapor are not packed together at all, they are
free to move about. In order for a substance to oxidize, its molecules must be pretty
well surrounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of solids or liquids are too
tightly packed to be surrounded. Thus, only vapors can burn.
However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its molecules move about

rapidly. If enough heat is applied, some molecules break away from the surface to
form a vapor just above the substance. This vapor can now mixed with oxygen. If
there is enough heat to raise the vapor to its ignition temperature (temperature
needed to burn), and if there is enough oxygen present, the vapor will oxidize
rapidly – it will start to burn.
The start of burning is the start of a Chain Reaction (the burning process).
Vapor from heated fuel rises, mixes with air and burns. It produces enough heat to
release more vapor and to draw in air to burn that vapor. As more vapor burns,
flame production increases. More heat is produced, more vapor released, more air
drawn into the flames and more vapor burns, the chain reaction keeps increasing –
the size of the fire increases until fuel is consumed.

CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
Obviously, three things are required for combustion or fire: FUEL

(Combustible materials to vaporize and burn), OXYGEN (Oxygen in air is the
common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel vapor, air contains 28% O, 78 N,
1% inert gas), and HEAT (to raise the temperature of the fuel vapor to its ignition
temperature). The combinations of these three elements form the so-called Fire
Triangle.
The Fire Triangle
Oxygen Heat
Fuel
Figure 1
Figure 1 will show that if any side of the fire triangle is missing, a fire
cannot start or if any side of the fire triangle is removed, the fire will go off.
With the presence of the elements of fire, combustion may take place.
Before a fuel will burn, it must be changed to its vapor state. In a fire situation, this
change usually results from the initial application of heat. The process is known as
PYROLYSIS. Pyrolysis (also known as thermal decomposition) is defined as the
“chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat”. In this case, the
decomposition causes a change from a solid state to vapor state. If the vapor mixes
sufficiently with air and heated to high temperature, combustion results.

The combustion process is better represented by the fire tetrahedron.
The Fire Tetrahedron
Oxygen Heat
Fuel Chain Reaction
Figure 2
The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the

combustion process because it has room for the chain reaction and because each
face touches the other three faces.
The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is that:
The tetrahedron illustrates how flaming combustion is supported and sustained
through the chain reaction. In this sense, the chain reaction face keeps the other
three faces from falling apart.
The fire tetrahedron also explains the flaming mode of combustion. The
modes of combustion are either Flaming mode or Surface mode (Glowing–
represented by the fire triangle).
A condensed phased combustion is called glowing combustion
A gas-phased combustion is known as flame
If the process is confined with pressure it is called explosion
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it produced a detonation

PROPERTIES OF FIRE
A. The Physical properties
1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance

to the weight of an equal volume of water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the

volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of

a liquid.
4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of

molecules.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure

of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at which

the substance must be heated in order to initiate combustion.
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at

which vapors are evolved fast enough to support combustion.
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid forms a

vapor-air mixture that ignites (mixture with in the explosive range).
To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature must be raised until

ignition point is reached. Thus, before a fuel start to burn or before it can be
ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain degree of temperature. When the
temperature of a certain substance is very high, it releases highly combustible
vapors known as FREE RADICALS (combustible vapors such as hydrogen gas,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen).
During the process of pyrolysis, the following are involved:

 the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point,
 decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor,
 decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the

fuel (free radicals)
 free radicals undergo combustion.
B. The Chemical Properties
1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed

or is added before the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy (heat)

thus they produce substances with less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which

combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent (air), react.
Example of oxidation is combustion which is the same as actual
burning (rapid oxidation)
4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense

heat) gases. It is a combustion product and a manifestation of fire
when it is in its gas-phased combustion.
Types of Flames:
a. Based on Color and Completeness of Combustibility of Fuel
1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red, deposit soot at the bottom of a

vessel being heated due to incomplete combustion and has a
low temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is complete combustion

of fuel and has relatively high temperature.
b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture
1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a Bunsen-type laboratory

burner where hydrocarbon (any substance containing primarily
carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly mixed with air before
reaching the flame zone.
2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas (fuel) alone is forced

through a nozzle into the atmosphere which diffuse in the
surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable mixture.
The candle flame is an example of diffusion flame governed
purely by molecular diffusion, and the flame of the
oxyacetylene torch. (diffused – dispersed, widely spread)
c. Based on Smoothness
1. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a smooth path

through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent Flame – are those having unsteady, irregular flows.

As physical size, gas density or velocity is increased, all
laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.
Chapter 2
FIRE ELEMENTS
As mentioned in part one, fire has been described as having three

components: fuel, heat, and oxygen. This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle,
which symbolized, in the most basic terms, a chemical relationship. The additional
component needed to explain flaming combustion is a chemical chain reaction
shown in the fire tetrahedron.
THE FUELS
FUELS (Combustible Materials)– fuel is matter and matter exist in three

physical states: solid, liquid and gas. Solids melt to become liquids, and these may
vaporize and become gases. The basic rule is that at high enough temperature all
fuels can be converted to gases. And each of the physical states exhibits different
physical and chemical properties that directly affect a fuel’s combustibility. For
example, gasoline as a liquid does not burn, it is the vapors rising from the liquid
that burn. Likewise, wood, the most common solid fuel, is not flammable, but
gives of flammable vapors (free radicals).
FUEL is also a material that provides useful energy. Fuels are used to heat
and cook food, power engines, and produce electricity. Some fuels occur naturally
and others are artificially created. Such natural fuels are coals, petroleum, and
natural gases obtained from underground deposits that were formed million years
ago from the remains of plants and animals. They are called fossil fuels, which
account for about 90% of the energy people use today.
Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels, certain types of rock and sand,
and biomass.
Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air. But some –
especially chemical fuels used in rockets – need special oxidizers in order to burn.
Nuclear fuels do not burn but release energy through the fission (splitting) of
fusion (joining together) of atoms.

Classification of Combustible Materials
1. Class A Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials that are usually
made of organic substances such as wood and wood-based products. It
includes some synthetic or inorganic materials like rubber, leather, and
plastic products.
2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable liquids such
as alcohol, acidic solutions, oil, liquid petroleum products, etc.
3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such as

materials used on electrical wiring and other electrical appliances.
4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such as

magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.
General Categories of Fuel
1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic, natural or

synthetic, and metallic solid materials.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable liquid fuels and

chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are

capable of ignition.
The Solid Fuels
The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cloth. Its burning rate
depends on its configuration. For example, solid fuels in the form of dust will burn
faster than bulky materials.
Types of Flammable solids

a. Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary accepted

combustibles: wood, paper and so on. The vapors released by their chemical
decomposition support flaming combustion. This exemplifies a gas-to-gas reaction:
the vapors released mixed with oxygen in the air to produce a flame.
b. Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A

common example is charcoal. Chemical decomposition does not occur because
there are no pyrolyzable elements present. No vapors are released. The glowing
combustion that results is an example of a gas-to-solid reaction.
The following are group of solid fuels:
1. Biomass – it is the name given to such replaceable organic matters like

wood, garbage and animal manure that can be use to produce energy. For example,
heat produced by burning nutshells, rice and oat hulls, and other by-products of
food processing. They are often used to operate plant equipment.
Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and wood-based products
a. Physical form – the smaller the piece of wood, the easier it is to burn.
b. Moisture content (water content) – the freshly cut wood is more difficult
to ignite and burn than dry wood.
c. Heat conductivity - a poor conductor of heat takes a longer time to ignite

than those materials that are good conductors of heat.
d. Rate and period of heating – less flammable materials don’t easily ignite
and needs direct contact with flame than highly combustible materials.
e. Rate of combustion – with an unlimited supply of oxygen, the rate of

burns increases, more heat is produced and fuel is consumed more
completely.

f. Ignition temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster it reaches

ignition point and it varies depending on the other factors above.
2. Fabrics and Textiles – almost all fibers and textiles are combustible. A
fiber is a very fine thin strand or thread like object. Fabrics are twisted or woven
fibers. And textiles are machine woven or knitted fabric.
Classification of Fibers
a. Natural Fibers – they come from plants (Coir – coconut fiber, Cotton –
seed fiber, pulp – wood fiber) , from animals (wool, silk, protein fibers –
leather), from minerals (asbestos)
b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers – organic fibers, cellulose fibers, cellulose

acetate, non-cellulose, and inorganic fibers like fiber glass, steel
Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers
a. Chemical composition – natural and synthetic organic fibers are

generally highly combustible materials especially if they are dry. Mineral
fibers and synthetic inorganic fibers are normally fire resistant materials.
b. Fiber finish or coating – fiber coating combined with organic fibers are
supportive to continued burning of fabric.
c. Fabric weight – the heavier the fabric, the greater its resistance to
ignition, thus delaying its ignition.
d. Tightness of weave – the closer the fiber are woven, the smaller the space
it contains, thus it takes a longer period to ignite it.
e. Flame retardant treatment – fabric treated with flame retardant have

higher resistance to ignition.
Fabric Ignition
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is a numerical basis of measuring the

tendency of a fabric to continuously burn once source of ignition is removed. If the
LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that it will cease to burn once the flame is
removed is also high. Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition temperature are
safer for clothing and furnishing because they do not ignite easily. Also, they do
not continue burning after the source of heat or flame is removed.
3. Plastics – plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class A except

those materials of or containing cellulose nitrate. Cellulose Nitrate is a chemical
powder used in bombs, they are also called pyroxylin.
Plastics comprise a group of materials consisting mainly of organic

substances or high molecular substances. They are solid in the finished state
although at some stage of manufacture plastics can be made to flow into a desired
shape, usually through the application of heat or pressure or both.
4. Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting from the partial

decomposition of matter under varying degrees of temperature. They are used as
fuels in the production of coal gas, water gas, and many coal compounds. They are
also used to heat buildings and to provide energy for industrial machinery.
The forms of coal are lignite or brown coal, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous
coal, anthracite. Bituminous coal is the most plentiful and important coal used by
industry. It contains more carbon and produces more heat than either lignite or sub-
bituminous coal. It is also the coal best suited for making coke. Antracite is the
least plentiful and hardest coal. It contains more carbon and produces more heat
than other coals. However, antracite is difficult to ignite and burns slowly.
5. Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called bags

and used as a fuel chiefly in areas where coal and oil are scarce. In Ireland and
Scotland, for example, peat is cut formed in blocks, and dried; the dried bloks are
then burned to heat homes.
The Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, but some synthetic liquids
are also produced. Petroleum is also called crude oil. They may be refined to
produce gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene.
Other fuel oils obtained by refining petroleum to distillate oil and residual
oils. Distillate oils are light oils, which are used chiefly to heat homes and small
buildings. Residual oils are heavy, and used to provide energy to power utilities,
factories and large ships.
Oil-based paint products are also highly flammable liquids.
In the process of vaporization, flammable liquids release vapor in much the
same way as solid fuels. The rate of vapor is greater for liquids than solids, since
liquids have less closely packed molecules. In addition, liquids can release vapor
over a wide range, example, gasoline starts to give vapor at –40C (-45 F).
This makes gasoline a continuous fire hazard; it produces flammable vapor at
normal temperature.
General Characteristics of Liquids
1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite shape.
2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free movement of
molecules.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of indefinite

expansion, unlike gas.
2 General Groups of Liquid Fuels
1. Flammable liquids – they are liquids having a flash point of 37.8 C

(100F) and a vapor pressure not exceeding 40 psia (2068.6 um) at 37.8
C.
2. Combustible Liquids – these liquids have flash point at or above 37.8 C
(100F).
Burning Characteristics of Liquids

Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquid which burn, the case of
ignition as well as the rate of burning can be related to the physical properties such
as vapor pressure, flash point, boiling point, and evaporation rate.
1. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range above the liquid surface at
the stored temperature have rapid rate of flame propagation.
2. Liquids having flash points above stored temperature have slower rate of
flame propagation. The chemical explanation is, it is necessary for the
fire to heat sufficiently the liquid surface to form flammable vapor-air
moisture before the flame will spread through the vapor.
Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation

and Burning of Liquids
 wind velocity - temperature - heat of combustion - latent heat of

evaporation - atmospheric pressure
Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a

liquid and from a liquid to gas. Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a
gas to liquid or liquid to a solid.
The Gas Fuels
Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movement and
random motion. They have no definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and
volume of their container.
There are both natural and manufactured flammable gases. Gas fuels flow
easily through pipes and are used to provide energy for homes, businesses, and
industries. Examples of gas fuels are acetylene, propane, and butanes.
Some properties of gas fuels are:

 compressibility – expandability - permeability (open to passage or

penetration) - diffusion (intermingling of molecules)
Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential in changes in

volume. Diffusion is the uniform distribution of molecules of one substance
through those of another. Permeability means that other substances may pass
through or permeate a gas.
Characteristics of Gas Fuels
1. They are matters that have no definite shape.

2. They are composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at constant random
motion in a straight line
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the wall of the
container and are relatively far from one another.
Classification of Gases:
1. Based on Source
a. Natural Gas – the gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provides
energy for industries. It consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and
odorless gas. Natural gas is usually mixed with compounds of foul-
smelling elements like sulfur so gas leaks can be detected.
Butane and propane, which make up a small proportion of natural gas,

become liquids when placed under large amount of pressure. When
pressure is released, they change back to gas. Such fuels, often called
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), are
easily stored and shipped as liquid.
b. Manufactured Gas – this gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used

chiefly where certain fuels are abundant and others are scarce. Coal,
petroleum, and biomass can all be converted to gas through heating
and various chemical procedures.
2. According to Physical Properties
a. Compressed Gas – gas in which at all normal temperature inside its

container; exist solely in the gaseous state under pressure. The
pressure depends on the pressure to which the container is originally
charged and how much gas remains in the container. However,
temperature affects the volume and pressure of the gas.
b. Liquefied Gas – gas, which, at normal temperature inside its

container, exist partly in the liquid state and partly in gaseous state
and under pressure as long as any liquid remains in the container. The
pressure basically depends on the temperature of the liquid although
the amount of liquid also affects the pressure under some condition. A
liquefied gas exhibits a more complicated behavior as the result of
heating.
c. Cryogenic Gas – a liquefied gas which exist in its container at

temperature far below normal atmospheric temperature, usually
slightly above its boiling point and correspondingly low to moderate
pressure. Examples of this gas are air, carbon monoxide, ethylene,
fluorine, helium, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.
3. According to Usage
a. Fuel Gases – flammable gases usually used for burning with air to
produce heat, utilize as power, light, comfort, and process. Most
commonly used gases are natural gas and the LPG (butane and
propane).
b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a large number of gases used

for industrial processes as those in welding and cutting (oxygen,
acetylene); refrigeration (freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide); chemical
processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine); water treatment
(chlorine, fluorine).
c. Medical Gases – those used for treatment such as anesthesia

(chloroform, nitrous oxide); respiratory therapy (oxygen).
Burning of Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels are already in the required Vapor State. Only the proper
intermixed with oxygen and sufficient heat is needed for ignition. Gases like
flammable liquids, always produce a visible flame, they do not smolder.
Chapter 3
Chemical Fuels
Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form, create great
amounts of heat and power. They are used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical
rocket propellants consist of both a fuel and an oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is
the chemical hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as nitrogen tetroxide,
that contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the oxidizer provides the
oxygen the fuel needs to burn. Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars.
Nuclear Fuels
Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms.
Uranium is the most commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides
nuclear energy. When the atoms of these elements undergo fission, they release
tremendous amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used mainly to generate electricity.
They also power some submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be produced
through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.
 Nuclear Fission – split of the nucleus of atoms
 Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light nuclei of atom
THE HEAT ELEMENT

HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to

molecular activity.
In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to

another or from one body to another by virtue of a difference in temperature. Heat
is energy in transit; it always flows from substance at a higher temperature to the
substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of the latter and lowering
that of the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains constant.
Heat does not flow from lower to a higher temperature unless another form of
energy transfer work is always present.
The study of energy is rooted in the subject of thermodynamics, a very

logical science that carefully defines energy, heat, temperature and other
properties.
Heat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot to a cold region.
Thermal energy is a property of matter directly associated with the concept of
temperature.
Heat and Temperature
Heat should not be confused with temperature, which is the measurement of

the relative amount of heat energy contained within a given substance.
Temperature is an intensity measurement, with units in degrees on the Celsius
(centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin scales. Heat is the measurement of quantity and
is given in British thermal units (Btu). One Btu is the amount of heat required to
raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit:
1 Btu heats 1 lb of water 1 F

1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 lb
8.33 Btu heat 1 gallon of water 1 F
Temperature is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation of

molecules; the hotness or coldness of something. Thermometer is the instrument
used to measure temperature and commonly expressed in C, F, and K.

Although it is very easy to compare the relative temperatures of two

substances by the sense of touch, it is impossible to evaluate the absolute
magnitude of the temperature by subjective reactions. Adding heat to a substance,
however, not only raises its temperature, causing it to impart a more acute
sensation of warmth, but also produces alterations in several physical properties,
which may be measured with precision.
Specific Heat
The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required raising the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance one-degree. If the heating process occurs
while the substance is maintained at a constant volume or is subjected to a constant
pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at constant volume.
Latent Heat
A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature

of a substance. Almost all substances expand in volume when heated and contract
when cooled. The behavior of water between 0 and 4C (32 and 39 F)
constitutes an important exemption to this rule. The phase of a substance refers to
its occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure substances occur
at definite temperatures and pressures. The process of changing from solid to gas is
referred to as SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid as melting and from liquid to
vapor as VAPORIZATION. If the pressure is constant, the process occurs at
constant temperature. The amount of heat to produce a change of phase is called
LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of sublimation, melting and vaporization
exist. If water is boiled in an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature
does not rise above 100C (212F), no matter how much heat is added. For
example, the heat that is absorbed without changing the temperature of the water is
the latent heat, it is not lost but expended in changing the water to steam and is
then stored as energy in the steam, it is again released when the steam is condensed
to form water (Condensation). Similarly, if the mixture of water and ice in a glass
is heated, its temperature will not change until all the ice is melted. The latent heat
absorbed is used up in overcoming the forces holding the particles of ice together
and is stored as energy in the water.

Temperature Scales
Five different temperature scales are in use today, they are:
1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0C and a boiling point of 100C. It is

widely used through out the world, particularly for scientific works.
2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-speaking countries for

purposes other than scientific works and based on the mercury
thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point of water is 32F and the
boiling point is 212 F.
3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly used thermodynamic

temperature scale. Zero is defined as absolute zero of temperature, that is,
- 273.15 c, or –459.67 F.
4. Rankine – is another temperature scale employing absolute zero as its

lowest point in which each degree of temperature is equivalent to one
degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The freezing point of water under this
scale is 492 R and the boiling point is 672 R.
5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, scientist of 31 nations

adopted a new international temperature scale with additional fixed
temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and thermodynamic
principles. The international scale is based on the property of electrical
resistively, with platinum wire as the standard for temperature between –
190  and 660C.
Heat Production
There are five ways to produce heat:

1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.
2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of

two sticks together to generate enough heat is an example.
3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other

electrical malfunction. Poor wire connections, too much resistance, a
loose ground, and too much current flowing through an improperly sized
wire are other sources of electrical heat.
4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is

greatly increased producing heat.
5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of

atomic particles (Fission or fusion respectively). The tremendous heat
energy in a nuclear power plant produces steam to turn steam turbines.
Heat Transfer
The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred
between bodies are conduction and radiation. A third method, which also involves
the motion of matter, is called convection.
Hence, there are three ways to transfer heat: Conduction, Convection, and
Radiation.
Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a

material or medium, usually a solid. Direct contact is the underlying factor in
conduction. Example, if you touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a first result of
conducted heat passing from the stove directly to your hand. In a structural fire,
superheated pipes, steel girders, and other structural members such as walls and
floors may conduct enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the structure.
Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually

air or liquid. Heat transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of
fire in structures. The supper-heated gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air,
and consequently rise, they can and do initiate additional damage. In large fires,

the high fireball that accompanies the incident is referred to as a firestorm and is an
example of convected heat.
Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight.
Radiated heat travels the speed, as does visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It
is primarily responsible for the exposure hazards that develop and exist during a
fire. Heat waves travel in a direct or straight line from their source until they strike
an object. The heat that collects on the surface of the object or building in the path
of the heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass through conduction.
Conduction requires physical contact between bodies or portions of bodies

exchanging heat, but radiation does not require contact or the presence of any
matter between the bodies. Convection occurs when a liquid or gas is in contact
with a solid body at a different temperature and is always accompanied by the
motion of the liquid or gas. The science dealing with the transfer of heat between
bodies is called heat transfer.
Oxidizing Agent (Oxygen): The 3rd Element
Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous

chemical element, the most abundant of all elements: it occurs free in the
atmosphere, forming one fifth of its volume, and in combination in water,
sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active, being able to combine with nearly all
other elements, and is essential to life processes and to combustion.
The common oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air. Air composes 21%
oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1 % inert gas (principally Argon). 21% normal oxygen
is needed to produce fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12% oxygen is
insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen can support flash point, and 16-21%
oxygen can support fire point.
Chapter 4
FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of

thermal balance and thermal imbalance.
Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the
normal behavior when the pattern is undisturbed. Thermal imbalance, on the
other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to the interference of foreign
matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the
exact point where the fire originated.
Dangerous Behavior of Fire
Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:

1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in
a confined area that occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur because of
improper ventilation. If a room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors
maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is suddenly opened, the
room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden
combustion occur, which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases

produced when there is incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of
free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash produced when temperature
rises until flash point is reached.
When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a
very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in
the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with in a few seconds.
3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists
extinguishment operations and become stronger and bigger instead.
4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the
metal post that is completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The
dust particles covering
the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that
produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.

The Three Stages of Fire
1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this stage, the following

characteristics are observed: normal room temperature, the temperature at
the base of the fire is 400-800 F, ceiling temperature is about 200 F, the
pyrolysis products are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, small
quantities of carbon monoxide and sulfides maybe present.
2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following characteristics: accelerated

pyrolysis process take place, development of convection current:
formation of thermal columns as heat rises, temperature is 800-1000 F at
the base of fire, 1200-1600 F at ceiling, pyrolytic decomposition moves
upward on the walls(crawling of the flame) leaving burnt patterns (fire
fingerprints), occurrence of flashover.
3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the following characteristics: oxygen

content drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish and heat to
develop in layers, products of incomplete combustion increase in volume,
particularly carbon monoxide with an ignition temperature of about 1125
F, ceiling temperature is 1000-1300 F, heat and pressure in the room
builds up, building/room contains large quantities of superheated fuel
under pressure but little oxygen, when sufficient supply of oxygen is
introduced, backdraft occurs.
Classification of Fires
Based on Cause
1. Natural causes – such as
 Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical reaction that results

to spontaneous combustion due to auto-ignition of organic
materials, the gradual rising of heat in a confined space until
ignition temperature is reached.
 Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural current with a

great magnitude, producing tremendous amperage and voltage.
Lightning usually strikes objects that are better electrical
conductors than air. It can cause fire directly or indirectly.

Indirectly when it strikes telephone and other transmission lines,
causing an induced line surge. It can also cause flash fire or dust
explosion. When lightning strikes steel or metal rod covered with
dust, the dust will suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion.
A lightning may be in the form of:
a. Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting

combustible materials
b. Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of splintering a

property or literally blowing apart an entire structure, produces
electrical current with tremendous amperage and very high
temperature.
 Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave mirror,

concentrating the light on a combustible material thereby igniting
it.
2. Accidental Causes – such as
 Electrical accidents in the form of:
Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections between two

points at different potentials (charge) in an electrical circuit of
relatively low resistance.
Arcing – the production of sustained luminous electrical

discharge between separated electrodes; an electric hazard that
results when electrical current crosses the gap between 2 electrical
conductors.
Sparking – production of incandescent particles when two

different potentials (charged conductors) come in contact; occurs
during short circuits or welding operations.

Induced Current – induced line surge – increased electrical

energy flow or power voltage; induced current; sudden increase of
electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating materials,
explosion of the fuse box, or burning of electrical appliances.
Over heating of electrical appliances – the increase or rising

of amperage while electric current is flowing in a transmission line
resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating materials,
maybe gradual or rapid, internal or external.
 Purely accidental causes

 Negligence and other forms of human error
3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)
If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of

accelerant, plants and trailers, then the cause of fire is intentional.
Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate

flame propagation.
Plant – the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials

needed to start a fire.
Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread

the fire.
Based on Burning Fuel (the classes of fire)
1. Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; they are the types of fire resulting from
the burning wood, paper, textiles, rubber and other carbonaceous
materials. In short, this is the type of fire caused by ordinary combustible
materials.

2. Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by flammable and or

combustible liquids such as kerosene, gasoline, benzene, oil products,
alcohol and other hydrocarbon deviations.
3. Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in live electrical
wires, equipment, motors, electrical appliances and telephone
switchboards.
4. Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the combustion of
certain metals in finely divided forms. These combustible metals include
magnesium, potassium, powdered calcium, zinc, sodium, and titanium.
FIRE FIGTHING OPERATIONS AND EXTINGUISHMENT
Fire fighting is an activity intended to save lives and property. It is one of

the most important emergency services in a community. Fire fighters battle fires
that break out in homes, factories, office buildings, shops, and other places. Fire
fighters risk their lives to save people and protect property from fires.
The people who work as fire fighters also help others who are involved in
many kinds of emergencies besides fires. For example, fire fighters rescue people
who may be trapped in cars or vehicles after an accident. They aid victims of such
disasters as typhoons, floods, landslides, and earthquakes.
Before the advent of modern fire fighting techniques, fires often destroyed
whole settlements. When a fire broke out, all the people in the community rushed
to the scene to help. Today, fire fighting organizations in most industrialized
nations have well-trained men and women and a variety of modern fire fighting
equipment.
Chapter 5
History of Fire Fighting
Most fire services around the world were formed after a major fire made
people realize that lives and property would have been saved if they had had a

proper body of people trained to fight fires. One of the first organized fire fighting
forces was established in Rome, about 500 B.C. The first fire fighters were Roman
slaves who, under the command of the city's magistrates, were stationed on the
walls and the gates of Rome. These units were called Familia Publica. However,
this system was not very effective, probably because the slaves had no choice in
whether they fought fires or not. In A.D. 6, after an enormous fire devastated
Rome, the Emperor Augustus created the vigiles, a fire fighting force of 7,000 men
that was divided into seven regiments. Like many of today's fire services, the
vigiles had the power to inspect buildings to check for fire risks, and could punish
property owners whose negligence led to fires. The vigiles' fire fighting equipment
included pumps, squirts, siphons, buckets, and ladders. Wicker mats and wet
blankets were used for rescue and salvage work. The Romans developed advanced
fire fighting equipment. But when the empire fell, much of this technology was
lost for centuries.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, European cities and towns became
disorganized and nobody coordinated fire fighting. Some people even thought that
prayer was the best way to control fires. Slowly, however, some fire laws evolved.
In many cities people were required to put out their cooking and home fires at
night. In some towns, thatched roofs were forbidden and night watchmen were
employed to raise the alarm if they discovered a fire.
Organized fire services in Europe were usually only formed after hugely
destructive fires. The Great Fire of London in 1666 led to the development of fire
insurance industries in England. These companies marked their insured properties
with metal badges called fire marks and formed private fire brigades to protect
those properties. Each company's brigade attended only those premises bearing the
company's own fire mark. There was much competition, and occasionally rival
fire brigades even obstructed each other in their fire fighting efforts. It was not
until the 1800's that London insurance companies began to cooperate and a single
London Fire Engine Establishment was formed. The new service fought fires in
any premises within the London area.
Serious blazes also caused death and destruction elsewhere in Europe, and
rulers began to realize that it was necessary to have organized forces to deal with
fires. In France, groups of citizens kept watch for outbreaks of fire, and
regulations controlled rescue operations. In the 1600's, a number of serious fires
spread terror throughout Paris. The king of France bought 12 pumps, and a private
fire service was established. In 1750, the company of firemen was mostly taken
over by the army, but fires continued to ravage the city and fire fighting efforts
were not always effective. In 1810, the Emperor Napoleon attended a ball at the
Austrian Embassy. A candle set the curtains ablaze, and the fire spread quickly,
causing a dreadful panic. After this fire, Napoleon ordered the creation of the
Battalion de Sapeurs Pompiers and the French Fire Brigade was born.
Better equipment for getting water to fires and for fighting fires was
developed in the 1500's. Tools included syringes, which squirted water, but most
people relied on bucket brigades, relays of men passing buckets of water. The
problems with bucket brigades were that many men were needed, it was very tiring
work, and it was not very efficient--buildings often burned to the ground. In 1672,
an uncle and nephew in Amsterdam, both called Jan van der Heide, invented a
flexible hose, which could be joined together to form a long pipe. Later, the same
men invented a pump to deliver water through the hose, and fire fighting became
much more efficient. In many places around the world, fire pumps were first
drawn to fires by horses or even by people. Warning bells enabled people to get
out of the way when the pumps were rushing to a fire. The German company
Daimler invented the first petrol-driven pump in 1885, but the pump still had to be
taken to fires by horses. Petrol-powered fire engines were introduced in the early
1900's, but many countries were slow to change from horse-drawn pumps.
Although today's fire services have a range of modern equipment, fire can be just
as dangerous now as it was thousands of years ago.
The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)
Republic Act # 6975, the DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4, Section 53-59)
created the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) to be responsible for the prevention
and suppression of all destructive fires and to enforce the laws on fire.
Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used
by the bureau to stop, extinguish and control destructive fire for eventual
prevention of loss of life and property. It has the following objectives: To prevent
destructive fire from starting, To extinguish (stop or put out) on going destructive
fire, To confine a destructive fire at the place where it began, To prevent loss of
life and property when fire starts
Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the various safety measures

utilized to stop harmful or destructive fires from starting.

The laws related with the fire prevention and fire protection in the Philippine
setting includes PD # 1185, Fire Code of the Philippine (26 August 1977), PD #
1096, Building Code of the Philippine (19 February 1977)
The Bureau of Fire Protection is composed of well-trained fire fighters. In
fighting fires, they bring with them ladders and pumps. Additional specialist
vehicles can provide turntable ladders, hydraulic platforms, extra water, foam, and
specialist appliances for hazardous incidents.
In some countries, such as the United States, fire-fighting units are divided
into engine companies and ladder companies. Engine companies operate trucks
called engines, which carry a pump and hoses for spraying water on a fire. Ladder
companies use ladder trucks, which carry ladders of various lengths. Ladder trucks
also have a hydraulically extended ladder or elevating platform to rescue people
through windows or to spray water from a raised position.
Fire fighters in the Philippines handle many types of fires. Each type
requires a different plan of action to put it out. For example, the methods used to
fight a building fire differ greatly from those used to fight a forest or grassland fire.
Factor Affecting Fire Protection and Control
Fire protection and control is affected by the accumulation of fire hazards in

a building or area.
Fire Hazard is any condition or act that increases or may cause increase in
the probability that fire will occur or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere
with fire fighting operations and the safeguarding of life and property
Conditions of Fire Hazards
1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of combustible or explosives in

the building not designed to store such materials.
2. Defective or improperly installed facilities/ equipment.
3. Lack of adequate exit facilities.
4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated opening for fire fighters.
5. Dangerous occumulation of rubbish waste and other highly combustible
materials.
6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of grease in the kitchen.
7. Building under repair
8. Very old building or building is primarily made of combustible materials
Fire Fighting Operations
Fire fighting operations refers to fire suppression activities. In general the

following procedures should be observed:
1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves developing and defining

systematic course of actions that maybe performed in order to realize the
objectives of fire protection: involves the process of establishing the SOP in
case fire breaks out.
2. EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the

situation) - this is the process knowing the emergency situation. It involves
mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-charge to determine the
appropriate course of action that provides the highest probability of success.
3. EVACUATION – This the activity of transferring people, livestock, and

property away from the burning area to minimize damage or destruction that
the fire might incur in case it propagates to other adjacent buildings.
4. ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the burning structure. Entry

maybe done in a forcible manner.
5. RESCUE – This is the operation of removing (extricating), thus saving,

people and other livestock from the burning building and other involved
properties, conveying them to a secure place
6. EXPOSURE – also called cover exposure, this is the activity of securing

other buildings near the burning structure in order to prevent the fire from
the extending to another building.
7. CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place

(room) where it started : the process of preventing fire from extending from
another section or form one section to another section of the involved
building.

8. VENTILATION – This the operation purposely conducted to displace toxic

gases. It includes the process of displacing the heated atmosphere within the
involved building with normal air from outside atmosphere.
9. SALVAGE – The activity of protecting the properties from preventable

damage other than the fire. The steps are a) remove the material outside the
burning area, and b) protecting or cover the materials by using tarpaulins
(cotton canvass treated with water proofing).
10.EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of putting out the main body of

fire by using the 4 general methods of fire extinguishments.
11.OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and
all materials therein to eliminate conditions that may cause re-flash; involves
complete extinguishments of sparks or smouldering (glowing) substances
(embers) to prevent possibilities of re-ignition or rekindling.
12.FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final stage of fire suppression

activities. It is an inquiry conducted to know or determine the origin and
cause of fire.
What is a Sprinkle System?
A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes installed throughout a

building. The pipes carry water to nozzles in the ceiling. The heat from a fire
causes the nozzles directly above the fire to open and spray water.
The Fire Bureau personnel inspect public buildings to enforce the local code.
The officials check the operating condition of the fire protection systems. They
note the number and location of exits and fire extinguishers. The inspection also
covers housekeeping practices and many other matters that affect fire safety. Fire
inspectors may also review plans for a new building to make sure it meets the
safety code.
What is a Smoke Detector?
Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm if a small amount of smoke

enters their sensors. Smoke detectors are attached to the ceiling or wall in several

areas of the home. Fire protection experts recommend at least one detector for
each floor of a residence.
Fire fighters also recommend that people have portable fire extinguishers in
their homes. A person must be sure, however, to call the fire fighting service
before trying to extinguish a fire. It is also important to use the right kind of
extinguisher for the type of fire involved.
The Fire Extinguishment Theory
The Fire Extinguishments Theory maintains that “to extinguish a fire,

interrupt or eliminate the supply of any or all of the elements of fire.” Fire can be
extinguished by reducing/ lowering the temperature, eliminating the fuel supply, or
by stopping the chemical chain reaction.
4 General Methods of Fire Extinguishment
1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction

- Cooling the temperature of the fire environment: usually done by using
water.
- Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point where it does not
produce sufficient vapors that burn.
2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal

- Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which maybe done by stopping the
flow of liquid fuel, preventing the production of flammable gas,
removing the solid fuel at the fire path, allowing the fire to burn until the
fuel is consumed
3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution - reduction of oxygen concentration at the

burning area, by introducing inert gases, by separating oxygen from the fuel
4. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition
- Some extinguishments agents, like dry chemical and halon, interrupt the
production of flame resulting to rapid extinguishment of the fire. This

method is effective only on burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot
burn in smoldering mode of combustion.
What are the methods of extinguishing the 4 Classes of Fire?
1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling: water is the best agent in

cooling the burning solid materials; water has a quenching effect that can
reduce the temperature of a burning material below its ignition temperature;
(Fire extinguishers which have water, sand, acid, foam and special solution
containing alkali methyl dust, as found in the loaded stream extinguisher,
should be used for this type of fire.)
2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing (oxygen exclusion). This
type of fire is put or controlled by foam, loaded stream, carbon dioxide, dry
chemical and vaporizing liquid.
3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing agent: the

safest procedure is to always de-energize the electrical circuit. Extinguishers
that should be used to put out these type of fires are Carbon Dioxide
Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids.
4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing agents marked

specifically for metals. GE type, meth LX, Lith X, Meth L, Kyl, dry sand
and dry talc can put out class D fires
5. CLASS E FIRES – only combination of the above methods.
Fire Extinguishers
A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of metal,

containing chemicals, fluids, or gasses for stopping fires, the means for application
of its contents for the purpose of putting out fire (particularly small fire ) before it
propagates, and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.
It is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited size.
What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?

1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled with water use of fight

Class A and Class B fires except class C fires.
2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those extinguishers that contain Carbon

Monoxide Gas use to fight class A, B, and C fires
3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that contain chemical powder

intended to fight all classes of fires.
4. Foam Extinguisher– contains sodium bicarbonate and a foam-stabilizing

agent in a larger compartment and a solution of aluminum sulfate in an
inner cylinder; reaction between the two solutions forms a stabilized
foam of carbon dioxide bubbles.
5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with sodium bicarbonate mixed with
water; a small bottle of sulfuric acid is suspended inside (near the top) in
such a way that when the extinguisher is turned up-side-down, the acid
mixes with sodium bicarbonate; carbon dioxide is formed by the reaction
which results to the building of pressure inside the extinguisher; this
pressure forces the water solution out from the container through a hose.
6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains non-conducting liquid,

generalization carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromethane; operation is by
manual pumping or using a stored pressure; the stream of liquid that is
expelled is vaporized by the heat of the fire and forms a smothering
blanket. This type is usually used in fires involving flammable liquids or
electrical equipment.
7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective against burning liquids and

fires in live electrical equipment; used mainly to put out Class C fires.
What are examples of extinguishing agents?
1. MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CHEMICALS like the Mono-Ammonium

Phosphate ( NH H PO )
2. BCF-HALON 1211 or Bromochlorodifluoromethane
3. AFFF – (Aqueous Film Forming Foam), is a synthetic foam-forming
liquid designed for use with fresh water.
4. CARBON DIOXIDE – a chemical that can deliver a quick smothering
action to the flames, reducing the oxygen and suffocating the fire. Carbon
dioxide dissipates without leaving any contamination or corrosive

residue.
What are the markings required on Fire Extinguishers?
Under (Rule 37, Sec. 106 of PD 1185), all fire extinguishers manufactured
or sold in the Philippines must be labelled or marked to show at least the
following:
1. Date of original filling

2. Chemical Contents
3. Type of extinguisher
4. Operating Instruction and Safe Procedure in usage
5. Name and address of the manufacturer
6. Name and address of the dealer.
What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers?
Rule 37, Sec. 104 of IRR of PD 1185 provides that the following types of
fires extinguishers are prohibited for manufacture or sale:
1. All inverting types which make it necessary to invert the container before
the extinguisher’s operation
2. Soda-acid extinguishers
3. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam solution, unless and air-aspiring
nozzle is provided
4. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or
chlorobromomethane in any concentration of formulation
5. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers of less than one kilogram extinguishing
agent
6. Glass bulb, “ grenade” type, or “bomb” type of vaporizing liquid
extinguishers which have to be thrown to the fire or are mounted on specific
location and which operate upon the melting of a fusible link.
7. Thermatic special hazards single station extinguishers with extinguishing
capability of less than four and a half (4.5) cubic meters
8. Other types which maybe hereinafter prohibited.
What are the prohibited acts involving the operation of fire extinguishers?

From the same legal basis above, the following are declared prohibited acts
concerning the use of fire extinguishers:
1. Removal of inspection tags attached to fire extinguishers

2. Refilling a discharge extinguisher with a extinguishing agent other than what
the unit was designed to contain
3. Selling fire extinguishers not appropriate to the hazard
4. Selling fire extinguishers prohibited by Rule 37, Section 104
5. Selling defective or substandard extinguishers
6. Using/installing two or more thermatic special hazard vaporizing liquid units
in rooms with volume greater than the nominal capability of one unit.
7. Installing pressure gauges in fire extinguishers which do not indicate the
actual pressure of the interior of vessel such as, but not limited to use of
uncalibrated gauges, not providing or blocking the connection between the
gauge and the interior, or fixing the indicator/needle to indicate a certain
pressure.
What are the General Operating Procedures in Fire Extinguishment?
The general operating procedures in using a fire extinguisher may be

modified by the acronym PASS.
P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from
being pressed. Press the plastic or thin wire inspection band.
A– Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies are
dipped to the extinguisher body. Released it and then point at the base of the fire.
S – Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to discharge the extinguishing
agent inside. The handle can be released to stop the discharge at any time.
S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the
extinguishing agent.
After the fire is out, probe for remaining smouldering hot spots or possible re-flash
of flammable liquids. Make sure the fire is out before leaving the burned area.
Fire Fighting Equipment

The most important equipment for fire fighters includes:
1. Communication Systems
They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the outbreak of a fire. Most fire
alarms are telephoned to the fire department. Many countries have introduced a
simple, 3-digit number as the telephone number to call in emergencies. This
number can be dialed from almost any telephone and from most pay phones
without a coin. Dialing this number is free. In the Philippines, the emergency line
is 166.
2. Fire Vehicles
Fire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The main types are (1)
engines, (2) ladder appliances, and (3) rescue vehicles.
Engines, also called water tenders, have a large pump that takes water from
a fire hydrant or other source. The pump boosts the pressure of the water and
forces it through hoses. Engines carry several sizes of hoses and nozzles. Many
also have a small-diameter hose called a booster line, which is wound on a reel.
The booster line is used chiefly to put out small outdoor fires.
Ladder appliances - There are two kinds of ladder appliances--turntable

ladders and hydraulic platforms.
A turntable ladder appliance has a metal extension ladder mounted on a
turntable. The ladder can be raised as high as 30 meters, or about eight storeys.
A hydraulic platform truck has a cage-like platform that can hold several
people. The platform is attached to a lifting device that is mounted on a turntable.
The lifting device consists of either a hinged boom (long metal arm) or an
extendable boom made of several sections that fit inside each other. The boom on
the largest vehicles can extend 46 meters. A built-in hose runs the length of the
boom and is used to direct water on a fire. In most cases, a pump in a nearby
engine generates the pressure needed to spray the water.
Fire Fighting Vehicles - are equipped with portable ladders of various types
and sizes. They also carry forcible entry tools, which fire fighters use to gain entry
into a building and to ventilate it to let out smoke. Common forcible entry tools
include axes, power saws, and sledge hammers.

Rescue Vehicles are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the same
kinds of forcible entry tools that ladder appliances carry. But rescue vehicles also
carry additional equipment for unusual rescues. They have such tools as
oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal, and hydraulic jacks, for lifting
heavy objects. They may also carry other hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue
tool, fire fighters can apply a large amount of pressure to two objects to squeeze
them together or prise them apart. The tool is often used to free people trapped in
cars and other vehicles after an accident. Many rescue vehicles also carry small
hand tools, such as crowbars and saws, and ropes and harnesses for rescuing
people from water or high places. In addition, they carry medical supplies and
equipment.
Special Fire Vehicles include airport crash tenders and hazardous materials
units. Airport crash tenders are engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on
burning aircraft. Water is ineffective against many aircraft fires, such as those that
involve jet fuel or certain metals.
In addition to the above fire fighting equipment, fire fighters are also
required to use protective clothing.
Protective Clothing - clothing for protection against flames, falling objects,

and other hazards. They wear coats and trousers made of fire-resistant material.
Other clothing includes special boots, gloves, and helmets. Fire fighters also use a
breathing apparatus to avoid inhaling smoke and toxic gases.
Fire Prevention and Public Safety
As mentioned earlier, Fire Prevention is a term for the many safety

measures used to keep harmful fires from starting. Fires not only cause extensive
damage to valuable property, but also responsible for large numbers of deaths.
Chapter 6
BASIC FIRE INVESTIGATION
In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is the main government

agency responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on
buildings, houses and other structures, forest, land transportation vehicles and
equipments, ships or vessels docked at piers or major seaports, petroleum industry
installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of
the Fire Code and other related laws. It has the major power to investigate all
causes of fires and necessary, file the proper complaints with the proper authority
that has jurisdiction over the case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54).
Why Fires should be investigated?

The very reason why fires should be investigated is to determine the cause of
the fire in order to prevent similar occurrences. The determination of the origin and
cause of fire is arrived at only after a thorough investigation. Since basic
investigation is prelude to the discovery of the true cause of the fire, an
understanding of the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior should be a
concern for successful investigation.
Who are qualified to investigate fires?
A fire investigator should have the following traits:
1. Possession of knowledge of investigational techniques.

2. He should have an insight of human behavior.
3. He should have a first hand knowledge of the chemistry of fire and its
behavior
4. He should be resourceful.
Is Fire Investigation Complex and Unique?

Fire investigation is complex and unique because of the following reasons:
1. Fire destroys evidence

2. If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and committed is discreet.
3. Rarely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.
What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire Investigation?
Firemen are usually at the crime scene ahead of the fire investigators. Hence,
they are valuable sources of information. They are the so-called “Eyes and Ears” of
the police before, during and after the fire has been placed under control. The
information taken from them may be categorize as:
1. Information attainable or developed prior to the arrival at the scene

2. Information available to the firemen at the scene
3. Information available during overhaul and thereafter.
Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation
ARSON defined
Arson is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.

It is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent of the
offender. Intent must be proved, otherwise, no crime exist. The law presumes that a
fire is accidental, hence criminal designs must be shown. Fire cause by accident or
criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or negligence does not
constitute arson.
What is Destructive Arson?
Under Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended, the penalty of
Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn:
1. One (1) or more buildings or edifices, consequent to one single act of

burning, or as a result of simultaneous burnings, or committed on several
or different occasions

2. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted to the public in

general or where people usually gather or congregate for a definite
purpose such as, but not limited to official governmental function or
business, private transaction, commerce, trade workshop, meetings and
conferences, or merely incidental to a definite purpose such as but not
limited to hotels, motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or stops
or terminals, regardless of whether the offender had knowledge that there
are persons in said building or edifice at the time it is set on fire and
regardless also of whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or airplane devoted to

transportation or conveyance, or for public use, entertainment or leisure.
4. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and any appurtenances

thereto, which are devoted to the service to public utilities.
5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealing or

destroying evidence of another violation of law, or for the purpose of
concealing bankruptcy or defrauding creditors or to collect from
insurance.
Irrespective of the application of the above enumerated qualifying

circumstances, the penalty of reclusion to death shall likewise be imposed when
the arson is perpetrated or committed by two or more persons or by group of
persons, regardless of whether their purpose is merely to burn or destroy the
building or the building merely constitutes an overt act in the commission or
another violation of law.
The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall also be imposed upon any
person who shall burn:
1. any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military power or firework factory,

ordinance, storehouse, archives or general museum of the government.
2. in an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or

explosives materials.
If the consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized under this
Article, death results, the mandatory penalty of death shall be imposed (sec. 10,
RA 7659).
What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?
1. Kind and character of the building burned

2. Location of the building
3. Extent or value of the damage
4. Whether inhabited or not.
What are other forms of arson?
Other forms of arson refers to those enumerated under Article 321 of the
Revised Penal Code, as amended like the following:
1. Setting fires to any building, farmhouse, warehouse, hut, shelter, or

vessel in port, knowing it to be occupied at the time by one or more
person.
2. Building burned is a public building and value of damage exceeds six

thousands pesos (P6000.00).
3. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence

kept therein to be used in instituting prosecution for punishment of
violators of law, irrespective of the amount of damage.
4. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence

kept therein to be used in legislative, judicial or administrative
proceeding, irrespective of the damage, if the evidence is to be used
against defendant of any crime punishable under existing law.
Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)
Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn, shed, or any other

property, under circumstances clearly excluding all danger of the fire spreading,
value of the property not exceed 25.00 pesos.

Crimes Involving Destruction (Art 324, RPC)
The offender causes destruction by any of the following means:
1. explosion
2. discharge of electric current
3. inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel
4. taking up the rails from a railway track
5. malicious changing of railway signals for the safety of moving trains
6. destroying telegraph wires and telegraph post or those any other
communication system
7. by using any other agency or means of destruction as effective as the
above
Burning one’s own property as a means to commit arson (Read Case of U.S
vs. Budiao, 4 Phil. 502) (Article 325, RPC)
Article 326, RPC – Setting Fire to Property Exclusively Owned By the

Offender
This act is punished if the purpose of the offender is to:
1. Defraud or cause damage to another or
2. damaged is actually caused upon another’s property even if such purpose

is absent
3. thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.
Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson
Special Aggravating Circumstance in Arson
1. If committed with intent to gain:

2. If committed with the benefit of another:
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or
occupant of the property burned:
4. If committed by a syndicate (3 or more persons).
5.

Prima Facie Evidence of Arson
1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or
establishment
2. If substantial amounts of flammable substance or materials are stored

within the building not necessary in the business of the offender nor for
house hold use.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible

substances or materials soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any
mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to
start a fire, a fire, or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found in
the ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual
value at the time of the issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more

than two fires have occurred in the same or other premises owned or
under the control of the offender and / or insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and
stored in a building or property had been withdrawn from the premises
except in the ordinary course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before

the fire in exchange for the desistance of the offender or the safety of the
person or property of the victim.
Arson Investigation
What Constitutes Arson?
1. Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must takes place. In other

words, there must be burning or changing, i.e. the fibber of the wood
must be destroyed, its identity changed.

2. Wilfulness – means intentional, and implies that the act was done
purposely and intentionally.
3. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
4. Motive – is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.
5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves
the will.
Methods of Proof in Arson
Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was

committed, Corpus Delicti must be shown and identify of the arsonist must be
established. Corpus Delicti (body of the crime) is the fact of that crime was
committed. The following must show it:
1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of
complaint, firemen responding to the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned
parts of the building may also indicate location.
2. Criminal Design – must show that it was wilfully and intentionally done.
The presence of incendiary devices, flammables such as gasoline and
kerosene may indicate that the fire is not accidental.
3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were removed from the building
before the fire, ill-feeling between the accused and the occupants of the
building burned, absence of effort to put off fire and such other
indications.
What are basic lines of inquiry in Arson Investigation?
The arson investigator must have to inquire on the following a) point of

origin of fire b) motives of arsonist c) prime suspects d) the telltale signs of arson.
1. Point of origin of fire
Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of fire. In

other words, at what particular place in the building the fire started? This may be
established by an examination of the witness, by an inspection of the debris at the
fire scene and by studying the fingerprint of fire. The fingerprint of fire occurs

during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic decomposition moves
upward on the walls leaving a bunt pattern.
Witnesses must be questioned as to:
1. His identity
2. What attracted his attention
3. Time of observation
4. His position in relation to the fire at the time of observation
5. Exact location of the blaze
6. Size and intensity
7. Rapidity of spread
8. Color of flame and odor if he is in a position this
9. Any other person in the vicinity beside the witness
Note fire setting mechanism

1. matches
2. candles
3. electrical system
4. mechanical means
5. chemical methods
2. Motive of Arsonist
To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator have to note the
following that fires are set by:
Persons with Motives
a. Those with desire to defraud the Insurer

b. Employees or such other person who have a grievance (Fire revenge)
c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime
d. Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
People without motives

a. Those who are mentally ill

b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros and the Psychos
Motives of Arsonist
1. Economic Gain
a. Insurance fraud – benefiting
b. Desire to dispose merchandise – lost of market value being out of
season, lack of raw materials, over supply of merchandise can be a big
reason for arson.
c. Existing business transaction that the arsonist would like to avoid such
as impending liquidation, settlement of estate, need for cash,
prospective business failure, and increase rentals
d. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the Assured like insurance agents
wishing business with the assured, business competitors planning to
drive others, person seeking job as personnel protection, salvagers and
contractors wishing to contact another building
2. Concealment of Crime - When the purpose of hiding a crime or

committing a crime, arson was used as means.
3. Punitive Measure - Committing arson to inflict injury to another due to

hatred, jealousy and revenge.
4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - Arsonist as saboteurs, strikers and

racketeers to intimidate management or employer.
5. Pyromania
A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse to burn anything

without any motivation. They do not run away from the fire scene since they
love watching fire burning.
Types of Pyromania
a. Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles and morons

b. Hero Type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it,
turn on the alarm or make some rescue works to appear as “hero”
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics
d. Sexual deviates and perverts.
3. Prime Suspects (and the Prima Facie Evidences)
The development of prime suspects - this involves identification results from

the full development of leads, clues and traces, the testimony particularly
eyewitnesses and the development of expert testimony, The following technique
may serve the investigation:
1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence:

a. Protection of the scene
b. Mechanics of search
c. Collection and preservation of evidences
d. Laboratory aids
2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of

building or other person having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogations of persons who discovered the fire, and the
one who turned the first alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.
4. Surveillance
4. The Tell Tale Signs of Arson
These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the scene will suspects
arson or they maybe so well concealed that moths of patient investigation to show
that it is set off will be required.
1. Burned Building – the type of the building may indicate a set fire under
certain circumstance. A fire of considerable size at the time the first

apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or

semi-concrete building.
2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks out within a
building. The fire is certainly suspicious.
3. Color of Smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but they are
exception. The observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the
fire since once the fire has assumed a major proportion, the value of the
smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used by
the arsonist
a.) When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose
comes in contact with the fire, it indicates humid material burning.
Example – burning hay, vegetable materials, phosphorus (with
garlic odor).
b.) Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing
lacrymation and coughing indicates presence of chlorine.
c.) Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large flames it

indicates petroleum products and rubber.
d.) Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04,

HN03, or HCI.
e.) Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire:
 Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar,

rubber, plastics, etc.
 Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products
 White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products
 Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt
 Purple-violet flame – potassium products
 Greenish-yellow flame – Chloride or Manganese products
 Bright reddish yellow flame – Calcium products

8. Color of flame – The color of the flame is a good indication of the

intensity of the fire, an important factor in determining incendiarism.
9. Amount of Heat – A reddish glow indicates heat of 5000 degrees

centigrade, a real bright read about 100 degrees centigrade. Red flames
indicate of petroleum. Blue flame indicates use of alcohol as accelerant.
10.Smoke Marks – An experience investigation will determine the volume

of smoke involved at a fire and the character as residue deposited on
walls or elsewhere. Smoke in marks have often been of assistance in
determining the possibility of a fire having more than one place of origin.
11.Size of Fire – This is important when correlated with the type of alarm,
the time received and the time of arrival of the first fire apparatus. Fires
make what might be termed a normal progress. Such progress can be
estimated after an examination of the material burned the building and
the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The time element and the
degree of headway by the flames become important factors to determine
factors to determine possible incendiarism.
12.Direction of Travel – While it is admitted that no two fires burn in

identical fashion, yet it can be shown that fire makes normal progress
through various types of building materials, combustibility of contents,
channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending of
alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether a fire spread
abnormally fast.
13.Intensity – The degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its
flame oftentimes indicate that some accelerant has been added to the
material normally present in a building and the investigator must look for
further evidence pointing to use of such accelerant. Difficulty in
extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of such fluid as
gasoline and kerosene.
14.Odor – The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable

liquids which are often used as accelerant is characteristics and
oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this telltale sign. Most of fire –
setters are inclined to use substance which will make the blaze certain
and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.

15.Condition of Content – Persons tending to set their house on fire

frequently remove objects of value either materially or sentimentally.
Store and other business establishments oftentimes remove a major
portion of their content or replace valuable merchandise without of style
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FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON ONVESTIGATION

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 1

 source of warmth and light

 protection against enemies

 cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to suit man’s body structure

 provides processes for modifying chemicals into medicines

Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel

Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 2

THE START OF FIRE

However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its molecules move about

Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 3

Obviously, three things are required for combustion or fire: FUEL

The Fire Triangle

Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 4

The combustion process is better represented by the fire tetrahedron.

The Fire Tetrahedron

Fuel Chain Reaction

The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the

A condensed phased combustion is called glowing combustion

A gas-phased combustion is known as flame

If the process is confined with pressure it is called explosion

If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it produced a detonation

Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 5

A. The Physical properties

1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance

2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the

3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of

4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of

5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure

6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at which

7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at

8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid forms a

To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature must be raised until

Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 6

 decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor,

 decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the

 free radicals undergo combustion.

B. The Chemical Properties

1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed

2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy (heat)

3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which

4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense

a. Based on Color and Completeness of Combustibility of Fuel

1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red, deposit soot at the bottom of a

2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is complete combustion

b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture

1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a Bunsen-type laboratory

2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas (fuel) alone is forced

1. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a smooth path

2. Turbulent Flame – are those having unsteady, irregular flows.

As mentioned in part one, fire has been described as having three

FUELS (Combustible Materials)– fuel is matter and matter exist in three

Compiled by: Prof. Emman Darelle Concepcion Page 9

Classification of Combustible Materials

3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such as

4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such as

General Categories of Fuel

1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic, natural or