FIRE & ARSON INVESTIGATION

Brief History of fire

The ability of primitive people to use fire was crucial to their development.
Every human culture of the recent past is known to have had endless experience with
fire; a site near in Nice France has yielded evidence that hominids used fire even
half a million years ago. Although the first sources of fire were assumed to be the
results of the natural effects (lightning or volcano), the methods originally used for
deliberate fire making are not clearly known, it is likely thought that some means of
generating heat by friction we first used many variations of these principles have
been used.
The earliest used of fires was to keep warm. As civilization advanced, people
learned to use fire in many other ways. People learned to use fire to cook food, to
shape weapons and tools, to change clay into pottery and to furnish light. But early
people had extremely slow and quite satisfactorily ways of kindling fires.
Today, we have not only improved the methods of kindling fires, but we also
use fire in many ways. Fire furnishes the energy to drive machines and keeps
industry running. It supplies the power to drive trains, ships and plane and it
generates electricity. Fire also sometimes used to remove and destroy waste
materials. In additions, fire is used is separating most metals from their ores, as well
as forging and shaping metal into useful things
Fire in Legend and Religion
Prehistoric people may have gained knowledge of fire from observing things
in nature such as lightning, the fire of volcanoes and the heat of the sun. They also
must have noticed that sparks fly when stones are struck upon one another or when
the hoofs or claws of an animal strike some hard substance.
In Persian literature, there is a story of the discovery of fire in a fight with a
dragon. One of the stones that the hero used as weapon missed the monster and
struck a rock. Lights shone forth and human beings saw fires for the first time. The
mythology of nearly all early people contains some account of accidental or
supernatural happenings that the first revealed fire to human beings. Early people
regarded fire as a true gift of the Gods
Fire was considered sacred because it was so essential to the welfare of people.
Fire worship and sun worship have existed since very early times. Because fire was
so hard to produce, the custom soon became common of keeping a public fire, which
was never allowed to die out. These fire were kept in every village among the
Egyptians Persian, Greeks and Romans. They were often in the civic centre of the
community.
The temple of Vesta in Rome was outstanding example of the importance of
the fire to the Romans. Vesta was originally the goddess of the hearth (fire place)
and her shine was in every home. But when religion became an affair of the state, a
temple was erected in which the sacred fire was kept burning at all times
In Greek mythology, Promethous bestowed godlike power when he stole fire
from the gods to give it to humanity. Humans have always worshiped fire for its role
in religion. It has been personified as a god and recognized as a symbols of home
and family in many cultures. It has also been symbols of purification and of
immorality and renewal, hence, the lightning of flame s remembrance and the myth
of POENIX
EARLY MEANS OF PRODUCING FIRE
Primitive methods of igniting wood enable Neolithic man to produce at will
essential tool of fire:
1. Two Sticks- one of the oldest methods of starting fires consists of rubbing two
sticks together. The rubbing create friction between the sticks, and the friction
generates heat. This heat eventually causes the wood to ignite. The methods
oftentimes takes a lot of time and energy.
2) Hand Drill- the hand drill is a more efficient methods of rubbing two pieces of
wood together. Rapidly spinning a stick of woods against another piece of wood can
generate enough friction.
3) Bow drill- as people developed tools, they adapted some of these fire marking.
Drawing the bow back and forth spins the stick rapidly against piece of wood,
producing a large amount of friction. This friction between stick and the piece of
wood can heat the woods until it ignites.
4. Weighted Bow Drill- the weighed bow drill by weighing down the wooden stick,
making it push with more force against the other piece of wood. Moving the bow
back and forth creates frictional heat between the stick and piece of wood, which
can ignite the wood.
5. Striking Flint- another ancient methods of starting fires consists of striking
flint against another piece of flint to produce sparks. Later, peoples also used flint
and metal to produce sparks. The sparks can ignite tinder to stars the fire. The tinder
usually consists of a substance that burns readily, such as wood or metal shavings.
6. Magnifying Glass- people have used magnifying glasses and sunlight to light fire
since the invention of lenses several thousand years ago. The magnifying glass
focuses the sunlight on tinder, and the energy of the sunlight's heats the tinder until
it ignites.
COMPONENTS OF FIRE
Concept
Both fire and animals require the same elements to exist, and each ceases to exist if
anyone of these elements is withdrawn. As an Animal needs foods, fire needs fuel;
and as animal requires oxygen, the fire also requires oxygen; and as animal requires
warmth, the fire also requires heat. Therefore, to create fire we must have fuel,
oxygen, and heat.
Fire Triangle
Fuel
Heat
Oxygen
In flaming combustion, fuel and the oxidizing agent are both in the gaseous
state, hence this is referred to as gas-to gas reaction.
COMPONENTS OF FIRE
This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle, which symbolized, in the most
basic terms, a chemical relationship that would require hours to explain. However,
the fire triangle falls short of integrating all the components involved in producing
flaming combustion. Today, the fire triangle is used to technically explain glowing
combustion, which occurs when fuel mass glows/burns without flaming. This so
called solid to gas reaction. (Fuel being solid and the oxidizing agent a of a gas)
The additional component that is needed to explain flaming combustion
chemical chain reaction. Such a reaction yields energy or produce that cause further
reactions of the same kind, and the process is self- sustaining. To show the
interrelation of all four components a more sophisticated geometric figure than the
fire triangle needed; the three dimensional, four- faceted tetrahedron is the most
appropriate commonly used.
FUEL
Is any material or any substance capable of burning? It may be solid liquid or gas.
Solid Fuels- the principal substance is carbon
Liquid Fuels- the principal component is hydrocarbon
Gaseous Fuels- the principal component is hydrocarbon
SOLID FUELS
The most obvious solid fuels are woods, fibres and plastics
1. WOOD AND WOOD-BASED PRODUCTS- wood is very versatile material
which is commonly used for construction, furniture and interior decoration among
others. When the thermal environment is conductive to a given reaction, they will
char, smoulder, and ignite burn.
PYROLYSIS OF WOOD
Before solid fuel will burn, it must be changed to the vapour state. In a fire
situation, this changes usually result from the initial application of heat. The process
is known as pyrolysis, which is generally defined as “chemical decomposition of
matter by the action of heat.” In this case, the decomposition causes a change from
the solid state to the vapour state. If the vapour mixes sufficiently with air and is
heated to a high enough temperature (by flame, spark, hot motor etc) combustion
occurs
FACTORS AFFECTING IGNITION AND BURNING OF WOOD
1. PHYSICAL FORM- wood used for kindling is chopped to smaller pieces in order
to speed up burning test. Heavier wood logs or timber shows considerable resistance
to ignition. The reason for this observation is that sizes of the particles are smaller.
The ratio surface area to volume (mass) increases. There is a greater exposure of fuel
to air and less mass to conduct heat away from the surface of the particle. Hence,
heat does not readily dissipate within the material.
2. Moisture Content- From laboratory ignition and burning test, it has been shown
that the behaviour of combustible solids of the same size, shape, and chemical
composition will vary with moisture content. The moisture content of the material
also influences the rate of burning. Since the specific of heat of water is high, the
amount of heat necessary to drive off moisture is quite considerable.
3. Heat of Conductivity- It is a measure of the rate in which absorbed heat will flow
through the mass material. It is the inverse property of insulating. The heat of
conductivity of a particular material also plays a major role in its behaviour under
fire condition
EXAMPLE
Wood is a vapour conductor of heat, thus it has a high insulating value. An
illustration of this facts is that the matchstick burning at one end can be held at the
other end between the fingers. In contrast, a steel needle of the same size as a
matchstick when heated at one end cannot be held at the other end with equal ease
4. Rate and Period of Heating- It influences the susceptibility of woods and woods
products to ignition. Combustible solids are usually considered less hazardous
compared to flammable liquid or gases because they do not vaporize readily nor do
they give off flammable vapours at ordinary temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Ignition of solids usually requires contact between the heat source and the material
for a long period enough to permit release of flammable vapours.
5. Rate of Combustion- It is markedly the moisture content and the other factors but
for influence by physical form combustible, the air supply present, complete
combustion to proceed there should be progressive evaporation of the solid.
6. Ignition Temperature- specific ignition temperature of wood is difficult to
determine because of variable concerned.
IGNITION TEMPERATURE OF WOODS VARIES WIDELY DEPENDING ON
A NUMBER VATIABLES
The specific gravity of a sample
The physical characteristics of sample i.e. size form moisture content
The rate and period of heating
The air (oxygen) supply
The nature of heat source
II. Fibers and Textiles- almost all textiles fibers are combustible. Since textile are an
intimate part of daily living – clothes we wear carpets, curtains, beddings etc. there
is highly involvement of textiles in fire.
FACTORS TO INFLUENCE THE BURNING OF TEXTILES
Chemical Composition- the following are the classification of fiber according to
chemical composition
Natural fibers
1) Vegetables (cellulosic) as cotton; kapok (seed fibers); pulp (woods fibers);
coconut oil(nut fibers)
2) Animal (protein) as wool (from sheep); silk (from cocoon of silk worn)
3) Mineral (inorganic) asbestos
b. Synthetic or Artificial Fibers
Organic – this fiber imitates vegetables fibers, divided into cellulose, as for example
rayon, which is “reconstituted” cellulose and cellulose ac etate which is prepared by
creating cellulose with acetic acid; non- cellulose includes rayon.
Inorganic- Fiberglass and steel.
FIBER FINISH
If sufficient combustible coating or decorative materials are placed on fabric, this
will support continued flaming
FABRIC WEIGHT
It affects the rate of combustion at which the textile undergoes. The heavier the fabric
of the same composition, the more considerable resistance to ignition.
TIGHTNESS OF WEAVE
The closer the fibres are in the weaving of fabrics the more it will minimize the air
space between them and thus delay the rate burning.
Flame Retardant Treatment
The effect of chemical treatments in reducing the flammability of combustible
fabrics is varied and complex.
III- PLASTICS
Plastics, other than cellulose nitrates are classified as ordinary combustibles.
They comprise a group of material consisting mainly of organic substances or high
molecular weight substances. They are solid in the finished state although at some
stage of manufactured plastics can be made to follow into a desired shape, usually
through the application of heat or pressure or both.
LIQUID FUEL
The most common liquid fuels are: kerosene, gasoline, oil based products and other
volatile substance (though they may be compressed slightly)
Liquid like gases assume the shape of their containers and may diffuse. Unlike gases,
they have a definite volume.
Classification of liquid fuels
Flammable liquid -It refers to any liquid having a flash point below 37.8C.
2. Combustible Liquid -It refers to any liquid having a flash point at or above or
37.8C
Flammable and combustible liquid strictly speaking, will not cause fire. It is
then the vapors from the evaporation of this liquid when exposed to air and under
the influence of heat, which will burn or explode. Gasoline in the most widely used
flammable liquid. Its generation of flammable vapors at atmospheric temperature is
common knowledge (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997)
BURNING CHARACTIRISTICS OF LIQUIDS
Pound by pound flammable liquid produced about 2.5 times more heat than wood.
This heat is liberated 3 to 10 times faster than liquid than from woods. These ratio
illustrate quite clearly why flammable liquid vapor burns with such intensity. When
flammable liquids spill, they expose a very large surface area, release a great amount
of vapor and thus produce great amount of heat when ignited. This is one reason why
large open tank fires and liquid spill fires burn so violently.
GASEOUS FUEL
Gaseous fuels are either natural or manufactured flammable gases. Gaseous
fuel are those in which molecules are in rapid movement and random motion. They
have no definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and volume of the container.
Other properties include compressibility, expandability, permeability, and diffusion.
CLASSIFICATION OF GASES ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties of gases are of primary concern of fire protection since the
affect the behaviour gases when they are accidentally released. From the standpoint
the fire technology, the classes of gas according to physical properties are:
Compressed Gas- is one which at all normal atmospheric temperature
Liquefied Gas – is one which, at normal atmospheric temperature inside its
container, exist solely partly in the liquid state and partly in the gaseous state.
Cryogenic Gases- is a liquefied gas which exist in tis container at temperature far
below normal atmospheric temperature
CLASSIFICATION OF GASES ACCORDING TO USAGE
The primarily concern of this methods of classification is the relation between
principal use and life protection. Not only does general industry use this
classification but also standards and codes.
Fuel Gases- this is customary used for burning with air to produce heat, which in
turn is utilized as power, light and process.
Industrial Gases- this is used for industrial processes as those used in welding and
cutting
Medical Gases- this is used for treatment and respiratory therapy.
HAZARDS OF GASES
For the purpose of systematic evaluation of gas hazards, distinction should be made
by hazards presented by gas when confined in a container and the hazards when the
gas escapes from a container.
Hazards of Confinement
Gas expands when heated, and when confined, the heating results in an increase in
pressure, which can results in gas release and or cause container failure
Heat container can fail due to contact with flames from an exposing fire, thus loss in
strength of the material of which the container is made.
2) Hazards of Gas when released from their container – it may vary with the physical
and chemical properties of the gas and the nature of the environment into which
they are released
Physical Properties of Matter Related to Fire.
Specific Gravity- it is the weight of a substance compared with an equal volume of
water (thus water= 1.0). The most flammable liquid has a specific gravity of less
than that water. Gasoline specific gravity is 0.70, so it will float on water. That of
carbon disulphide is 1.3 so it will sink (redsicker and O’Conner)
Boiling point – the constant temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid
is equal or above to the atmospheric pressure
Ignition temperature – the temperature at which a flammable material will ignite,
whether it be gas, liquid, or solid for example
STATE MATERIAL TEMPERATURE
Gas Acetylene 571
Liquid Turpentine 448
Solid Magnesium 1200
4. Flash Point
The temperature at which the vapour has given off is not in sufficient quantity
to burn example, the fire point of gasoline, this is 50 F for kerosene, 100F
5. Fire point- the temperature at which the material will give off vapour sufficient
quantity to sustain combustion
Flashpoint and fire point can be demonstrated by the use of a small block of wood,
a heating element and the match. Hold a match above the block of wood. Note that
the ignition does not occur because the wood has not reached its flashpoint. Place
the block of wood on a heating material (such as hot plate). Allow time for the wood
to heat, and then apply the match to the vapours given off by the wood. The vapours
will ignite and flash back to the wood, but will not continue to burn, demonstrating
that it has reached its “flashpoint”. Heating the wood further and applying the match
to the vapours, they will continue to burn indicating that it has reached its “fire point”
(Gayon)
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIRE
Endothermic Reactions- these are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorb or is
added before the reaction takes place
Exothermic Reactions- are those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they
produced substances with less energy than the reactants
Oxidation – it is a chemical change that is exothermic. It is actually deterioration or
aging materials
Flames- it refers to incandescent gases. In order to be sustained, it should maintain
a high temperature and a concentration of short live intermediate chemical reactions
between fuel and oxidizer
Different types of Flames
Based on colour and completeness of combustibility of fuel
1. Luminous flame is orange –red, will not deposit at the bottom of a container
being heated due to incomplete combustion of fuel and has a lower temperature.
2. Non- Luminous flame is blue will not deposit soot due to almost complete
combustion of the fuel and has relatively high temperature.
Based on fuel and air mixture
Premixed flame is exemplified by the Bunsen Type laboratory burner where the
hydrocarbon is thoroughly mixed with air before reaching the flame zone
Diffusion flame is observed when gas (fuel) alone is force through the nozzle into
the atmosphere, in order to form a flammable mixture
C. Based on smoothness
Laminar Flames – are flames that follow a smooth path through a gaseous flame
Turbulent flames – are those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddy. As physical
size, gas density or velocity is increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become
turbulent.
“Fire Destruction Is One Man's Job, Fire Prevention Is Everybody's Job.” “Be Alert, Avert Fire.” “Let's
Blaze The Way, To Keep The Blaze Away.” “Fire Is A Welcome Visitor, But Always See It Out.”

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