1 Introduction To The Gastrointestinal System

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM
PART I
Overview: Parts I-III
 Components of GI system
 Organization of the GI tract wall
 Functions of the GI system
 Phases of Digestion
 Control & Coordination of the GI system
Learning Objectives:
 Know the components of the gastrointestinal (GI) system
 Understand the organization of the GI tract wall and how its surface area is amplified for absorption
 Describe the 4 major functions of the GI system (secretion, absorption, motility and protection)
 Describe the four phases of digestion (cephalic, gastric, intestinal, and colonic)
 Discuss how the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems interact with the enteric nervous to regulate the functions
of the GI system
 Describe the role of neurocrines, endocrines, and paracrines in the regulation of the GI system
Gastrointestinal System- Physiological function:

 Transfer of nutrients, water & electrolytes from ingested food stuff into the body’s internal environment
Following the process of digestion, nutrients, water, and electrolytes are absorbed across the wall of the intestines into the
circulatory system where they are distributed throughout the body.
Gastrointestinal System –Components: Oral to Aboral

 Major Components
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small Intestine: consist of duodenum, jejunum, ileum
 Large Intestine: consist of colon, appendix, rectum
 Anus
Accessory Organs of the GI System:

 Salivary Glands, Pancreas, Liver & Gallbladder:
o They function to secrete fluids to facilitate the process of
digestion
o In addition to secreting bile to aid in fat digestion, liver is an
important metabolic and storage organ
Organization of the GI Tract Wall: Moving progressively from the luminal compartment towards the peritoneal cavity, the wall is
composed of:
 Mucosa: consists of epithelium which lines the lumen, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa
 Sub-mucosa: consists of connective tissue, lymphatic and blood vessels
 Below sub-mucosa is Muscularis Externa: divided into circular and longitudinal
 Serosa: visceral peritoneum
Wall of the Gastrointestinal Tract:

The mucosa consists of the epithelium, underlying
lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa.
Below the mucosa layer is the submucosa, consisting

of lymphatic and blood vessels, as well as submucosal
glands. The submucosal glands’ whose necks extend
through the mucosa to expel their contents into the
lumen.
1
Next is the muscularis externa composed of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle. The serosa or visceral peritoneum lines the
peritoneal cavity. In the small intestine, particularly in the duodenum and jejunum, the mucosa and underlying submucosa are
folded into transverse ridges, termed plica circularis, which functions to increase surface area of absorption. On each plica, the
mucosa is folded into finger-like projections called villi, which function to further enhance surface area for absorption.
Structural Specializations of Small Intestine:

This figure illustrates how the wall of the SI is elaborated to enhance the surface area
for absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water. As noted previously the luminal
wall is folded transversely to form plicae. On the surface of plicae and in furrows
between the plicae, the mucosa and sub-mucosa are folded into villi, further enhancing
surface area for absorption. The apical surface of each epithelial cell or enterocyte has
an elaborate microvillar order, similar to proximal convoluted tubule of kidney.
A. Plicae
B. Villus
C. Enterocytes with microvilli
Villar Epithelial Cells and Microvilli on Surface of Small

Intestine:
This micrograph shows the apical microvilli on the surface
of an enterocyte in the SI. Note how similar it looks like
the luminal membrane of the proximal convoluted
tubule.
Villi & Crypts of Small Intestine:

The image on the left is a micrograph showing the villi of the SI. The regions between the villi are called crypts. The schematic
diagram on the right shows the villi and crypts. Note the muscularis mucosa is what separates the mucosa from the underlying sub-
mucosa. Extending into the villi are branches of the arterial and venous systems, as well as lymphatics, which are termed lacteals.
- Arrows denote openings to crypts
 Intestinal villi in the small intestine.
 a. Note the openings (arrows) located between the bases of the villi that lead into the intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn).
 b. This three-dimensional diagram of the intestinal villi shows the
continuity of the epithelium covering the villi with the epithelium
lining the intestinal glands.
 Note blood vessels and the blind-ending lymphatic capillary, called a
lacteal, in the core of the villus.
 Between the bases of the villi, the openings of the intestinal glands
can be seen (arrows).
 Also, the small openings on the surface of the villi indicate the
location of discharged goblet cells.
Villi & Crypts of Small Intestine Amplify Surface Area:

This figure shows how the elaboration of the SI into villi and crypts markedly amplifies luminal surface
area when compared to luminal SA without villi and crypts.
2
Amplification of Surface Area in Small Intestine for Absorption:
This figure summarizes the fold increase in SA that occurs in the elaboration of the SI with plicae villi and microvilli. The presence of
plicae increases the SA 3-fold when compared to a simple tube. Further amplification with villi increases SA an additional 10-fold. An
elaboration of the enterocytes with microvilli promotes the most amplification on the order of an additional 20-fold. Together all
3 amplify the SA of the SI approximately 600-fold over a simple tube.
Comparison of Epithelium of Small & Large Intestines:
It is important to note that the SI, the section of the GI tract in which the majority of
water, nutrients, and electrolytes are absorbed, is the region where the luminal
surface is elaborated into villi.
In contrast, the LI lacks villi. This will be discussed further in the histology of the GI
lecture.
PART II
Functions of GI System:
1. Secretion
2. Absorption
3. Motility
4. Protection
Functions of GI System: Secretion:

 Major organs of secretion include salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, liver, gallbladder & small intestine
 Secretory products are involved in digestion & protection of the mucosa
Functions of GI System: Absorption:

 Major organs of absorption are the small & large intestines
 Absorbed materials are used for calories (carbohydrates, proteins, & fats) or are essential nutrients (minerals, vitamins, and
amino acids)
Fluid Balance in GI Tract 

Our daily intake of fluid from food and water is approximately 2.5 L.
Each day the salivary glands produce 1.5 L. The stomach produces 2 L, and the liver
produces 0.5 L.
The pancreas produces 1.5 L, and the intestines produce 1 L of secretions.
For a total of 6.5 L of secretion by the GI system per day.
Of the fluid in the secretions of the GI tract, the SI absorbs approximately 7 L per day,
and the LI absorbs an additional 2 L per day. Small amount of fluid leaves with the feces.
Absorption along the large intestine changes the consistency of the chyme form a fluid
to a solid:
Absorption of water and fluid from the chyme, the term used for the products
generated by digestion in the stomach, is important for changing its consistency from a
fluid to a solid. As chyme moves down the length of the intestines it is transformed
3
from fluid  semi-fluid  mush  semi-mush  semi-solid  finally a solid feces. Changes in GI motility will alter the composition
of the feces. Poor motility causes greater absorption and will generate a hard feces, which results in constipation. Excess motility
causes less absorption and loose feces, diarrhea.
Functions of GI System: Motility:

 Peristaltic contractions mix and move forward the contents of the digestive tract (chyme),
allowing for maximal absorption & excretion of undigested waste
Functions of GI System: Protection:

 GALT: Gut associated lymphatic tissue; GALT’s part in the immune system functions to protect body from invasion in the gut
 Mucus Secretions; lubrication and protect surface mucosa from abrasion by food stuffs.
 Maintenance of luminal pH; secretions from salivary glands, pancreas, and intestine function to maintain luminal pH and
neutralize acid from the stomach. Salivary secretions have antibacterial functions important for health of oral cavity and teeth.
Phases of Digestion:
1. Cephalic/Oral
2. Gastric
3. Intestinal
4. Colonic
Phases of Digestion: Cephalic/Oral:

Cephalic: Anticipation of food (mediated through olfactory, visual, auditory inputs); Oral: mediated by Contact of food with mouth
 both stimulate the Salivary, gastric & pancreatic secretion; contraction of gallbladder; Relaxation of Sphincter of Oddi
Sphincter of Oddi: situated at the opening of the hepatopancreatic
ampulla into the duodenum. The hepatopancreatic ampulla is the
region where the common bile duct and main pancreatic duct unite
into a common duct that leads into the duodenum.
4
Phases of Digestion: Gastric:
Mechanical distention of stomach due to food stuffs entering the stomach; as well as Hormonal & chemical effectors  stimualte
the Secretion of acid, mucus, pepsinogen; as well as Gastric contractions of the stomach wall
Phases of Digestion: Intestinal: follows the gastric phase

Mechanical distention of small intestine arises as chyme enters; as well as physcial Presence of chyme & increased osmolarity;
together with Hormonal & chemical effectors  stimulate the following: Pancreatic fluid & enzyme secretion; Contraction of
gallbladder; Relaxation of Sphincter of Oddi; Digestion of carbohydrates & protein & solute, nutrient & water absorption; Intestinal
contractions, forward movement of gut contents
Phases of Digestion: Colonic: final phase of digetions

Mechanical distention of colon; Presence of chyme & increased osmolarity; Hormonal & chemical effectors 
Stimulate Relaxation of ileo-cecal valve; Water absorption; Colonic contractions, forward movement of gut contents; Defecation
Ileocecal valve:
ileocecal valve is at the junction between the ilium and large

intestine.
PART III
Control & Coordination of GI System:

 CNS (parasympathetic & sympathetic); the GI system is innervated by SNS and PSNS
 Enteric Nervous System (ENS), > 500 million neurons - “gut brain”; can act autonomously from the CNS; consists of 3 plexuses
o Mucosal Plexus
o Submucosal Plexus (Meissner’s Plexus)
o Myenteric Plexus (Auerbach’s Plexus)
 GI hormones (neurocrine, endocrine, & paracrine)
Schematic of Enteric Nervous System:
5
In the wall of the mucosa is the mucosal plexus, below the mucosal plexus is the submucosal plexus or meissner’s plexus.
The myenteric plexus is situated within the muscularis
This figure illustrates the branching of the myenteric and submucosal

plexuses.
The Myenteric plexus branches inter a tertiary plexus.
Connections of Enteric Nervous System: 

The myenteric and submucosal plexuses are controlled
extrinsically by branches of PSNS and SNS.
The submucosal plexus and myenteric plexus consists of afferent,

efferent, and interneurons, all of which make the ENS capable of
carrying reflexes and acting as an integrating center in the absence
of CNS input.
In addition, there are sensory fibers that pass from mucosal

epithelium and wall of gut to the enteric plexuses, then to pre-
vertebral ganglia of the spinal cord, then directly to spinal cord and
brainstem.
Representative Transmitters of the ENS: the ENS has been shown to produce more than 30
different NTs, many of which are identical to those found in the CNS. These include:
 Acetylcholine
 GABA, Dopamine, Norepinephrine, 5-HT (serotonin)
 ATP
 NO
 ENS produces peptide hormones  Peptides (e.g. CCK, GRP, Opioids, VIP, Substance P,
Neuropeptide Y)
Gastrointestinal Hormones: 
The hormones in the GI tract that regulate GI function can be classified as:
1. Endocrine: in which the hormone is released by an endocrine cell into the circulatory
system, where it then travels to the target cell
6
2. Neurocrine: hormones are released at their neuronal synapse and diffuse to the post-synaptic effector cell
3. Paracrine: released directly into the ECF and diffuse into adjacent target cells.
Summary of Motility, Digestion & Absorptive Processes:
Excellent summary of GI physiology, illustrating motility, digestion, and absorptive processes. Helps integrate course material.

1 Introduction To The Gastrointestinal System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Introduction To The Gastrointestinal System

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Introduction To The Gastrointestinal System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Gastrointestinal System- Physiological function:

Gastrointestinal System –Components: Oral to Aboral

Accessory Organs of the GI System:

Wall of the Gastrointestinal Tract:

Below the mucosa layer is the submucosa, consisting

Structural Specializations of Small Intestine:

Villar Epithelial Cells and Microvilli on Surface of Small

Villi & Crypts of Small Intestine:

Villi & Crypts of Small Intestine Amplify Surface Area:

Comparison of Epithelium of Small & Large Intestines:

Functions of GI System: Secretion:

Functions of GI System: Absorption:

Fluid Balance in GI Tract 

Functions of GI System: Motility:

Functions of GI System: Protection:

Phases of Digestion: Cephalic/Oral:

Phases of Digestion: Intestinal: follows the gastric phase

Phases of Digestion: Colonic: final phase of digetions

ileocecal valve is at the junction between the ilium and large

Control & Coordination of GI System:

Schematic of Enteric Nervous System:

This figure illustrates the branching of the myenteric and submucosal

Connections of Enteric Nervous System: 

The submucosal plexus and myenteric plexus consists of afferent,

In addition, there are sensory fibers that pass from mucosal

Summary of Motility, Digestion & Absorptive Processes:

You might also like