Chapter 6 • Writing the results counts

Forms of Qualitative Research • Analysis is complicated

Key Terms Quantitative

• Advocacy • Numbers more important and words count

• Few variables and many cases
• Biography
• Purpose is to test, verify
• Case study • Analyzing the numbers counts
• Content analysis • Analysis is pretty standardized

• Data Spiral Purposes of Qualitative Research

• Ethnographical studies A Advocate for a cause, situation
• Grounded theory V Verify information
I Investigate or interpret events and actions
• Pattern analysis
D Describe a situation, event
• Phenomenology E Evaluate programs, actions, organizations
• Primary data O Open a field of inquiry

• Program evaluation Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• Qualitative methods • Focus on words not numbers but often
• Quantitative methods includes numbers
• Secondary data • Emphasis on meanings in words
• Nonstandard data collection
• Triangulation
• Use of conceptualization to analyze data
• Few cases and many variables
What is Qualitative Research?
• Conceptual approaches
Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative • Examination of patterns in the data
• Possibility of correlations
Research
• Studies phenomena in the real world
• Both valid • Uses you as a critical research element
• Both use serious research techniques, sometimes
although different • Broadens your ways of seeing what is
• Both contribute to new information and happening in the world
perspectives • Brings rigorous methods to the analysis of
• Both are rigorous what we see, observe, notice
• They fall on a continuum with mixed • Starts with open ended questions and
methods in between develops the design along with the study

Qualitative-----Quantitative Types of Qualitative Research

Qualitative---Mixed---Quantitative • Advocacy papers
Qualitative • Biographies or historical studies
• Case studies
• Words more important and numbers count • Conceptual Overviews or Reports of the
also Field
• Many variables and few cases • Content analysis
• Purpose is to explore, investigate, discover • Ethnographical Studies
 • Grounded theory • Requires several perspectives to understand
• Phenomenology and describe group norms, patterns, and
• Program evaluation cultural factors
• Challenges involve objective observations,
1. Biographies and Histories
focus on patterns not individuals, and
• Study of a person, event, program, company detached interpretation of the group
or institution
6. Grounded Theory
• Use of primary and secondary data and
documents and often interviews • Immersion in field data, development of a
• Challenges involve locating documents, and hypothesis or hypotheses which is testing
interpreting them, and sorting major and again on the participants in the field
minor events or forces • Extensive and intensive process which takes
a long time to complete
2. Case Studies
• Challenges involve remaining true to the
• Analysis of a program, action, or company original data and not bring preconceptions to
• Can be individual case or comparison of the work
several cases
7. Phenomenology
• Challenge involves immersion in an
organization, defining researcher’s role, and • Examination of what it is like to participate in
sorting and interpreting a mass of developing or be involved in an event, activity, or
data program
• Relies on participants’ perceptions and
3. Conceptual Overviews or Reports of the Field
sometimes researcher observation and
• Careful analysis of wide range of literature involvement
analyzed in depth • Challenges involve remaining objective and
• Models often suggested from these careful in describing the experience
overviews
• Challenges involve being comprehensive
and critical (requires knowledge of the topic) 8. Program Evaluations
and suggesting new research topics
• Analysis of the operation of a program in
4. Content Analysis terms of its original goals
• Requires careful plan for collecting
• Specific analysis of words, phrases, or
appropriate data and analyzing it carefully
images in selected documents and videos or
• Challenges involve remaining objective,
films
interpreting interviews, questionnaire
• Manual task (coding system and manual) but
responses, and other data
software can do the analysis also
• Challenges involve careful coding, remaining 9. Advocacy Paper or Feasibility Study
objective and detached, and interpreting
• Argument for a program, policy, event,
findings
activity or different way of making something
happen
5. Ethnographical Studies • Requires careful analysis of contradictory
data and clarity of purpose and focus
• Examination of the behavior and mores of a
• Challenge involves combining logical
group or tribe like collection of people
argument with sufficient data and rationale to
convince the readers
Form Case Study
Research Design Intensive analysis of X
Triangulation
Form Content Analysis
Research Design Analysis of documents and • The use of several sources of data to
communication interpret information
Form Ethnography • Three independent sources hopefully of
Research Design Analysis and immersion in group different forms improves the validity of the
Form Grounded Theory insights and analysis
Research Design Development of theory from • Three perspectives increases the objectivity
examining examples of the insights
Form Historical Research • Critical to analyzing results from qualitative
Research Design Interpretation of historical data research
for significance
Form Phenomenology Qualitative Research Data Gathering Techniques
Research Design Detailed study of process, event, • Documentary analysis
activity -Primary sources
Form Program Evaluation -Secondary sources
Research Design Assessment of an operation or • Observations
program using documentary records, survey • Interviews
research, and interviews -structured and
Form Review of the Field -semi structured
Research Design Comprehensive assessment of • Focus groups
key concepts and insights • Questionnaires
• Survey research
Analyzing Information in Qualitative Research Data Analysis Process

1. Selection of Problem
2. Collection of Data
3. Organization
4. Perusal
5. Classification
6. Synthesis

Data Analysis
Researcher’s Role in Qualitative Research
• Pattern Analysis
»Find patterns
• Data Spiral
»Recognize own point of view
• Triangulation
»Participate
»Record
»Observe
 »Sift through data Types of Quantitative Research
»Analyze • Survey research
»Understand • Pre experimental
»Evaluate • Quasi experimental
»Other • Experimental
• Post-hoc
Chapter 7 • Developmental studies
Forms of Quantitative Research • Forecasting

Purposes of Quantitative Research 1. Survey Research

o prove or test hypotheses. • Information about how a group of people
o involves many subjects and few variables. think, perceive the world, feel about an
o involves numbers (but qualitative research activity, program, policy, possibility of
may also use numbers). change, new development
o typically organized to validate previous • Methods include:
information or research findings. −Face to face interviews
o examines phenomena in light of particular −Telephone or online interviews
models or theories −Paper and pencil questionnaires
o demonstrates the truth of a set of −Online questionnaires
assumptions, theories, or a model
2. Experimental Research
The Three C’s of Quantitative Research • Elements
• C Connection o Control over independent variable
• C Correlation enables measurement of change in
• C Causation the dependent variable as
independent variable changes
Purposes of Quantitative Research o Control over a pre-test and post-test
P Prove situation
A Assess or test o Control over selection of the sample
V Validate o Control over treatment application
E Examine
D Demonstrate • Pure Experimental Research
The road o Can control treatment, pretest, and
assignment to control and
Characteristics of Quantitative Research experimental groups
• Focus on numbers but often includes words o Can prove cause and effect with
• Emphasis on interpretations of numbers some certainty
• Standard data collection models o Can select sample carefully
• Use of statistical techniques to analyze data o Can assign participants to groups
• Many cases and few variables randomly
• Examination of significance of the numbers o Can give one group a treatment and
• Desire to prove connections, correlations not the other
and maybe causation o Internal validity important
• Focus on proving a hypothesis or hypotheses
• Pre-experimental Research
o Cannot control treatment or only in a
limited manner
 o Cannot prove cause and effect with o Trend analysis
any certainty
o Cannot make changes in the • Hypothesis
independent variable o An intellectual or educated guess
o Cannot select sample and randomize
participants into the groups Role of Hypotheses
o Internal validity important • Hypotheses needed to test:
• Clarification of independent variable
• Quasi-Experimental Research • Determination of dependent variable
o Can control randomization of • Confounding or moderating variables
participants or respondents in some • Intervening variables
ways • Null hypothesis
o Can prove cause and effect with
some certainty Overcoming Confounding Variables
o Can select sample carefully • Strategies:
o Cannot randomly assign participants • Keep things constant
to groups • Use a control group
o Can give one group a treatment and •Select people using a randomizing
not the other technique
o Internal validity important • Ensure equivalence where possible
• Treat all participants the same way
• Post-Hoc Research • Using statistics carefully and intelligently
o Conducted after the fact
o No control over the variables, pre- Determinations of Significance
test, treatment choices, or partisans • Importance of Significance
o Often used to show the impact or • Importance of significance in testing,
effect of something that has already reinforcing or proving a hypothesis
happened • Proving that results could not be obtained by
o Often designed after the event or chance alone
action • Tests of statistical significance

• Developmental Research Mixed Methods

o Focuses on time factors – changes •Combination of qualitative and quantitative methods
over the age of the participants • Triangulation design
primarily • Embedded design
o Cohort studies – cross-sectional • Explanatory design
approach • Exploratory design
o Longitudinal studies – long term
approach Research Hourglass
»Topic
• Forecasting »Purpose statement
o Attempts to predict future behavior, data, »Research questions
programs, events, or other items »Literature review
o Methods »Research design
o Time series analysis »Data collection method
o Smoothing »Data analysis plan
o Regression analysis »Findings
 »Applications Probability Sampling Strategies
»Future research ideas • Pure or simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
Chapter 8 • Stratified random sampling
Sampling Issues in Research • Cluster sampling

Sampling Non-Probability Sampling Strategies

• Sampling may be defined as measuring a • Quota sampling
small portion of something and then making • Convenience sampling
a general statement about the whole thing • Purposive or judgmental sampling
• Sampling is applicable if the population of the • Snowball sampling
study is too large, and the marketing of the
researcher are limited. Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling
In determining the sample plan, the ff: are
Reasons for Sampling recommended:
S Staff 1. Determine who your respondents are in your
T Time research study
E Efficiency 2. Determine whether you wish to take into
A Accuracy account the entire population, or consider a
M Money or Resources representative sample.
3. Compute for the appropriate sample size
Sampling Terminologies 4. Determine the sampling technique you wish
• Population - A population is the theoretical to apply
specific aggregation of the elements
• Study Population - A study population is that • The size is usually determined before the
aggregation of the elements from which they conduct of any study. There no fixed rules in
sample is selected. determining the size of a sample needed.
• Sampling Frame - The actual list of sampling • When the universe or population is more or less
units from which the sample is selected homogeneous and only the typical, normal, or a
• Sample -These are the elements who are average is desired to be known, a smaller sample
actually selected to participate or to be the is enough. However, if difference is desired to be
subject in the study. known, a large sample is needed.
• When the population is more or less
General Types of Sampling heterogeneous and only the typical, normal,
• Probability Sampling - the sample is a average is desired to be known, a large sample
portion of the population and such sample is is needed. However, if only their difference is
selected from the population means of some desired to be known, a smaller sample is
systematic way in which every element of the sufficient.
population has a chance of being included in • The size of a sample varies inversely as the size
the sample. of the population. A larger proportion may do for
• Non-Probability Sampling - the sample is a bigger population.
not a portion of the population and there is no • For a greater accuracy and reliability of results, a
system in selecting the sample. The selection greater sample is desirable.
depends upon the situation.
Common Sampling Errors
• Errors in determining the population from
which the sample will be taken in a
 • probably sample Sample Size
• Lack of clarity about sample frame, the group • Purpose of the research
from which the sample will be drawn • Level of confidence needed
• Inadequate attention to the randomizing • Extent of precision required or desired
process to ensure that there are no outside
factors affecting the choice of individuals to RESEARCH WRITING CHAPTER 1
be included in the sample THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
• Confusion of probability and non–probability
sampling 1. Introduction
• Lack of access to the respondents in the 2. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
sample 3. Operational Framework
• Influence of moderating variables that affect 4. Statement of the Problem
the results 5. Statement of Hypothesis
• Systemic errors—mistakes made in planning 6. Assumptions of the Study
or implementation 7. Scope and Delimitation
• Other dynamics in the sample that were 8. Significance of the Study
unplanned or not considered 9. Definition of Terms

Sources of Sample Bias I. Introduction

• Three Forms of Bias - The introduction formally introduces the
• Systemic research study.
• Respondent - It explicitly presents what the research is all
• Interviewer about and sets the tone of the research.
- It gradually leads the reader to the research
Systemic Bias topic
- Sample selection process
- Faulty research design This can be achieved by doing any of the ff:
- Analytic process errors 1. State the existing conditions in the
- Moderating variables – faulty environment. This will give a broader
conceptual framework perspective of the research topic under
study.
Respondent Bias 2. Enumerate the various variables, issues
or considerations that lead to the
- Acquiescence bias
research topic.
- Auspices bias
3. Explain the importance of the research
- Non-response bias
study and the research topic itself.
- Extremity bias
- Social desirability bias Several approaches are suggested to make an
impressive introduction. You can do any of the ff:
Interviewer Bias 1. Begin with a provocative quotation or
- Inference errors statement
- Interviewer interaction bias 2. Cite outside references to reinforce your
- Interpretation errors research topic
- Recording errors 3. Emphasize a critical and urgent issue,
concern or problem related to the research
topic
 4. Enumerate a series of relevant and thought- 6. If your answers are all “yes”, then continue
provoking questions
II. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Take note that the introduction is one of the most As soon as the researcher has chosen the research
important parts of a research paper. Its objective is topic, he should look for a theory or principle that
to succeed in catching the readers attention, raise links the topic to available body of knowledge.
their level of curiosity about the research topic,
and eventually lead them to continue reading the A theory is an organized body of concepts
entire synthesized from studies, related facts or
research study. observations which serves as an accepted
explanation for the existence of truth of something.
In writing the introduction, the development of the (See, et.al., 2000). It is also a set of interrelated
research topic must be written gradually, smoothly constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions
and logically to the last paragraph. Make sure that that presents a systematic view of phenomena by
the last paragraph explicitly mentions the rationale specifying relations among variables, with the
of the research, or the reason for choosing the said purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena
research topic. (Kerlinger, 1986).

Checklist: The theoretical or conceptual framework is the

1. How did you write your introduction? skeletal model of the research. It is the basic
structure on which the research study is built. In fact,
___ Did you introduce macro issues or it is the research study’s frame of reference which
concerns? provides the very foundation for which the study is
___ Did you mention significant factors and being conducted.
variables?
___ Were you able to mention the relevance The theoretical or conceptual framework may either
and importance of your research topic? be based on theories or concepts. If theories are
directly referred to then the research study uses a
2. Did you progressively develop the theoretical framework. On the other hand, if the
introduction to lead to your research topic? study is based on concepts, then the research uses
____ yes a conceptual framework. (Young, 2002).
____ no
Formulating the Theoretical or Conceptual
3. Can you confidently claim that your Framework
introduction is
The framework presents the theory which explains
• relevant, ____ yes ____ no why the problem under study exists. Thus, the T/CF
• and interesting enough to make readers is but a theory that serves as a basis for conducting
want to continue reading your research? research.
____ yes ____ no
Reasons for formulating the framework:
4. Did you mention in the last paragraph of • It helps the researcher see clearly the
your introduction the reason for choosing variables of the study
your research topic? • It can provide him with a general framework
____ yes ____ no for data analysis
5. Did you mention the source or sources of
your information? _yes___no
 • It is essential in preparing a research 5. If your answers are all “yes”, then
proposal using descriptive and experimental continue
methods.
III. Operational Framework (Research Paradigm)
Examples of Theories
• Theories in Management This is the schematic framework of the research
• Taylor’s Traditional Theory of Management study that shows the interrelationship among
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs variables of the research. Figures are usually used to
• Achievement-Power-Affiliation Theory – by show any form of relationships.
David McClelland
• Motivation-Maintenance Theory It is the statement of the problems in diagram or
• McGregor’s Theory X & Y figure form.
• Achievement Theory
• Barnard-Simon’s Theory of Equilibrium Checklist:
• Reinforcement Theory 1. Is the paradigm consistent with your
• Maturity Theory – by Chris Argyrie research title? ___ yes ___ no. If not revise it.

Examples of Concepts 2. Is the paradigm clearly illustrated, including

- consumer behavior all the variables and their interrelationships?
- product life cycle ___ yes ___ no
- social marketing
- benchmarking 3. Are the variables in the paradigm clearly
- environmental management • identified, ___ yes ___ no
- re-engineering • and labeled? ___ yes ___ no
- globalization
- entrepreneurship, etc 4. Is the paradigm adequately explained in the
context of the research study? ___ yes ___ no
Checklist:
5. If your answers are all “yes”, then continue
1. What type of framework did you adopt?
Was it based on IV. Statement of the Problem
___ theories, • The statement of the problem is a clear
___ concepts, definition of a question raised for inquiry,
___ both? consideration or solution.
• It is the research title written in sentence form
2. Can these theories and concepts serve • Generally expressed in a declarative
as the bases for the framework of your statement, the statement of the problem is
research study? ___ yes ___ no commonly referred to as the main problem
• It should be consistent with the research title,
in phrase form, and the paradigm, which is in
3. Are there relationships evident in the figure or diagram form
theoretical/ conceptual framework? • Aside from the statement of the problem, a
___yes ___ no research study answers sub-problems,
better known as minor problems, they are
4. Did you adequately explain the stated in interrogative form.
theoretical/ conceptual framework?
__ yes __ no
 1. They may include questions on what, 7. It should put in a nutshell the intended
how and why research study
2. They may include questions that consider
degree, extent, or level of agreement, Types of Research Problem
implementation, efficiency, effectiveness
and other forms of rating scales A descriptive research question typically asks “what
is” and suggests a survey design.
This study attempts to determine the role of food
festivals in attracting tourists in Sta. Rosa, Laguna. Examples:
1. What are the leadership values professed
Specifically, it intends to answer the following by student leaders of the HM and TM?
questions: 2. What is the level of commitment of the
ETYCB professors to their job?
1. What is the demographic profile of tourists who 3. What is the performance of the HM and TM
visit Sta. Rosa’s food festival in terms of: students in their practicum?
1.1 Age;
1.2 Gender; A difference research question typically asks “Is
1.3 Average Family Income? there a difference between two groups or two or
more treatments?” This type of question is used
2. What is the level of influence among the when the researcher compares two or more
respondents to patronize the food festival in observations.
terms of:
2.1 sensory attributes; Examples:
2.2 variety; 1. How do male and female students
2.3 value for money? compare in their coping mechanisms?
2. Is there a significant difference in the work
3. Is there a significant difference on the level of values of call center agents when grouped
influence among the respondents to patronize food according to the profile variables?
festival when grouped according to profile variables? 3. How significant is the difference in the
coping mechanisms employed by call center
• Emphasis should be given on the ff: agents when they are categorized according
to profile variables?
1. The statement of the problem should be
relevant, meaningful and valuable A relationship research question asks “What is the
2. It should be specific, clear, precise, limited, relationship between two or more variables?” and
appropriate, complete an focused implies a correlation design.
3. If the respondent’s profile is important in
the research, it can be included in the minor Examples:
problems. If otherwise, then it should not be 1. Is there a significant relationship between
part of the statement of the problem the study habits of college seniors and their
4. It should be consistent with the research academic performance?
title and the research paradigm 2. How significant is the relationship between
5. It should be answerable by the collected job stressors and coping strategies of hotel
data managers?
6. It should be “solvable” by statistical tools 3. Is organizational commitment related to
and techniques the food servers’ length of service in casual
dining restaurants?
Checklist: 2. What is the level of influence among the
1. Is the statement of the problem consistent respondents to patronize the food festival in terms
with your research title?___ yes ___ no. If not, of:
revise it 2.1 sensory attributes
2.2 variety
2. Is it consistent with your research 2.3 value for money
paradigm?
___ yes ___ no 3. Is there a significant difference on the level of
influence among the respondents to patronize food
3. Are your minor problems drawn from the festival when grouped according to profile variables?
statement of the problem?
___ yes ___ no This study will test the hypothesis in null form:

4. Are your minor problems specific? __ yes Ho: There is no significant difference on the level of
___ no influence among the respondents to patronize food
festival when grouped according to profile variables
5. Are your minor problems in question form?
___ yes ___ no H1: There is a significant difference on the level of
influence among the respondents to patronize food
6. If your answers are all “yes”, then continue festival when grouped according to profile variables

V. Statement of Hypothesis A hypothesis Checklist:

1. Is the hypothesis of your study based on your
• is an ‘educated guess’ or an intelligent tentative statement of the problem? ___ yes ___ no
answer to a problem that needs to be tested; the
operationalization of the research theory. 2. What are your null and alternative hypothesis?

• is an expectation about events based on 3. If all items have been carefully considered, then
generalizations of the assumed relationship between you can continue
variables.
VI. Assumptions of the Study
• used to examine theories in conditional syllogisms
Two types of hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the The assumptions are premises which serve as the
alternative hypothesis. The two hypotheses are starting points of the study. These are statements of
related in such a way that one is the negation of the suppositions that presumed to be true and therefore,
other, and vice versa. need not be proven

Specifically, it intends to answer the following • In writing the assumptions of the study, take note of
questions: the ff:

1. What is the demographic profile of tourists who 1. Assumptions need not be proven
visit Sta. Rosa’s food festival in terms of: 2. They are generally enumerated
1.1 Age 3. No explanations have to be given for any
1.2 Gender of these assumptions
1.3 Average Family Income 4. You cannot assume something that you
are trying to prove
• Example Checklist:
In writing this research paper, the researcher 1. Have you identified the topic areas to be
came up with the following assumptions: included in your study? __ yes __ no

1. Food festival in Sta. Rosa is frequented by 2. Have you identified the topic areas not to be
tourists included in your study? __ yes __no
2. Tourists enjoy attending food festivals
3.The respondents answered the 3. What are the constraints of your research?
questionnaire truthfully and honestly
4. Have you arbitrarily identified your,
Checklist: a. Population,
1. Are these assumptions need not to be b. The time frame
proven? __ yes __ no c. The setting of the study? __ yes __ no

2. Are your assumptions direct, focused and 5. If your answers are all “yes”, then continue
specific? __ yes __ no
VIII. Significance of the Study
3. Are your assumptions in enumeration
format? __ yes __ no This is a critical evaluation of the merits of the results
of the study. At the proposal stage, the significance
4. If all items have been carefully considered, is mere speculated contributions.
then you can continue
The significance of the study delineates the
VII. Scope and Delimitation importance of the research being undertaken to
The scope and delimitation of the study aligns and specific individuals, entities, institutions,
focuses the research in the desired and expected organizations and other segments of society
perspective. This can be defined in terms of:
In writing this section, the approach should start from
a) Geographical area (What is the the macro perspective to the micro point of view.
geographical coverage?)
b) Time Frame (When is the study going to These entities, whichever is applicable, are as
be conducted?) follows:
c) Variables (What variables are included? 1. The society and the community
excluded?) 2. the government
d) Unit of Analysis (What is being studied? 3. the specific industry
Individuals? Groups?) 4. organizations
5. the corporate workplace
1. It clearly defines the limitations, boundaries, 6. management and employees
or constraints of the research to be 7. the academe
undertaken 8. other researchers
2. It specifically states the level and depth of
analysis of the intended study. Checklist:
3. It states the specific topic areas to be 1. Have you identified which sectors will
included in the research, and those that will benefit from your study? __yes __ no
not be included and therefore, will not be
discussed by the researcher
 2. Have you identified and analyzed in what QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
ways will these sectors benefit your
research? __ yes __ no Definition
3. Have you fully explained how these sectors Quantitative Research
will benefit from your research? __ yes __ no • a formal, objective, systematic process for
obtaining information about the world. A
4. Is your significance of the study in method used to describe, test relationships,
paragraph form? __ yes __ no and examine cause and effect relationships

5. If your answers are all “yes”, then continue Qualitative Research

• a systematic subjective approach used to
IX. Definition of Terms describe life experiences and give them
This is more appropriately labeled as Definition of meaning
Variables. This means that only the key words in the • refers to studies that investigate the quality
title and problem are defined. Definition is both of relationships, activities, situations, or
conceptual and operational. materials

Conceptual definition gives the term’s universal Goals

meaning; operational definition specifies how it is Quantitative Research
manipulated by the researcher or how it is • To test relationships, describe, examine
measured. cause and effect relations

Enumeration is done as the term appears in the Qualitative Research

text/title, not alphabetically as a glossary. • To gain insight; explore the depth, richness,
and complexity inherent in the phenomenon
Checklist: • researchers are especially interested in
1. Have all the terms needed to be defined how things occur and particularly in the
been identified and enumerated? ___ yes ___ perspectives of the subjects of a study
no
2. Have all these terms been clearly defined? General Characteristics
___ yes ___ no
Quantitative Research
3. Did you cite your sources if the definitions 1. The data is usually gathered using more
of your terms were lifted from secondary structured research instruments.
sources? 2. The results provide less detail on behavior,
___ yes ___ no attitudes and motivation.
3. The results are based on larger sample
4. Is your definition of terms in enumeration sizes that are representative of the
form? population.
4. The analysis of the results is more
5. If your answers are all “yes”, then continue objective

Qualitative Research
1. The natural setting is the direct source of
data, and the researcher is the key
instrument in qualitative research
2. Data are collected in the form of words or
 pictures rather than numbers • The analysis of the results is much more
3. Researchers are concerned with process subjective.
as well a product * Because of the nature of the interaction with
4. Researchers tend to analyze their data the respondents, the training and level of
inductively expertise required of the person engaging in
5. How people make sense out of their lives the direct communication with the
is a major concern to qualitative researchers respondents must be high.
• The data is usually gathered using less
Data Collection Techniques structured research instruments.
• The findings are more in-depth since they
Quantitative Research make greater use of open-ended questions.
1. Observation • The results provide much more detail on
2. Experimentation behavior, attitude and motivation.
3. Survey • The research is more intensive and more
flexible, allowing the researcher to probe
Qualitative Research since s/he has greater latitude to do so.
1. In-depth interview with audiotape
and videotape 1. Narrative Research
2. Direct, non-participant observation • The study of the life experiences of an
3. Participant observation individual as told to the researcher or found
4. Focus Group in document and archival material
5. Field notes, journals, logs • The participant recalls one or more special
6. Pilot study events in his or her life
• The researcher is actively present during
Techniques the study and openly acknowledges that his
or her report is an interpretation of the
Quantitative Research participant’s experiences
1. Descriptive
2. Correlational 2. Phenomenology
3. Experimental • Investigates various reactions to, or
perceptions of, a particular phenomenon
Qualitative Research (e.g. the experience of teachers in college)
1. Narrative Research • The researcher hopes to gain some insight
2. Phenomenology into the world of his or her participants and to
3. Grounded Theory describe their perceptions and reactions
4. Ethnographic • Data are usually collected through in-depth
5. Case Study interviewing. The researcher then attempts
to identify and describe aspects of each
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN individual’s perceptions and reactions to his
or her experience in
Characteristics of Qualitative Research some detail
• The results are based on smaller sample • Phenomenologists generally assume that
sizes and are often not representative of the there is some commonality to how human
population. beings perceive and interpret similar
• The research can usually not be replicated experiences; they seek to identify,
or repeated, given its low reliability. understand, and describe these
commonalities
 • This commonality of perception is referred
to as the essence – the essential
characteristic(s) of the experience
• It is the essential structure of a
phenomenon that researchers want to
identify and describe. They do so by studying
multiple perceptions of the phenomenon as
experienced by different people, and by then
trying to determine what is common to these
perceptions and reactions
• (e.g. Nurses who work in the operating
room of a large medical center)

4. Ethnographic
• Focuses on the study of culture
• Its aim is to provide the kind of account of
human social activity out of which cultural
patterning can be discerned
• It intends to describe the culture and social
interactions of a particular group or
subgroup. It involves extensive immersion in
a natural setting

3. Grounded Theory
• The researchers intend to generate a theory
that is “grounded” in data from participants
who have experienced the process
• Researchers start with the data they have
collected and then develop generalizations
after they look at the data
• “One does not begin with a theory, then
prove it. Rather one begins with an area of
study and what is relevant to that area is
allowed to emerge.”
5. Case Study 10. Are the study findings clearly presented
• An in-depth examination of a particular case and study limitations acknowledged?
or several cases 11. Are suggestions made for further
research, based on the study findings?

Reliability and Validity - Rigor

• Use of researcher’s personality
• Involvement with subject’s experience
• Live with data collection until no new
information appears
• Bracketing
• Researcher suspends what is known about
the phenomenon
Types of Case Studies • Keeping an open context
1. Intrinsic – the researcher is primarily • Set aside own preconceptions
interested in understanding a specific • Intuiting
individual or situation • Process of actually looking at phenomenon
2. Instrumental – a researcher is interested • Focus all awareness and energy on topic
in understanding something more that just a • Absolute concentration and complete
particular case; the researcher is interested absorption in phenomenon
in studying the particular case only as a • Can use > 1 researcher and compare
means to some larger goal interpretation and analysis of data
3. Multiple (or collective) – the researcher
studies multiple cases at Data Analysis
the same time as part of one overall study • Living with data
• Cluster and categorize data
Guidelines for Critiquing Qualitative Designs • Examine concepts and themes
1. Does the phenomenon lend itself to study • Define relationships between / among concepts
by qualitative methods or would a
quantitative approach have been more
appropriate?
2. Does the study focus on the subjective
nature of human experience?
3. Is the specific qualitative approach named
and described?
4. Will the study findings have significance for
tourism?
5. Does the researcher clearly describe how
participants were selected?
6. How was the sample size determined?
7. Is the data collection and recording
process fully presented?
8. Is it clear how researcher bias in data
collection was avoided?
9. Is the data analysis method consistent with
the purpose and approach of the study?