FRACTURE TOUGHNESS IN RELATION TO

STEEL CASTINGS DESIGN AND APPLICATION

by
W. J . Jackson

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

ABSTRACT 1
INTRODUCTION 1
FACTORS OF SAFETY AND BRITTLE FRACTURE 1
FRACTURE MECHANICS 3
Calculation of Critical Flaw Size 5
Subcritical Flaw Growth by Fatigue and Stress Corrosion 7
APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS 10
Design 10
Material Selection 13
Significance of Discontinuities 14
Monitoring, Control and Failure Analysis 16
Accuracy of Flaw Size Measurement 19
METALLURGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING FRACTURE TOUGHNESS 20
ALTERNATIVE DATA 26
ACCEPTABLE FLAW SIZE 27
DETERMINATION OF FLAW SIZE 29
FLAWS IN RELATION TO QUALITY 29
WELDING OF STEEL CASTINGS 32
SPECIFICATIONS 34
CONCLUSIONS 34
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 35
REFERENCES 36

APPENDIX 1 - SAMPLE CALCULATION 39

WRITTEN DISCUSSION 43
AUTHOR'S REPLY 43
 Dr. W. J. Jackson was born in England and attended Queen Mary's school,
Walsall, in Staffordshire, which had its origins over 400 years ago. After
wartime service in the Royal Air Force, he went to Birmingham University,
where he graduated in Industrial Metallurgy in 1950. He was awarded the
degree of M.Sc (Eng) in Physical Metallurgy at London University in 1953.
For two years he worked on T.I.G. and M. I. G. welding in the R & D Department
of the British Oxygen Company Ltd., London. He later joined the International
Nickel Co. Ltd., in Birmingham as technical assistant in the hot rolling mill.
In 1954, he joined B.S.C.R.A. in Sheffield, was appointed Head of the Physical
Metallurgy Section in 1956, Head of Metallurgy and steelmaking Section in 1963,
and to his present position, Research Manager (Product Technology) in 1974.
In 1971, he was awarded the degree of Ph.D. for research on high strength
steel castings. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Metallurgists and a
Fellow of the Royal Institute of Chemistry in London. Dr. Jackson's current
research activities are in the field of casting properties, particularly
fatigue and fracture toughness, heat treatment and transformations, residual
elements, welding, elevated temperature properties, surface coating, sizing
of defects, ultrasonic techniques and steel castings specifications.
 Fracture Toughness in Relation to
Steel Castings Design and Application

by

W. J. Jackson

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the value of fracture

mechanics in steel casting design and material selection, and to point out
the significance of defects, especially with regard to brittle fracture and
fatigue crack growth. While it has been necessary to include some background
theory and mathematical concepts, these have been kept to a minimum; em-
phasis is placed on the practical use of fracture toughness criteria for
establishing safety levels for particular service applications and on the
implications of the fracture mechanics approach for the steel founder.

INTRODUCTION

Castings are individual products; they are inspected individually for

discontinuities which must be repaired or the casting rejected. In many
engineering applications castings tend to be "over designed", i .e. the safety
factors are unnecessarily generous where it can be shown that any defects
present are not critical. Design rules, to avoid the possibility of fast
fracture, are not the only constraints on total castings design, but they
are often the greatest constraint and the least quantitative. A successful
fracture mechanics approach to design would encourage production of castings
of better fitness for purpose, and generally lighter section, if this were
desirable for other than safety reasons.

FACTORS OF SAFETY AND BRITTLE FRACTURE

Traditionally, design calculations are based on the theory of elas-

ticity, and therefore utilize standard formulae, which assume that the
material is elastic, homogeneous and isotropic. For non-critical components,
it is usually sufficient to base the design on average stresses, but with
critical components it may be necessary to take account of severe stress
service conditions, and obtain the local stress distributions by theoret-
ical or experimental stress analysis techniques. The design stress is
related to either the yield stress, or the U.T.S., by means of a factor of
safety. This single factor which is usually a product of several contrib-
utory factors, accounts for local stress fluctuations, variations of service
loading conditions, scatter in material properties and environmental effects.
The choice of the factor of safety depends on the experience and judgement
of the designer unless it is implicitly stated in a relevant specification
or design code.

For ductile materials and static loading conditions, the factor is

related to the yield of 0.2% proof stress. Local stress concentrations
may usually be ignored, because they are relieved by plastic deformation.
The minimum safety factor for steel castings based on the U.T.S. is usually
taken as 4 , but design engineers, uncertain of the quality of the steel
and unfamiliar with the reliability of steel castings, have in the past
used additional safety factors of 2 to 5 or more. These exaggerated
safety factors are rendered largely unnecessary by the wide range of non-
destructive tests which can be applied to steel castings and by the data

-1-
now available, even ignoring recent fracture toughness data. This is re-
flected in the magnitude of the quality factors applied to steel castings
to modify the safety factors for boilers and pressure vessels.

The essence of the fracture toughness approach is to quantify an ac-

ceptable degree of unsoundness in a steel casting for a given application
and not to attempt to agree on what constitutes complete soundness. A
fracture toughness approach offers the possibility of distinguishing the
ability to resist fast fracture from other constraints such as plastic
collapse and, sometimes, buckling.

N o t all d u c t i l e f a i l u r e s i n v o l v e f r a c t u r e . T h e d u c t i l e f a i l u r e i s
predictable because the necessary load required for a ductile fracture
can be calculated or estimated. From a macroscopic viewpoint, a ductile
fracture exhibits the following characteristics:

a) a large amount of plastic deformation precedes the fracture

b) shear lips may be present;
c) the fracture may appear to be fibrous, or have a matte or silky texture;
e) the cross section at the fracture may be reduced by necking; and
crack growth will be slow.

Brittle failures cannot be predicted by simple engineering calculations.

Because of their catastrophic and unexpected nature, much research has
been done in trying to control this problem. From a macroscopic standpoint,
brittle fractures are characterized by the following:

a) little or no plastic deformation precedes the fracture;

b) the fracture is generally flat and perpendicular to the surface
of the component;
c) the fracture may appear granular or crystalline and is often highly
reflective to light. Facets may also be observed, especially in
coarse-grained steels; and
d) herringbone, or chevron, patterns may be present and cracks
propagate rapidly.

When notched, mild steel can be made to fracture in either a brittle

or a ductile manner merely by altering the temperature. Even if a notch is
not made deliberately, a small crack can be initiated within a metal, as
in the case of a polished fatigue specimen, by a process of grain boundary
movement or slip. Cracks are also initiated at elevated temperatures
when a steel is under creep conditions. Such cracks may be very small but
will have extremely sharp extremities. With steels generally, initiation
of brittle fracture is more difficult than propagation, given the same
operating conditions. Most structures, such as bridges, ships, storage
tanks, pressure vessels, are designed on the basis of defect-free materials,
with appropriate factors of safety based mainly on past experience. By
applying fracture mechanics a more realistic approach can be made, accepting
that no metal is defect-free and calculating the size of defect that can
be tolerated without it propagating in a brittle manner. The toughness
of the steel obviously influences the propagation or arrest of a crack and
in practice the problem is one of defining toughness, deciding by which
tests it should be assessed and what level should be specified.

-2-
 The Charpy V-notch impact test has had considerable success in providing
the designer with some idea of the relative notch-toughness of various
materials. The main advantage of this test is that the specimen used is
relatively small, but it has the disadvantage that a measure of transition
temperature is obtained only for the prevailing conditions. The Charpy
V-notch transition temperature can also be shifted by a change in specimen
size, a change in notch configuration and a change in the rate of loading.
It follows that the Charpy V-notch test has the following disadvantages
when the results are applied to practical design:

a) The Charpy V-notch impact test does not reproduce the triaxiality
t h a t o c c u r s i n t h i c k n e s s e s g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 mm ( . 3 9 i n . ) ;
b) the notch is blunt by comparison with natural cracks;
c) it is an impact test, and the majority of brittle failures in
service occur under static conditions; and
d) the material tested is usually taken from a test sample that is
not always entirely representative of the material as a whole.

Consequently, Charpy test results cannot be used to determine a safe

working temperature for service application, or safe design against brittle
fracture. More sophisticated types of test are required and linear elastic
fracture mechanics (LEFM) has been found useful for predicting, in terms
of a single parameter, the fracture stress of components containing sharp
flaws.

FRACTURE MECHANICS

Fracture mechanics is a useful method of characterizing fracture

toughness, fatigue crack growth, or stress-corrosion crack growth behavior
in terms of structural design parameters familiar to the engineer, namely
stress and flaw size. Fracture mechanics is based on a stress analysis
and does not depend on the use of service experience to translate laboratory
results into practical design information (as does the Charpy V-notch
test, for example).

The theory of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) has been devel-
oped in terms of a stress intensity factor (K) determined by stress analysis,
and expressed as a function of stress and crack size, namely (stress) x
(length)1/2. The basic assumption is that crack propagation will occur when
the strain energy release rate, or the stress intensity at the crack tip
(Kc), reaches a critical value. There are three modes of fracture, mode
I being identified as the opening mode, in which the crack surfaces move
opposite and perpendicular to each other (as when opening by driving in a
wedge). This mode is the most important from the low stress fracture
point of view and has been studied more extensively than modes II and III,
which involve sliding and lateral tearing respectively.

Plane strain is defined as a state of two dimensional strain, there

being no strain in the through-thickness direction, that is, it is a
state of triaxial stress. The ideal conditions of stress are not usually
realized in practice and a mixed mode state of stress exists. Even in
very brittle fractures, some plastic flow may occur at the tip of a sharp
defect. In order to establish the critical stress intensity by linear
elastic fracture mechanics, the plastic zone must be kept small in com-
parison to the other dimensions of the specimen. For essentially plane
strain conditions, the inherent fracture toughness of a material can be
expressed in terms of the critical value of the stress intensity factor

- 3-
KIC at which crack instability occurs. The value of KIC has to be deter-
mined experimentally but, once properly determined under one set of con-
ditions, it is equally applicable to other conditions. The value of KIC
does, of course, vary markedly with metallurgical variables, such as
steelmaking practice and inclusions, heat treatment and microstructure,
but it can be used to compare steels of different strength levels by use
of the parameter

which is not possible in the case of approaches based on transition tem-

perature.

To summarize:

K = Critical stress intensity factor for static loading

c
and plane stress conditions of variable constraint.
Thus, this value depends on specimen thickness or shape.

KIC= Critical stress intensity factor for static loading and

plane strain conditions of maximum constrain. Thus this
value is at a minimum for thick sections.

KQ = A provisional value of KIC before all compliance tests

have been applied.

It is emphasized that the preceding discussion has been confined to

linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), in which the fracture resistance
of a material is defined in terms of the elastic stress field intensity
near the tip of a crack. In fact, the fracture toughness parameter KIC
i s v a l i d o n l y when determined under c o n d i t i o n s which p r e v e n t s i g n i f i c a n t
yielding at the crack tip. Such conditions are difficult to achieve in
practice for the lower strength steels commonly used for structural pur-
poses. It is usual, therefore, in these steels which exhibit yielding
at a crack tip before fracture occurs, to speak in terms of yielding
fracture mechanics (YFM); the concept of crack opening displacement has
been introduced as a measure of toughness in these circumstances. The
crack opening displacement (COD or δ ) is the actual distance that the
two opposite faces of the crack tip move apart before failure occurs
a n d t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e i s r e f e r r e d t o a s δ c. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o c r i t i c a l
flaw size (acrit) is given by the equation:

where ey is the strain at yield and c is a material constant.

Another method of treating YFM is called the J-integral, which is

the average measure of the elastic-plastic stress/strain field ahead of
a crack. For elastic behavior (i.e. plane strain), the J-integral is
r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h e e n e r g y r e l e a s e r a t e (J I C ) p e r u n i t c r a c k e x t e n s i o n , t h u s

-4-
where E is Young's Modulus and v is Poisson's ratio. The relationship
between J-integral, and δ may be expressed as follows:

For steels which are on the borderline for treatment by either LEFM
or YFM, a unified test technique can be used to determine KIC or δ c from
a single test piece. For elastic behavior, the following relationship
has been developed:

δ c in YFM is comparable to
T h u s , t h e r a t i o____
ey

in LEFM, i.e. it is a measure of the defect tolerance of a steel. The COD

test, whilst preferred in the UK for welds, is not universally acceptable
and for low strength, tough cast steels, the NDTT approach using the drop-
weight test (ASTM E208) is preferred.

In an article of this nature, it is not necessary to describe the

detailed techni ues of testing to determine KIC and δ c . Standard methods
are available1,2 and an extensive literature exists giving practical and
theoretical details concerning the testing parameters 3-10. The tests
are expensive to carry out because of the machining and preparation of the
test pieces and also because of the precise instrumentation needed to
measure the test parameters. A view of the servohydraulic machine used at
SCRATA to carry out fracture toughness tests is shown in Fig. 1.

Research work is currently in progress at SCRATA to establish for cast

steels the compatibility between KIC, δ c, J and other fracture parameters,
which allow for a direct extension of LEFM concepts to YFM behavior. Some
results from recent work are shown in Fig. 2 for a 0.34%C plain carbon steel
and in Fig. 3 for 0.54%C plain carbon steel. It can be seen that the
J-integral analysis gave toughness values far in excess of the KQ values. ( 1 1 )
In the case of low-alloy steels, where the advantage of using J-integral
only lay in the use of smaller specimens, there was closer correspondence
of results (12).

Calculation of Critical Flaw Size

Critical flaw sizes can be calculated with reasonable accuracy using

experimentally determined fracture toughness (KIC) values. The critical
size will also depend on the flaw shape and location, and, additionally,
t h e a p p l i e d o r w o r k i n g s t r e s s (σw ) m u s t b e k n o w n . F o r s u r f a c e f l a w s , t h e
equation is:

- 5-
-6-
For internal or embedded flaws, the coefficient 1.21 is taken as unity,
i.e. internal flaws are less severe than surface flaws. Basic relationships
for various crack geometries are given in Fig. 4 . A s a m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n f o r
determining the critical flaw size in a casting is given in Appendix I.
Typical values of critical flaw size for widely differing types of cast
steel have been calculated in Table IA for a range of flaw geometries and
typical working stresses expressed as fractions of the actual yield or
(0.2% proof) stress of the steel.*

These results have been plotted to show graphically some important

features of the data, In Fig. 5, for a range of critical flaw sizes from
sharp to rounded, it can be seen that at low working stresses flaws may
be relatively large before they become of critical size and that a fully
rounded flaw of nearly twice the size of a sharp flaw can be tolerated.
At higher stresses, however, (e.g. 0.8 x yield stress) critical flaw sizes
become very small, in fact less than 10 mm (.39 in.) for the steels illus-
trated, but the statement is generally true for cast steels which are
amenable to the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) approach.

Subcritical Flaw Growth by Fatigue and Stress Corrosion

Fatigue failure is a three-stage process of initiation, propagation

and fast fracture. The latter occurs when a crack has reached a critical
defect size for the stress level applied. In the absence of defects, the
initiation stage may occupy a large percentage of a component's life. When
defects are present, the crack initiation stage becomes relatively unim-
portant since most of the life will be spent in the crack propagation stage.

The flaw growth rate, da/dN, under conditions of fluctuating working

stress, may be measured in terms of the increase in length per cycle.
This allows prediction of the number of cycles necessary to grow the
initial flaw (ai) to the critical flaw size (acrit).

The rate of fatigue crack propagation is related to K by:

where c and n are material constants (14). The latter have been determined
for a number of cast steels with both machined and cast-to-shape notches
(Table IB) (15,16). Curves for the crack propagation rate of several
steels are given in Fig. 6; one of the steels, represented by a dotted
curve, contained Type II sulphide inclusions and the increased rate of crack
propagation is clearly seen.

In general, it is not possible to predict the life between ai and ac

unless the initial flaw is sharp. If it has a finite radius, p, then
there is a dwell time, i.e. a number of cycles elapse before commencement
of growth. The number of cycles to crack initiation, Ni, may be calcu-
lated from the following expression

-7-
-8-
-9-
where B and m are material constants. Values for cast steels have been
determined (15,16).

In addition to subcritical crack growth by fatigue, growth can occur

by stress-corrosion. Again there is the problem of separating initiation
and propagation, but this can be overcome in the laboratory by testing pre-
cracked samples. A stress-corrosion stress intensity limit KISCC can be
determined and used in place of KIC to calculate the critical crack size
below which stress-corrosion may b e ignored.

APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS

The elements of fracture mechanics may be summarized in the form of a

t r i a n g l e h a v i n g a t i t s a p e x e s t h e p a r a m e t e r s : w o r k i n g s t r e s s ( σw ) , f r a c t u r e
t o u g h n e s s ( K I C ) a n d c r i t i c a l f l a w s i z e ( a c r i t ) . If t w o o f t h e t h r e e p a r a m -
eters are known, the third can be calculated; this simple concept emphasizes
the importance of being able to accurately measure the size of a discon-
tinuity. Furthermore, the designer does not always know exactly the magni-
tude and distribution of the stresses in a component and it is obvious why
a safety factor has to be applied. But residual stresses in a casting can
be of a surprisingly high order before the working stress is applied. Con-
sequently, some knowledge of the magnitude of possible residual stresses is
essential.

In many heavy engineering applications steel castings tend to be "over-

designed", unnecessarily high safety factors being specified when it can be
shown that the discontinuities present are not critical. In this event,
discontinuities of certain sizes can be tolerated but the smaller the factor
of safety, the smaller will be the acceptable discontinuity size. In
many cases it is more economical to use thinner sections and put a limit
o n t h e s i z e o f t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y ; i n o t h e r c a s e s , if a c r i t i c a l f l a w s i z e
is known, it may be more economical to select thicker sections and to
leave subcritical discontinuities rather than to excavate and weld. Due
c o n s i d e r a t i o n m u s t b e g i v e n a t all t i m e s t o t h e t y p e o f s e r v i c e f o r w h i c h
the casting is destined, e.g. static or dynamic stress, temperature of
operation, neutral or hostile environments, and the possibility of misuse
during service. No more than the desired quality need be "built in"
and this is the basis of the concept "fitness for purpose". For this con-
cept to be operated properly, the relevant factors must be quantified,
and this is the underlying aim of the work being carried out at SCRATA
in this field at the present time. It is apparent that fracture mechanics
c a n b e u s e d i n t h r e e m a j o r a r e a s : ( i ) d e s i g n ; (ii) m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n a n d
alloy developmnet; and (iii) determining the significance of defects.
Ancillary areas are (iv) monitoring and control, and failure analysis.
Each of these items will be enlarged upon.

Design

Conventional design procedures are based upon the yield strength

or ultimate tensile strength. This approach was considered to be relatively
safe when appropriate safety factors were used. Instances where unstable
fracture occurred at stresses below the yield stress however necessitated
making provision for such circumstances. Fracture mechanics provides this
alternative in terms of the KIC value, but cyclic stressing and fatigue
crack growth rate also have to be taken into account. Factors of safety
can then be used on the initial defect size, the working stress, and/or
the anticipated number of loading cycles.

-10-
 An example of the practical application to design may be given in
the main structural framework of the Beaubourg Centre, Paris, France(17).
The design of the Beaubourg Centre was the subject of an international
architectural competition, launched in 1971. Of the 681 schemes submitted,
the winning architects were Piano and Rogers, and the winning engineering
design was that of Ove Arup and Partners. The latter were inspired to
use steel castings in their design following a visit to Japan, where they
saw spherical cast steel nodes in the three dimensional structures at
"Osaka 1970" which possessed a clean simplicity rarely found elsewhere.

The Beaubourg building has six floors and is divided lengthwise into
13 bays, each measuring 12.8 x 48 m (42 x 157.5 ft.) and are uninterrupted
by internal load-carrying columns. The floors are suspended externally
by cantilever beams (steel castings) which hinge on to the main columns
(see Fig. 7). Because cast steel was a new material to the design engineers,
it was necessary to devise, in collaboration with the constructional
engineers, new methods for testing and inspection. Ultrasonic testing of
the nodes for the main girders is shown in progress in the production stage
(Fig. 8). It was appreciated that some defects were inevitable in cast and
welded components and that non-destructive tests could not be relied upon
to reveal every shortcoming. The engineers decided, therefore, to base
their specifications on fracture toughness tests using LEFM (KIC) and YFM
(COD) where applicable. Moreover, it was appreciated that these were ex-
pensive tests and the decision was taken that results should be used to
establish the order of quality of the materials at the start of production.
The fracture toughness tests showed the cast steel exhibited the required
standards of quality. After preliminary welding tests had indicated the
correct welding procedures, ultimate tests to collapse proved that it
was possible to attain satisfactory and, in some cases, excellent results.

Another example is the design against brittle fracture of a main

coolant pump in a nuclear reactor primary circuit (1 8 ) . The housing
was constructed from three C-1/2%Mo steel castings which were welded together
to form a casing having wall thickness from 4 in. to 22 in. and weighing
about 32 tons, after internal surfaces had been clad with stainless steel.
Because of the high toughness of the steel, an LEFM approach was not valid
and COD and J-integral tests were carried out over a range of temperatures
(-50 to +70°C) (-58 to +158°F). A good correlation between these parameters
was found.

The finite element method was used to determine the stress fields
for proof test loading and three service conditions, start, running and
stop. An additional 10 N/mm2 (1450 psi) was taken into account as a
conservative estimate of residual stress. Critical defect sizes were
calculated from COD, J and the non-valid KQ the COD-derived values were
considerably larger than those calculated from KQ. It was apparent that
KQ was unable to take advantage of the extra ductility available in and
beyond the transition temperature range and it was considered that for this
application the tolerable defect sizes defined on the basis of KQ were
much too stringent.

The analysis carried out provided valuable information for design

engineers, on the stress distribution and critical defect sizes in the
castings. Charpy V-notch and drop-weight tests were also made and will
be used in the future for quality control purposes.

-11-
-12-
 A further example of the fracture mechanics approach to design is
in the field of power generation. In 1975, the London firm Boving & Co.
Limited received an order from the Central Electricity Generating Board
(UK) for six 300 MW reversible pump turbines to work under a head of
540 m (1771.7 ft.). The machines were to work in various modes, as pumps,
turbines, and also to run with the runners blow down as spinning reserve.
A life of 55 years with 15,000 mode changes each year was specified.
Since many mode changes involved opening or closing the main inlet valve,
this valve, the stay ring spiral casing, and the top and bottom covers
were designed for 400,000 cycles, with a stress range corresponding to
the pressure change when the valve opens to when the valve closes, equal
to 575 m (1886.5 ft.). It is believed that this was the first time such
a rigorous specification for fatigue design had been applied to a water
turbine.

The original design at the tender stage was based on conventional

methods of water turbine design but the stress level adopted was adjusted
to take account of the fatigue requirement. Some calculations were done
at this stage to assess the sensitivity of the design to the expected
size of defects and a casting acceptance standard was written. This allowed
20% wall thickness defects in the middle third of the section thickness,
but only very small defects in the two outer thirds. For the final design
an accurate stress pattern was required and this was obtained using the
photo-elastic method for the valve body and rotor and finite element
analysis for the top and bottom covers and stay ring. The main components
of the machine, the valve body and rotor, the stay ring, the top and bottom
covers were cast in carbon-manganese steel. The spiral casing was fabri-
cated from steel plate, and welded to the cast steel stay ring. The
fracture toughness of the materials was determined by plane strain fracture
toughness testing.

After the components were cast a careful ultrasonic inspection was

made, and all defects were numbered and their size and position tabulated.
The size was determined by probe movement technique. The defects were then
plotted on to drawings of the components, so that the stress in that
position could be found. On each defect, whether inside or outside the
defect acceptance standard, a fracture mechanics assessment was made.
The crack growth in 400,000 cycles was estimated, and the KI was checked
using this enhanced crack size and a stress equal to the maximum that
could occur in operation (during load rejection). The possibility of
plastic collapse occurring in these conditions was also checked. As a
result of these calculations a decision was taken whether to accept or
repair the defect. In the case of defects in close proximity to one
a n o t h e r , t h e r u l e s g i v e n i n a draft s p e c i f i c a t i o n w e r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e
any inter-action (19). It is believed that this approach to design
ensures a machine of adequate life, and minimizes the amount of casting
weld repairs required.

Material Selection

The first step in applying fracture mechanics to material selection

is to obtain the value of KIC (or KC) for the materials under consideration.
For plain carbon and lower strength steels auxiliary test methods must be
used to estimate the KC or KIC, or a COD test should be carried out and
δ c determined. Next, assess the type of flaw that will most likely occur
in the casting being analyzed (e.g. surface, edge or through-thickness,
see Fig. 4 ) and estimate the range of flaw sizes that could possibly be

-13-
encountered. Then, plot acrit versus gross working stress calculated, as
a particular fraction of the yield stress of the steel. Such a diagram
(Fig. 9) represents the order of the steels according to their ability
to carry working stresses in the presence of flaws of certain sizes, without
giving rise to fast propagation of those flaws. Such a diagram for each
material can be used to select the optimum material, to establish design
stress levels, and to form the basis for inspection requirements. It must
be borne in mind that the stresses plotted are actual stresses, which, in
t h e a r e a o f t h e d e f e c t , c o u l d be h i g h e r t h a n t h e a v e r a g e d e s i g n s t r e s s ;
and that a discontinuity which is below the critical size under static
conditions will grow under the action of repeated stress, that is, by a
mechanism of fatigue. Furthermore, since

is a measure of the defect tolerance of a steel, increasing the yield

strength without proportionate increase in toughness is detrimental to the
flaw tolerance. Thus, steels with the same

ratio will have the same critical discontinuity sizes at the same fraction
of their yield stresses but the absolute working stresses can be very
different.

Significance of Discontinuities

Discontinuity size is one parameter of the fracture triangle and

the significance of discontinuities in relation to the other two parameters,
working stress and KIC, has already been discussed under the previous
headings of design and material selection. The factors to be taken into
account when considering acceptance standards for the maximum size and
number of flaws that can be tolerated in a given component are:

a) mechanical properties, including fracture toughness;

b) a p p l i e d s t r e s s l e v e l ( i n c l u d i n g r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i f a n y ) ;
c) cyclic nature of the stress;
d) temperature;
e) environment;
f) d e g r e e o f u n c e r t a i n t y o f f o r e g o i n g d a t a ; a n d
g) p o t e n t i a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f f a i l u r e .

Discontinuities in steel castings may be classified into two cate-

gories: (1) linear or crack-like (which includes cold cracks, hot tears,
fine (interdendritic) and filamentary shrinkage); and (2) rounded (which
includes gas porosity in the form of discrete near-spherical hales, en-
trapped air, pinholes, wormholes, and also exogenous inclusions which
consist of nonmetallic matter arising from sand and/or slag). Apart from
cold cracks, which are stress cracks occurring after the completion of

-14-
-15-
solidification, steel castings, at the time of commencement of service,
rarely exhibit single internal flaws of the exemplary type used in frac-
ture toughness calculations. Flaw tips are unlikely to be as sharp as
the fatigue crack tip used in fracture toughness test specimens. It is
likely that a dwell time under cyclic stressing would be necessary to
initiate sharp crack. Again, apart from the cold crack, other flaws
almost certainly consist of multiples or groups. Embedded flaws are less
innocuous than surface flaws, and, at present, until research shows how
to treat flaws of complex shape, a conservative approach is adopted; all
flaws are assumed to have a sharp tip and three-dimensional groups of
flaws are taken to be equivalent to one flaw having the size of the
envelope encompassing the smaller ones.

Monitoring, Control and Failure Analysis

The use of fracture mechanics in the monitoring of equipment in ser-

vice is dependent mainly upon a knowledge of the fracture toughness of
the material and the exact applied stress, be it static or cyclic.
Without this knowledge, it cannot be predicted when a discontinuity
will reach a critical size. Furthermore, because of access difficulties,
flaw location and sizing becomes more difficult in situ. Nevertheless ,
provided that all the limitations are understood, monitoring of critical
equipment can be worthwhile. An example applied to steel castings is
provided by the Central Electricity Generating Board (UK).

During an inspection of an I.P. cylinder of a power station turbine,

extensive cracking of the inlet steam belt was found. Several regions
of shallow cracking were eliminated by grinding out, but one extensive
crack gave cause for concern because of its depth and position. A repair
by welding was ruled out because of possible distortion and a replacement
casting was not available. A fracture mechanics assessment was therefore
undertaken to determine whether or not the cracked casing was acceptable
for futher service. The 120 MW turbine unit, of which the 1/2%Mo-1/3%V
steel casing was part, had been installed and commissioned in 1959/60,
and up to 1970 had operated as a base load machine with very few hot and
cold starts. From 1970 onwards, the unit was used predominantly for two-
shift operation and therefore subjected to a large number of hot and
cold starts; there seemed little doubt that cracking in the casing was
associated with the large temperature differentials set up during start-
ups and shut-downs.

T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c r a c k b e h a v i o r f e l l i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : (1) t h e
analysis of the operational stresses in the casing, (2) the derivation of
stress intensity factors corresponding to those stresses , and (3) the
application of the calculated stress intensity factors to the mechanical
property data.

Operational Stresses - The stress experienced by the casing for any

operational condition was taken as the sum of thermal, pressure and re-
sidual stresses. The thermal stress was evaluated from the product of the
nominal stress and the concentration due to the local geometry. The
pressure stresses were neglected during a start until the turbine came
on load; thereafter, the stresses were determined by taking the product
of the nominal stress in a uniform cylinder and the concentration due to
the local geometry. With regard to residual stress, no measurements had
been made on castings in 1/2%Mo-1/3%V steel, but previous stress relaxation data

-16-
for cast 1%Cr-Mo-V steel at 550°C (1022°F) subjected to repeated straining,
indicated that an equilibrium value of about 75 N/mm2 (10875 psi) was
reached. This indication was supported by other work on 1%Cr-Mo-V cracked
castings. A residual stress of 75 N/mm2 (10875 psi) was, therefore,
assumed to act as a uniform tension across the uncracked portion of the
casing, normal to the plane of the crack.

Stress Intensity Factors - Estimates were based upon the simple

double-edge cracked plate geometry, a solution relating stress intensity
factor to crack size, and applied stress being already available. An
estimate was made of the variation of stress intensity factor through
the thickness of the casing by taking the stress and crack length at each
position through the wall, and assuming that these did not vary through
the thickness. It was found that, for two starts and the steady state on-
load condition, the maximum stress intensity factor occurred at the outer
surface and for shut-down at the inner surface.

Crack Growth Predictions - Figure 10 shows the variation of stress

intensity factor with outside surface steel temperatures for a cold start
which imposes rates of heating similar to those previously observed.
Also shown in this figure is the KIC temperature dependency determined
in earlier studies. It can immediately be seen that brittle fracture may
occur over the temperature range 30° to 130°C (86° to 266°F). Brittle
f r a c t u r e c a n o f c o u r s e b e a v o i d e d if t h e s t e e l t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l s
are limited to produce stress intensity factors which fall below KIC
a t all t e m p e r a t u r e s .

Tolerable Through Wall Temperature Differentials - The need to avoid

brittle fracture during start-up and shut-down and the requirement for
restriction of stable growth by fatigue and creep permitted an operational
pattern to be defined, as shown in Fig. 11. Regions A and B represent
the limitations on the temperature differentials, as a function of the
outside steel surface temperature which should be followed for the avoid-
ance of brittle fracture during start-up and shut-down. It should be
noted that a positive temperature differential means that the inner sur-
face of the casing is hotter than the outside, and a negative differential
means that the outer surface is hotter than the inner. The limitation
of the through wall differential in region C of Fig. 11, resulted from
the requirement to limit stable growth during Winter 1974/75. Assuming
that the machine was to operate on a 5-day week, and run for 3000 hours
o v e r t h i s p e r i o d , t h e c r a c k w o u l d g r o w b y 6 m m ( . 2 4 i n . ) if t h e m a x i m u m
differential of region C is sustained on each start-up and shut-down.
Alternatively, the growth could be reduced to a negligible value by
operating the machine continuously, i.e. a 7-day week.

It was emphasized during this study that many assumptions had been
made in arriving at values for pressure, residual and thermal stresses
during start-up, operation and shut-down, and that the fracture mechanics
assessment could not provide a guarantee for the safety of the machine.
Furthermore, it was recommended that in the event of a steam leak, an
observed crack extension or any circumstance which indicated that crack
growth may have occurred, the unit should be shut down immediately,
adhering to the restrictions of area B in Fig. 11. Additional instru-
mentation was installed in the casing and the precautions stated were
adhered to, with the result that since Winter 1 9 7 4 / 7 5 the unit has con-
tinued to operate satisfactorily.

-17-
-18-
 In addition to monitoring, failure analysis is extremely important,
for only by doing this can fracture mechanics be shown to be a viable
technique. Unfortunately, no reports exist in the literature of this
having been applied to steel castings, although investigations using
fracture mechanics have been made on welded points between forged and
cast components in power generating plant (20 ) . It has also been applied
to a forged rotor shaft, In this case the damage was complex and related
to discs which failed in service; the damage was extensive and it was
difficult to ascertain which cracks had initiated the failure and which
were consequential damage. Fracture mechanics was used to test the
hypothesis that the failure was due to the bursting of one of the low
pressure discs during rotation. It also indicated that the failure could
have been postponed or even avoided by the use of material of higher
fracture toughness. The investigation allowed appropriate methods to
be developed to prevent such failures in the future (21).

Accuracy of Flaw Size Measurement

Four main non-destructive testing techniques are used in steel

foundries at the present time: magnetic particle and penetrant methods
for surface inspection; radiography and ultrasonic inspection for internal
examination. It can be seen from Table IA that, typically, the smallest
surface defect dimension that needs to be measured is of the order of
2.5 mm (.10 in.) and 3.0 mm (.12 in.) for internal flaws (assuming that
d e s i g n s t r e s s e s g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 8 σy a r e n o t u s e d ) . A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f
existing standards incorporating NDT methods shows that the smallest
defects that must be measured for acceptance purposes are as shown in
Table II. The values quoted in ASTM and other standards have been evolved
from experience in examining steel castings and it is hoped that the appli-
cation of fracture mechanics will help to rationalize the difference between
existing NDT standards.

If we accept these data as truly representing the present day situation,

it would appear that radiography is an inaccurate technique for measuring
flaw sizes. For the steel with the lowest flaw tolerance in Table IA,
embedded rounded flaws (a/b=1) of 15.6 mm (.61 in.) (i.e. 7.8 mm (.31 in.)
r a d i u s ) c a n b e t o l e r a t e d e v e n a t h i g h d e s i g n s t r e s s e s ( 0 . 8 σy ) ; c o n s e q u e n t l y
the fact that the ASTM radiographic standard E280 restricts rounded flaws
t o 1 . 0 m m (.04 i n . ) d o e s n o t s e e m p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t . W h i t t a k e r ( 2 2 )
confirms this viewpoint by saying "It remains a sad fact that, in general,
radiography is able to detect the defects which fracture mechanics show to
be of only secondary importance, whilst it fails to detect adequately the
really important defects".

It is shown in Table II that the minimum flaw size detectable by

ultrasonic methods is 10 mm (.39 in.) for a linear flaw. The ultrasonic
method should be able to detect flaw sizes with an accuracy of ±20 per
cent, i.e. between 8 and 12 mm ( .31 and .47 in.) for linear and 3 to 5 mm
(.12 to .20 in.) for 4 mm (.16 in.) rounded flaws. Whether or not a 20
per cent accuracy is achieved is difficult to assess, since the accuracy
of the techniques used (either maximum amplitude or beam spread) depends
mainly on the structure of the steel and its ultrasonic attenuation, which
in turn determines the usable test frequency and the resolving power of
the method. Other important factors to be considered are the equipment
characteristics, setting sensitivity, frequency and diameter of the probe
crystal, surface roughness of the casting, shape of the casting and very
importantly, the skill and ability of the operator. Consequently, a factor

-19-
-20-
of safety of 100 per cent is suggested. It would appear prudent, from a
fracture mechanics point of view, not to use steels of such low toughness
that at the design or working stress a rounded critical defect size is less
than 6 mm (.24 in.) (i.e. 3 mm (.12 in.) x 2) when ultrasonic inspection
is employed.

Surface or near surface flaws can be detected by penetrant and mag-

netic particle methods, but only the length, and not the depth* of flaw
can be determined. The suggested capability of these methods is for
measuring lengths down to 0.25 mm (.01 in.). Comparison with Table IA
shows that this is a satisfactory accuracy for a range of steels having
widely differing properties.

A comparison of the efficiency of various NDT techniques has been

made for surface fatigue cracks in heat treated low-alloy wrought steel(23).
Fig. 12 shows that cracks were 100 per cent detected by ultrasonics when
6 mm (.24 in.) long, by the magnetic particle method when 9 mm (.35 in.)
long and by penetrants when 10 mm (.39 in.) long. Even when they were
13 mm (.51 in.) long, radiography could only detect them every 65 shots
in 100. The accuracy achieved in measuring these cracks is illustrated
by Fig. 13 which shows that magnetic particle achieves an accuracy of
80 per cent for cracks 4 mm (.16 in.) long. The data, although not
obtained from steel castings, indicate the difficulties in finding surface
cracks and measuring their lengths. Furthermore, of these methods, only
ultrasonics can measure the depth of a flaw (and this not at all accurately)
which fracture mechanics shows to be much more important than the length.
Foundries and steel casting users should therefore satisfy themselves
that they know the minimum size of flaw that can be consistently detected,
taking all variables into account. There is little virtue in being able
t o d e t e c t f l a w s if t h e i r s i z e , a n d h e n c e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h r e g a r d
to failure by brittle fracture, can not be determined.

The application of fracture mechanics principles assumes ideal

conditions for theoretical manipulation (i.e. discrete discontinuities
either at the surface or totally embedded) but in the practical case of
castings, discontinuities occur irregularly in shape and distribution.
Ways of dealing with such situations have been suggested (24) but two
very important points remain: (i) NDT techniques are not sufficiently
advanced to give accurately the size, shape and location of individual
and groups of flaws; and (ii) more case histories are needed involving
the application of fracture mechanics to steel castings to dispel any
doubts concerning its application.

METALLURGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

For a given structure, higher toughness is associated with lower

strength levels. The microstructure itself influences toughness to a
considerable degree. Bainite, at a given strength level, exhibits better
impact toughness than ferrite, upper bainite generally having higher impact
transition temperatures than lower bainite (25). T e m p e r e d m a r t e n s i t e
exhibits the highest toughness.

Carbon steels and most commercial low-alloy steels exhibit ferritic

or ferritic/pearlitic microstructures in the normalized and tempered
condition, whilst quenching produces bainitic or martensitic structures

* Depth here means the minor axis in a roughly elliptical shape,

and not depth below the surface.

-21-
-22-
in low-alloy steel. Significant differences in toughness-strength re-
lationships are evident when quenched and tempered steel castin s are
compared with those in the normalized and tempered condition(26). I n -
creasing the tempering temperature, which lowers the strength, has the
effect of increasing the KIC value (Fig. 14).

As may be expected, decreasing the sulphur content increases the

fracture toughness. Increasing sulphur and phosphorus together has a
marked effect on lowering the fracture toughness(27). In test blocks
castings, however, it was found that fracture toughness did not necessarily
correlate with sulphur and phosphorus (Fig. 15); fracture toughness
varied with position in the top half but not in the bottom half of the
block. This result indicated that the casting was not adequately fed and
that underhead microshrinkage was occurring. The question of porosity
is one which requires much further work and closer definition of the
type, extent, shape, size and interaction of the pores.

Another point of which further data are required is concerned with

grains and grain boundary effects. In SCRATA work where intergranular
fracture was encountered, no correlation could be found between the
amount of I.F. on the fracture surfaces and the corresponding KIC value.
The reason for this is that the fracture toughness test does not measure
the toughness of the whole area of the uncracked ligament but measures
the toughness of a relatively small zone at the tip of the fatigue pre-
crack. It was calculated for the steel in question that the distance
that this zone extended ahead of the crack tip was approximately 0.5 mm
(.02 in.). Virtually none of the I.F. areas of the fracture were within
this distance of the initial crack tip, thus explaining the lack of
correlation between percentage I .F. and KIC.

A similar example may be quoted even though it relates to wrought

steels (28). It has been shown that for an AISI 4340 steel containing
0.8%Mn, austenitizing at 1200°C (2192°F) can increase the fracture
toughness (KIC ) by a factor of two without reducing the yield strength.
At the same time however, Charpy V-notch values are lowered. It is possible
therefore, that grain coarsening has taken place and the pre-crack tip
was in each test within a grain, remote from a grain boundary. By com-
parison, a Charpy test having a blunt notch requires more energy for
crack initiation but far less for crack propagation through a coarse
grained steel. Observations made on the two foregoing examples could
well explain the scatter which occurs between test pieces taken from
adjacent positions.

Microshrinkage is another phenomenon which needs further study in

relation to fracture toughness. In one investigation, Ni-Cr-Mo steel
test pieces showed interaction between the microshrinkage and the fatigue
pre-cracking, a typical example of which is shown in Fig. 16. The con-
clusion from this particular study was that porosity effectively raised
the measured toughness, because multi-planar crack fronts, rather than
single cracks, were being tested. Thus, mixed mode deformation char-
acteristics were induced which involved more energy absorption. There
was no evidence to suggest that minimum levels of toughness were affected
by microshrinkage.

-23-
-24-
-2 5 -
ALTERNATIVE DATA

The advantage of the fracture mechanics tests over more conventional

toughness tests lies in the fact that material values are obtained that
can be used in design equations. Nevertheless, the tests are expensive
to carry out and if the results of cheaper and quicker tests can be
empirically correlated with KIC or δ c values, then the cheaper tests may
be performed, and the derived value of KIC or δ c can be used in the
design equations. It is important to remember, however, that the tough-
ness of most steels decreases with decreasing temperature and increased
loading rate (i.e. time taken to reach maximum load) . Behavior can
change very rapidly at intermediate positions between slow loading (static
for KIC) to rapid loading (dynamic or impact for KID) . Furthermore,
increasing the thickness of the material being tested decreases KC values
to a constant value, KIC. Different tests may do no more than show
empirical correlations and it would be unwise to apply a correlation
for one material to another.

The Charpy V-notch test is widely used as a quality control test

and correlations with KIC have been sought (29). For certain wrought
steels, the upper shelf KIC/CVN (Barsom and Rolfe) correlation (30) has
been found to be acceptable, whilst for forged rotor steels a rather
similar correlation has been found (Bengley and Logsdon) (31). I n g e n e r a l ,
these methods apply to wrought steels which exhibit a well-defined Charpy
energy and fracture appearance transition curve and are not markedly
sensitive to strain rate.

Work on cast steels has been carried out for the Steel Founders' Society
of America revealed several correlations for cast 1 1/2%Ni-Cr-Mo and 1 1/2%
Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo steels (32). Using room temperature values of KIC and Charpy
V - n o t c h a b s o r b e d e n e r g y , a p l o t o f c r a c k s i z e f a c t o r ( K I C / σy ) 2 v e r s u s
C V N / σy g a v e a l i n e o f b e s t f i t h a v i n g t h e e q u a t i o n :

The relationship gave a correlation coefficient of 0.855 and although the

slope of the line was slightly less than that of Barsom and Rolfe, the
agreement was fairly good.

Dynamic tear tests were also carried out in the SFSA program, since
this form of test has been advocated as a less costly substitute for
plane strain fracture toughness testing. In these tests higher strength
test pieces had a fatigue pre-cracked notch instead of the more usual
brittle weld bead as a crack starter. The lower strength specimens
had a machined notch, sharpened at the bottom by pressing in a knife-edge.
T h e t e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n a 2 0 0 0 ft. l b . c a p a c i t y d o u b l e - p e n d u l u m
i m p a c t m a c h i n e . A p l o t o f c r a c k s i z e f a c t o r ( K I C /σy ) 2 v e r s u s D T T E / σ y
gave an equation for the relationship:

-26-
where DTTE is the dynamic tear test energy in ft. lb. The correlation was
similar to the one for Charpy V-notch energy, despite the greater degree
of constraint and sharper notches used in the DT test.

ACCEPTABLE FLAW SIZE

From previously mentioned "fracture triangle" it can be seen that in

order to calculate the critical discontinuity size, the applied or working
stress must be known; ideally, residual stress in the casting should be
taken into account. Furthermore, the manner of applying load to the
casting must be known (static or cyclic), and the environment in which
it is to be used (neutral, corrosive, subzero temperature etc.). Clearly,
the founder and engineering designer must work closely together for the
use of fracture mechanics to be successful.

What discontinuity size must be detected? The answer depends upon

the fracture toughness of the material and the working stress, but some
answers are given for plain carbon steel castings in Table III (34).
Very few castings ever have flaws of the magnitudes shown in this Table;
however, it may be possible for a smaller crack to extend to a critical
size as a result of cyclic loading. This assumes that on cyclic loading
a defect propagates instantaneously, i.e. no account is taken of the
number of cycles required to initiate the crack. (This is another way
of incorporating a factor of safety). Assuming that the cyclic load range
varies from zero to a maximum of 1/2 YS, 2/3 YS and YS, a calculation may
be carried out to give the results in Table IV. These flaw sizes indicate
the initial surface crack size which will grow to 125 mm (4.92 in.) deep
at the three maximum applied stresses; it will be seen that even for
10,000 cycles at the yield stress the initial critical flaw size is
23 mm (.91 in.) deep and 230 mm (9.06 in.) long (34). Clearly, very
large crack sizes can be tolerated in carbon steels.

Curves giving critical defect sizes for several medium- to high-

strength cast steels, for applied stresses ranging from approximately
one-fifth yield stress to four-fifths yield stress, are shown in Fig. 9.
Thus, for an applied stress of 300 N/mm2 (43500 psi), the size of a
critical surface flaw (depth x length ratio 1:3) would be 9 mm (.35 in.)
for C-1%Cr and 1/2%Cr-1/2%Mo-1/4%V steels, 35 mm (1.38 in.) for a
1 1 / 2 % N i - C r - M o s t e e l , 3 8 m m (1.50 i n . ) f o r a m a r a g i n g s t e e l a n d 5 5 m m
(2.17 in.) for a vacuum-melted 1 1/2%Ni-Cr-Mo steel. For very sharp cracks
at working stresses near the yield, critical flaw sizes become 2 to 3 mm (.08 to
.12 in.) far medium-alloy steels but design parameters rarely approach
this. In normal circumstances, 10 mm (.39 in.) is probably the smallest
flaw that will be required to be detected.

It follows that situations could arise where a flaw is purposely

left in a casting, when otherwise, on the basis of intuition, it would
have been gouged out. On the other hand a small flaw (say 10 mm (.39 in.))
may have to be gouged out (because the critical size is, say 6 mm
(.24 in.) by calculation). It is impossible to generalize as to whether
the use of fracture mechanics will increase or decrease work in the
fettling shop, but flaws of a very large size will doubtless become tol-
erable in low-carbon, un-alloyed cast steels. Whether or not we delib-
erately leave in those flaws that otherwise would have been removed
depends upon the acceptance of the fracture mechanics approach. Further
work is needed to indicate the importance of different types and groupings
of flaws and their arithmetical treatment.

-27-
-28-
DETERMINATION OF FLAW SIZE

Are the flaw sizes arising from fracture mechanics considerations

large enough to be detected or sized by non-destructive flaw detection
methods? For surface flaws, which are normally found by magnetic particle
or dye penetrant methods, linear flaws of about 4 mm (.16 in.) represent
the limit, the sizing of smaller flaws being too inacurate to be mean-
ingful. For measuring internal flaws by ultrasonics, linear flaws of
about 10 mm (.39 in.) may be measured but for smaller flaws, sensitivity
is not good enough for them to be accurately sized. With ultrasonics,
measurement of defect length is much dependent upon the size of probe used;
the smaller the flaw, the smaller must be the probe, because a flaw
cannot be sized accurately if it is smaller than the crystal size. The
depth of a flaw also becomes more difficult to measure accurately when
depth is small in relation to the cross section of the ultrasonic beam.
Unfortunately, it is the depth of a surface flaw which is important in
fracture mechanics assessment and depth is the most difficult dimension
to measure by ultrasonics. It cannot be measured at all by magnetic
particle or dye penetrant methods. Radiography is no better where small
flaws are concerned.

It appears that we are in a grey area when fracture mechanics indi-

cates the critical flaw size is 10 to 15 mm (.39 to .60 in.) or less.
Founders and engineers, therefore, should satisfy themselves that they
know the minimum size of flaw that can be measured under a given set of
c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; t h e r e i s l i t t l e v i r t u e i n b e i n g a b l e t o d e t e c t f l a w s if
their size, and hence significance with regard to failure by brittle
fracture, cannot be determined. In practice, the calculated critical
flaw size should be substantially larger than the actual flaw size that
might escape detection. An alternative precedure is to estimate conser-
vatively the size of the smallest flaw that can be detected by the NDT
techniques available and to select a steel having a higher KIC value and
hence a larger critical flaw size than that calculated.

FLAWS IN RELATION TO QUALITY

A "no detectable discontinuity" criterion implies that all cast

steels have the same resistance to fracture. Whilst fracture may be con-
trolled by plastic collapse in relatively thin sections, the output of
castings with relatively large section thickness is high enough to ensure
that fracture resistance should be calculated according to the principles
of LEFM. There are several ways of defining quality, but the most apt
i s t h a t w h i c h r e l a t e s q u a l i t y t o f i t n e s s f o r p u r p o s e ; if t h e c a s t i n g
properly does the job it is intended to do, then it is of satisfactory
quality. How is it possible to determine what level of, say, porosity,
according to reference radiographs, is acceptable for the casting to be
of adequate quality? Reference radiographs are composed of a series of
typical radiographs in order of increasing severity of the specific dis-
continuity, so that radiographs of other flaws may be compared with them;
they are not directly related to load carrying ability. The first radio-
g r a p h i c s t a n d a r d , a d o p t e d a s E 7 1 b y ASTM i n 1 9 4 7 , w a s p r e p a r e d b y e x p e r t s
to illustrate various severities in arbitrary progressions. This speci-
fication and others that followed had no technical basis in relation to
design, although they have been tremendously useful when service records
of suitability and unsuitability have been kept. Their shortcomings
become evident with new designs, where there is no background experience.

-29-
They raise unnecessary constraints in non-critical applications, where
a flaw normally considered to be severe by radiographic standards can be
quite harmless in a region of low stress(35).

Radiographic standards, therefore, should be used more sensibly

in relation to modern design criteria based on fracture mechanics. The
same remark applies to other NDT acceptance standards for steel castings
which may be issued in the future. It must be acknowledged, however,
that much more research needs to be done into the accuracy of sizing flaws,
the behavior in practice of actual flaws in various stress systems, the
interaction of groups of flaws, the distribution of stress within a
component, the effect of residual stress and the effect of metallurgical
variables. Most important, convincing proof is required that fracture
mechanics theory does work in practice, because, after all, no failure
may be consequent upon factors of safety having been too high.

All this is not likely to happen during the course of any single
research program; it will evolve as any other technology has, by trial,
observation, deduction, refined trial, and so on. A start has been made
by BSI and ASTM, who have meticulously described and defined the methods
of fracture toughness testing, so that all results from whatever source
should be comparable. Next will be the examination of casualty material,
to try to work out retrospectively why failure occurred. Simultaneously,
fracture toughness data will be requested in specifications, in the first
instance only for large, complex, high integrity castings. Useful ex-
perience will accrue from work already done on wrought steels, and welds,
where in the latter case a specification for acceptance based on fracture
mechanics principles has already been proposed (19). In the future, a
s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e b o d y o f f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s data w i l l b e g e n e r a t e d f o r
s t e e l c a s t i n g s , s o t h a t s p e c i f i c a t i o n m i n i m u m r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e based
on statistically derived values, as is the case for other material prop-
erties. Typical values for KIC and COD for cast steels are given in
Table V.

Until this information becomes available, the following guide may

be used when designing "fracture critical" steel castings to ensure that
the quality of the castings is adequate.

1. Safety factors should be put on both the gross working stress and
on the calculated critical flaw size. Since the exact ligament
stresses are not always known with accuracy, particularly in the
case of complex-shaped castings, it is essential to put a safety
f a c t o r o n t h e g r o s s s t r e s s . A l s o , i n o r d e r n o t t o a p p r o a c h the
acrit, a factor of safety must be put on the calculated value.

2. For a given KIC value, flaw tolerance can be good or bad, depending
on the yield strength of the steel, so the parameter:

is a better representation of the flaw tolerance of a steel.

-30-
- 31-
3. A steel should be chosen having a large critical flaw size (acrit)
which can be measured more accurately.

4. If the working load is fluctuating it is necessary to calculate

from crack propagation rate curves the time for a flaw (ai) to grow
to a critical size (acrit). This can then be compared with the design
life of the component.

5. A steel should be chosen that is amenable to ultrasonic examination,

since this is the best single method for detecting flaws and estim-
ating their size.

6. It should be assumed that a string of cracks is one long crack, that

a group of flaws is one large flaw of size comparable to the envelope
that circumscribes them, that, unless clearly otherwise, all flaws
have a sharp aspect ratio and that they reside on the surface.

A steel selected on this basis is likely to be overdesigned but

p e r h a p s n o t s o m u c h a s if t h e r e h a d b e e n n o a w a r e n e s s o f f r a c t u r e m e c h -
anics principles. Other design criteria remain unaltered, as do other
considerations such as weldability.

WELDING OF STEEL CASTINGS

How will welds affect the critical flaw size and fracture toughness
of the casting? A word of caution and more research is needed on this
subject. In an investigation into the fracture toughness of weld-repaired
2 1/2%Ni-Cr-Mo castings, the toughness of two weld deposits was measured,
the results being summarized in Table VI(36). Calculations for "allow-
able"* flaw sizes were made, assuming an applied stress of two-thirds
that of the yield strength of the casting and a flaw shape (aspect
ratio) of 4 : 1 in a 100 mm (3.93 in.) thick section. It can be seen that
the "allowable" flaw depth of 70 mm (2.76 in,) in the casting is reduced
to 52 mm (2.05 in.) in one weld deposit and to 38 mm (1.50 in.) in the
other (31 mm (1.22 in.) after stress relieving). In the worst case,
assuming that the residual stress is equal to and acts additively to
the yield stress, the allowable flaw depth is reduced to 5 mm (.20 in.).
This example illustrates that welding the casting and leaving in a flaw
of 5 mm (.20 in.) is no better than leaving in the original 70 mm (2.76 in.)
flaw in the casting. Fracture toughness values of the heat affected zones
were not determined but they would almost certainly have been lower than
in the parent metal. In cast C-Mn steels the HAZ's were found to have
l o w e r C O D v a l u e s t h a n the p a r e n t m e t a l , a s s h o w n i n T a b l e V I I ( 1 3 ) . T h i s
emphasizes the fact that toughness considerations of welded steel castings
(both repair welded and cast/weld assemblies) should be based on the
properties of the welded areas, as is the case for welded structure in
wrought products.

*The application of a factor of safety (usually 2) to the critical defect

size gives rise to the concept of an "allowable" defect size in fusion
welded joints, for a single application of load; it does not, however,
take into account cyclic loading effects.

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- 33-
SPECIFICATIONS

Will fracture mechanics tests become mandatory in specifications?

There is considerable activity in the compiling and revising of both
national and international standard specifications relating to steel
castings. SCRATA has contributed a lot by way of draft preparation,
collating comments, and carrying out statistical surveys of mechanical
properties. SCRATA is also becoming increasingly involved, mainly in an
advisory capacity, in the compilation of private standards. These arise
mainly from Government or nationalized bodies who find that their demands
and requirements for steel castings are sharply increasing and feel the
need to write their own standard specifications in view of the specific
nature of their own engineering requirements. In nearly all specifica-
tions arising in this area, the emphasis is on non-destructive testing
and quality, the material and its mechanical properties often being
covered by quoting a British Standard. Thus, as engineering require-
ments become more stringent, the definition of defect criticality be-
comes more important.

In the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sections III and VIII,
Summer 1972 Addenda, drop weight tests on cast material made in accord-
ance with ASTM E208-69 are now mandatory. This type of test, used to
determine the nil ductility transition temperature, could well receive
more prominence in the future, particularly for the tough structural
steels which are not conveniently treatable by fracture mechanics.

Activity in defining national and international standard specifi-

cations is increasing rapidly and the steelfounder can expect to see
more precise standards for steel castings. This is a reflection of
the continually improving technology of manufacture and will increase
the confidence shown by the engineer-user in employing steel castings
in his designs for plant and equipment.

CONCLUSIONS

Fracture mechanics is a comparatively new subject that has already

shown its usefulness to engineers in design, steel development and failure
analysis. It has proved useful in the understanding of brittle fracture
and in the analysis of problems involving fatigue crack growth. A simple
calculation will determine the order of magnitude of a critical flaw
size, but in such calculations, assumptions have to be made concerning
t h e a c c u r a c y o f flaw s i z i n g b y c o m m e r c i a l l y u s e d NDT m e t h o d s a n d a l s o
concerning the exact stress in the locality of the flaw. Nevertheless,
it is essential that the foundryman knows the "bare necessities" of
fracture mechanics, since his customer will ask about it and expect
replies. It is unlikely that the foundryman will get involved in routine
fracture toughness testing, for steels once proved will be henceforth
accepted on the basis of a simpler routine test.

The fracture toughness of cast steels is comparable to that of

similar wrought steels and, at lower strengths and applied stresses,
very large flaws can be tolerated. Under more stringent conditions,
critical flaw sizes can be very small. In the latter case, the limiting
factor will be NDT and it will be prudent to select a steel of suffi-
ciently high fracture toughness to obtain a crack size that is detectable
under the given conditions. More research is needed to quantify and

-34-
understand the effects of the various flaws that occur in steel castings.

The adoption of more critical design policies is important to steel-

founders and casting users. The advantageous combination of high strength,
adequate ductility, stiffness and considerable toughness in a wide range
of carbon and alloy cast steels usually ranks them ahead of other cast
metals for arduous applications, particularly when cost is taken into
account. If the practice is continued of incorporating large safety
factors into design calculations, the relative advantage of cast steels
compared with other cast metals is severely reduced. The use of fracture
mechanics should help in overcoming this outmoded approach to design.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank his colleagues Dr. M. S. Found and Dr.
K. Selby (SCRATA Product Technology Group) for helpful discussions during
the writing of this paper; also Mr. P. Rice of Ove Arup and Partners,
Mr. R. V. Mathews of Boving and Co. Ltd., and Dr. W. Laidler of the
Central Electricity Generating Board (Scientific Services Division)
for providing examples of the application of fracutre mechanics to steel
castings. Research at SCRATA is partly financed by the Engineering
Materials Requirements Board.

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REFERENCES

1. Method of Test for Plane Strain Fracture Toughness (KIC) Testing

of Metallic Materials, BS 5447: 1977, British Standards Institution.

2. Methods for Crack Opening Displacement (COD) Testing. Draft for

Development DD19: 1972. British Standards Institution.

3. J. F. Knott; Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics. London 1973.

(Butterworths ) .

4. M. J. May, C. E. Nicholson and A. H. Priest. A New Approach to

S u b c r i t i c a l F l a w G r o w t h . Low A l l o y S t e e l s . I r o n a n d S t e e l
Institute Publication 114, 1968,177-187.

5. Practical Application of Fracture Mechanics to Pressure Vessel

Technology. Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, 1971.

6. Fracture Toughness Testing and its Applications. American Society

for Testing and Materials STP 381. Philadelphia, 1964.

7. W. F. Brown and J. E. Srawley (Eds. ) . Plane Strain Crack Toughness

Testing of High Strength Metallic Materials. American Society
for Testing and Materials STP 410. Philadelphia, 1966.

8. Fracture Toughness Testing and its Applications. American Society

for Testing and Materials STP 463. Philadelphia 1970.

9. E. F. Walker. Test Techniques, Fracture Toughness. Iron and Steel

Institute, Publication 121, 1968, 49-66.

10. M. O. Dobson (Ed.). Practical Fracture Mechanics for Structural

Steel. Proc. Symposium on Fracture Toughness Concepts for Weldable
Structural Steel. Risley, 1969 (UKAEA and Chapman and Hall Ltd.)

11. J. T. Barnby and I. S. Al-Daimalani. Assessment of the Brittle

Fracture of Cast Steels. Part 2, Carbon and Carbon-manganese
S t e e l s . J n l . M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 6 , (11) , 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 4 .

12. J. T. Barnby and I. S. Al-Daimalani. Assessment of the Brittle

Fracture of Cast Steels. Part 1, Low Alloy Steels. Jnl. Materials
Science, 1976, (11), 1979-1988.

13. G. R. Egan and S. J. H. Still. Steel Castings for Structural Use.

Welding Institute Conference on Welding in Offshore Constructions,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Feb. 1974.

14. P. C. Paris. The Fracture Mechanics Approach to Fatigue. Proc.

Tenth Sagamore Army Materials Reserach Conf., August , 1963,
Syracuse University Press 1964.

15. J. T. Barnby and R. Holder. Fatigue From Notches in Cast Steels.

Metal Science, 1977, January, 5-10.

- 36-
16. R. Holder and J. T. Barnby. Fatigue from Cast-to-Shape Notches in
Cast Steels. Metal Science, 1977, January, 11-15.

17. P. Rice and L. Grut. Main Structural Framework of the Beaubourg

Centre, Paris (France). Acier-Stahl-Steel 1975, 4 0 (9), Sept. , 297-309.

18. W. Stumpp, T. Varga and E. F. Boyle. Experimental and Theoretical

Analysis in Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics. 2nd International
Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, 1973,
Division G. Paper G4/8.

19. Anon. Proposed Assessment Methods for Flaws with Respect to Failure
by Brittle Fracture, Welding in the World 1975,13 (1-2), 29-48.

20. I. L. Mogford and A. T. Price. Application of Fracture Mechanics

to Predict Weld Performance. Proc. International Conference on
Welding Research Related to Power Plant, CEGB Marchwood Engineering
Laboratories, Southampton, 1972. Paper No. 15.

21. J. L. Gray. Investigation into the Consequences of the Failure

of a Turbine Generator at Hinckly Point 'A'. Proc. Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, 1972, 186, 379-390.

22. V. N. Whittaker. A Review of Non-Destructive Measurement of Flaw

Size. Non-Destructive Testing, 1972, April, 92-100.

23. P . F . P a c k m a n , H . S . P e a r s o n , J . S . O w e n s a n d G. J . Y o u n g . D e f i n i t i o n
of Fatigue Cracks Through Non-Destructive Testing, Journal of Materials,
1969, 4 , 666-700.

24. J. T . B a r n b y . T o u g h n e s s a n d C r i t i c a l D e f e c t S i z e . N o n - D e s t r u c t i v e
Testing, 1972, Feb., 32-37.

25. F. B. Pickering. The Structure and Properties of Bainite in Steels.

Symposium on Transformation and Hardenability in Steels. Climax
Molybdenum Co., Ann Arbor. 1967.

26. E. M. Gall and P. F. Wieser. Strength Toughness Relationships for

C a s t S t e e l s . J. S t e e l C a s t i n g s R e s e a r c h ( U S A ) , 1 9 7 3 , ( 6 4 ) , S e p t . , 3 - 6 .

27. J. F. Wallace. Toughness of Cast Steels as Influenced by Heat

Treatment and Other Processing Variables. J. Steel Castings Research,
(USA), 1976, (74), Mar., 1-15.

28. R. O. Ritchie, B. Francis and W. L. Server. Evaluation of Toughness

in AISI 4340 Alloy Steel Austenitized at Low and High Temperatures.
Met. Trans., 1976, 7A, 831-838.

29. S. T. Rolfe. Use of Fracture Mechanics in Design. Review 186,

International Metallurgical Reviews, 1974, 1 9 , 183-198.

30. J. M . B a r s o m a n d S. T . R o l f e . C o r r e l a t i o n B e t w e e n C h a r p y V - n o t c h
Test Results in the Transition Temperature Range. Impact Testing
of Metals. American Society for Testing Materials STP 466.
Philadelphia, 1970, 281-302.

-37-
31. J. A. Begley and W. A. Logsdon. Correlation of Fracture Toughness
and Charpy Properties for Rotor Steels. Westinghouse Research
Laboratories, Scientific Paper, 71-1ET-MSRLF-P1., May, 1971.

32. M. T. Groves and J. F. Wallace. Cast Steel Plane Fracture Toughness.

Charpy V-notch and Dynamic Tear Test Correlations. J. Steel Castings
Research (USA), 1975, (70), Mar., 1-9.

33. E. T. Wessel and T. R. Mager. Fracture Mechanics Technology as

Applied to Thick-walled Nuclear Pressure Vessels. Conference on
Practical Application of Fracture Mechanics to Pressure-vessel
Technology. Proc. Institution of Mechanical Engineers, May, 1971.

34. H. D. Greenberg and W. G. Clark Jnr., A Fracture Mechanics Approach

to the Development of Realistic Acceptance Standards for Heavy Walled
Steel Castings. Metals Engineering Quarterly (ASM), 1969, 9, (3),
Aug., 30-39.

35. C. W. Briggs. Radiographic Inspection Standards Used to Locate

Internal Discontinuities are Based on Factual Data. Right? Wrong!
Casting Engineering, 1972, Jan./Feb., 26-31.

36. S. E. Webster, T. M. Banks and E. F. Walker. Application of Fracture

Mechanics to Weld Repair Toughness in Steel Castings. WI/SCRATA/BNF
Conference on Welding of Castings. Bradford, 1976. Paper 12.

- 38-
APPENDIX I - SAMPLE CALCULATION

Assume a casting made in 1 1/2%Ni-Cr-Mo steel is to be operated at

half of its yield stress (740 N/mm2) (107300 psi) and one application
of load, and that it has a surface crack the major axis of which is
~1 1/2 times the length of the minor axis. The fracture toughness (KIC)
of the steel is measured at 86 MNm-3/2 (78 ksi in.1/2).

The critical defect size may be calculated as follows:

where KIC = plane strain fracture toughness.

σw = gross working stress normal to major axis of the flaw.

acr = critical depth of a surface flaw (i.e. half the width of an
embedded flaw)
σ = 0.2 per cent proof stress.
φ = double elliptical integral.

(For embedded flaws the coefficient on the denominator is taken as unity).

To define the shape of the flaw, a/b can be considered to represent

the flaw size aspect ratio, where 2a is the minor and 2b is the major
a x i s o f a n e l l i p s e ( i . e . w h e n a /b = 1 t h e e l l i p s e b e c o m e s a c i r c l e ) . T h e
relationship between φ and a/b is given in Fig. 17 for easy reference.
I n t h i s e x a m p l e , a / b = 0 . 2 a n d σw = 7 4 0 / 2 . U s i n g t h e s e v a l u e s i n e q u a t i o n
(2),

- 39-
-40-
Inserting this value for Q in equation (3)

In a fatigue situation:

-41-
 We have the following values for insertion in equation (7):

This is the number of cycles that will grow an initial surface crack
of 5 mm (.20 in.) depth to 24.75 mm (.97 in.), the critical size, when
operating at half the yield stress. By comparison with Table IV for plain
carbon steel, a crack of 16 mm (.63 in.) depth will grow to 125 mm (4.92 in.)
in 100,000 cycles at half the yield stress. Whilst the operating conditions
are not identical, the order of magnitude difference is great and illustrates
the point that higher strength steels do not operate well under conditions
of cyclic stress.

-42-
WRITTEN DISCUSSION by L. Venne, ESCO Corporation

We would like to compliment Dr. Jackson upon his excellent paper on

"Fracture Toughness in Relation to Steel Castings Design and Application".

It is evident that the work of SCRATA and some applications in the

U.K. are well advanced in relation to the American Foundry Industry in
the area of fracture mechanics. Most of us have been taking a "wait
and see" attitude to determine what the future requirements of industry
would be before committing ourselves in the area of fracture toughness.

We have for many years been depending upon the "v" notch charpy
impact test to determine the relative toughness of a given steel but it
now appears that this test has a number of shortcomings and we will
need to develop additional data for the future.

In this regard I would like to ask Dr. Jackson how he feels we

should proceed as an individual company or as an industry to begin ob-
taining information on our steel in a fracture toughness program.

Dr. Jackson refers to the work of R. O. Ritchie in examining the

relationship between charpy impact and fracture toughness. This work
shows that the relatively blunt notch of the charpy speciman tends to
give results rather opposite to the very sharp radius of the fracture
toughness specimen under certain conditions and it would seem that both
have significance in determining the effect of critical defects in castings.

Would it be a logical step to work with instrumented charpy testing

t o o b t a i n d y n a m i c c h a r p y i n f o r m a t i o n o r s h o u l d t h e a p p r o a c h be t o L E F M ?

Dr. Jackson refers to Crack Growth by fatigue and by stress corro-

sion. I would ask if Dr. Jackson could comment on the significance of
hydrogen in crack growth by stress corrosion cracking especially when
studying steels of high yield strength.

AUTHOR'S REPLY

F r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s i n v o l v e s c o s t l y t e s t i n g a n d I c o n s i d e r i t t o be
unlikely that KIC or COD testing will ever be written into steel castings
specifications as an acceptance test. The day may come, however, when
design engineers make increased use of fracture mechanics principles
and write specific tests into their own purchasing specifications. I
f e e l m o r e c o n f i d e n t i n s a y i n g t h a t , e v e n if t h i s d o e s n o t h a p p e n , d e s i g n -
ers will want to know the order of fracture toughness parameters for the
more commonly used cast steels. Both SCRATA nad the SFSA have carried
o u t w o r k t h a t fulfills t h e i n i t i a l n e e d s o f t h e d e s i g n e r .

The SFSA have also related LEFM data to Charpy V-notch data and I
think that this will be the approach made with regards to standard speci-
fications. That is, Charpy V-notch parameters (probably FATT) will be
included in the specification for a steel, and the designer will know
from accumulated data on that steel a value for fracutre toughness, at
least within a certain scatter band, and will be able to use that value
for design and NDT specification purposes.

-43-
 I believe that the fracture mechanics parameters to be first used
in this way will be KIC for LEFM and COD for YFM. As mentioned pre-
viously, a fairly substantial body of data exists for these parameters
in relation to cast steel. Furthermore, standard specifications for
these parameters exist or are in preparation in both the USA and UK.
By comparison, more work has to be done on instrumental Charpy testing
and the interpretation of results for use in design. The test is
cheaper and far quicker of course, and could become, under appropriate
circumstances, the alternative acceptance test to Charpy V-notch FATT.

Very little attention has been given to the fracture mechanics

approach to cast steels under conditions of stress corrosion. Opinions
have been given, for wrought steels, that hydrogen plays an important
role in stress corrosion cracking in steels of high yield strength ( 1 ) .
The importance of hydrogen in HAZ and SCC situations has also been rec-
ognized, in so far as hydrogen will induce cracking and correlations
between

and hardness and microstructure have been proposed. (2)

The mode of microscopic fracture under varying conditions of elec-

trode potential can under go a transition depending on initial K level
relative to KQ in air (3). At intermediate K levels, however, stress
corrosion crack growth rates are essentially independent of K and the
tendency for stress corrosion cracks to branch are electrochemically,
as well as mechanically, controlled. It is apparent that conditions at
the crack tip have an important bearing on the mode and kinetics of
crack propagation in steels of high yield strength, but no specific
work has been carried out on cast steels. Stress corrosion behavior
of cast stainless steels has however, been studied in relation to
delta-ferrite content and sensitization(4).

REFERENCES

1. P. McIntyre. Stress Corrosion in Steel. The Practical Implications

of Fracture Mechanisms, Institution of Metallurgists, March 1973, 88-94.

2. T. G. Gooch and M. W. F. Cane. Fractographic Observations of Hy-

drogen Induced Cracking in Steel. The Practical Implications of
Fracture Mechanisms, Institution of Metallurgists, March 1973, 95-102.

3. A. A. Sheinker and J. D. Wood. Stress Corrosion Cracking of a

High S t r e n g t h S t e e l . S t r e s s C o r r o s i o n C r a c k i n g o f M e t a l s - A S t a t e
of the Art, ASTM STP 518, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1971, 16-38.

4. F. H. Beck, J. Juppenlatz and P. F. Wieser. Effects of Ferrite and

Sensitization in Intergranular and Stress Corrosion Behavior of
Cast Stainless Steels. Stress Corrosion - New Approaches, ASTM
STP 610, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1976, 381-398.

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