Ethics Introduction to Ethics 1 Course Module Module 1 Introduction, Scope, and Meaning of Ethics At

the end of this module, you are expected t0: 1. Understand the importance of Ethics to Philosophy to
Higher Learning 2. Elaborate the importance of its contribution to Man’s development 3. Explain the
definition of ethics, morality and other phases of Human Life 4. Identify human acts Ethics and
Philosophy What is Ethics? Why is it important to every society? First of all, let us define Ethics – simply
put it is the Philosophy of Life. By critical thinking it discerns men form brutes making men decide better
than mere a priori judgment. The quality of life men lived is a testament to man’s mental development.
Ethics is the primary vehicle for men to reach the very purpose of life – the pursuit of happiness. Ever
since civilizations began their baby steps, societies are created to ensure their security from predators –
real or imagined, they have to create laws but of what use is it if not guided by reason, and that is where
Ethics come in. The written law is used to ensure order but what is the ultimate source of it all – ethics
no doubt. Ethics made men decide what is right or wrong guided by reason should ambiguity in the
written law persists. As we all know nothing is perfect, everything has flaws, with that confusion comes
in. Human Ethics are clouded by man’s self-interest that interpretation to law and order as muddled as
needle in a haystack. As time goes by changes in the environment as well as the complexities of the
human world as well as his thinking altered the understanding of Ethics. That is an undeniable fact. Sadly
leaders of the modern world lack ethical standards that at times their morals are condescending. In the
current world we are currently in, there are age-old questions that even baffled geniuses and they are:
1) what is the supreme purpose of human living?, 2) What is man’s greatest good and perfection?, 3)
what is the ultimate objective of human strivings, is it attainable?, 4) what is the summum bonum
(highest good) of human life and 5) what is the root cause and remedy to human suffering. Is man
intrinsically good or evil? If we are to correlate man as part of the Animal Kingdom then men are bad.
Take for example co-workers in an office who display “decency” in each other’s presence but invent
stories behind their backs to discredit them to their boss and gain brownie points a sure sign of a lack of
professional ethics. We might say this is immoral but logical just the same, we live in a dog-eat-dog
world. Survival at all cost is the name of the game. Which brings us to another philosophical question,
why are not moral acts are not legal and vice versa? Going to church is moral but why was this not
legislated? In the same way, why is divorce considered immoral to us Filipinos is legally approved in
other societies? The decadence of ethics is not just limited to the business world. It has even affected
every aspect of society, such as sports and entertainment. Ethics and Human Development Humans are
not born endowed with ethics as if it is an inherent charcterisitic; but their behavior jives with human
development. Man initially behaves like brutes, and under human development, he behaves less morally
and more ethically. Ethics and morality are interchangeable for they are both patterns of human
behavior but in reality are different. Ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, such as laws,
codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in religions. Morals on the other hand refer to an
individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong. Ergo as man progressed he deviates from his
clouded personal beliefs to a more socially acceptable norm. Ethical human behavior depend on two
things: personal development and human development. Personal development, in general, is a process
of internalization of values, judgement and thought; and morally, is a transition from what we should
ought to do, to what is the best thing to do. Human development is the combination of -collective-
personal development and social development. The ethics of human behavior ranges from the spectrum
of low personal and human development to high personal and human development. In time, man’s
ethical development will also serve as his transition from a self-indulging individual to a person endowed
with knowledge that will aid him in his pursuit for happiness. A deeper understanding of Ethics Ethics is
a branch of Philosophy that studies human acts and human conduct. Although there are subjects that
study human conduct such as Psychology and Sociology. Ethics has a deeper meaning in its standpoint
by further delving into the aspect of human acts. They are more concerned with the morality of human
acts. Noted definition of Ethics 1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions 2.
Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality 3. Ethics is the study of human conduct from
the standpoint of morality 4. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference of right and wrong
Relation of Ethics with Other Sciences 1. Ethics and Logic – Logic is the science of right thinking and
while Ethics is the science of right living. Thinking and Doing things go hand-in-hand, we cannot move
without thinking right the same way every action is guided by reason. 2. Ethics and Psychology – The
two subjects dealt with the study of man, human nature and human behavior but that is all their
similarity ends. Psychology only tell us the causes of man’s actions that may be psychological or
physiological but ethics tell us how man should react. Ethics is interested in moral obligation while
Psychology ends there. 3. Ethics and Sociology – as we all know, Sociology deals with the study of
society as well as the social order that regulates the society as a whole. But then what is the foundation
of their social order if there is no basis of right and wrong which is Ethics. Any society is doomed to fail if
devoid of correct basis of thinking. Ethics Introduction to Ethics 3 Course Module 4. Ethics and
Economics – Napoleon once said that an army marches on its stomach, in relation to economics man has
to fulfill is economic needs. The need for material wealth is inherent in man that there are instances that
economic topics needed ethical principles such as capital-labor relations, profit, interests, money et al.
The need to settle these conflicts must have ethical basis to incur equitable results. Morality and Other
Phases of Human Life 1. Ethics and Education – Education whether formal or informal is a never-ending
process and is the foundation of man’s moral, intellectual and physical capacities. But then again
education is illicit if it is not supported by ethics, they say ethics is life the same way education is
intertwined with life. Learning is good but learning supported by ethics is better inasmuch as ethics is
living right. 2. Morality and Law – as mentioned in the previous module, not everything moral is legal
and not everything legal is moral. Meaning there are good things that do not need legislation and
immoral acts that the State may approve. But to further differentiate them laws only used external acts
while ethics cover man’s “acts” that play in his mind that will not incriminate him in any statute. For
example, a plan for a robbery if discovered is not criminally liable in any court of law but ethics said it is
a fault for such “act” is intrinsically evil. 3. Ethics and Politics - Man in his constant search for happiness
be it temporal or eternal is never ending. They say politics and ethics are poles apart – in a certain point
that is correct it is the very reason why politics become dirty for they deviate from ethics. Man’s
insatiable greed for wealth and power thru politics means absence of ethics. An ideal state should be an
ethical state. 4. Ethics and Art – Ethics is about positive morality while art is beauty. Any work of art that
is beautiful, will give a positive outlook to the looker that will be greatly appreciated. The purpose of art
is for appreciation that is contributory to man’s ethics. 5. Religion and Ethics – Religion is ethics and
ethics is religion, they are interchangeable for the any religious belief tends to ethical standards in
relation to his most fundamental tenet. What unites them all boiled down to three things namely: a)
belief in the Supernatural, b) man’s beginning and end and c) right living. Morality and Human Acts
Morality is the quality of goodness or badness in a human act. In this case, we base judgement on any
human act based on its ethicality. The quality of an act may be justified according to its gravity. An evil
human act maybe considered “right” just as long as it can be justified which lead us to its norm of
morality. By that term, we mean that the basis for determining its correctness are the standard of the
judging party and the reason why an act is morally wrong or right. Human Acts just like the word itself
means actions of men that are done willfully and willingly. Keep in mind that scenarios beyond human
control are not human acts such as rainfall, sunset, earthquake even the beating of the heart or blood
circulation are beyond human act for these are actions man cannot control. In the case of assassinations
where the culprit pulled the trigger, the gun is not to blame but the doer of the action that caused
taking the life of another man. Once questioned he has the right to justify his action as either morally
right or wrong. References and Supplementary Materials Books and Journals 1. Montemayor, Felix;
Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book Store 2. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the
Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National Book Store

Ethics Moral Standards and Human Freedom 1 Course Module Module 2 Moral Standards and Human
Freedom At the end of this module, you are expected t0: 1. Analyze the relationship of moral standards
and human life 2. Discuss the issues of voluntariness in human acts Moral Standards Morality it must be
noted, is present only in humanity. Meaning man can only be moral if he is fully aware of his actions.
Brutes have no morality for they are not guided by reason hence they are not responsible for their
actions and are not classified as human acts. Let us be guided based on these principles: 1. Man is the
only Moral Being – due to three things: a) man is capable of action, b) man has intellect and c) man has
free will. Being capable of action man can employ his bodily activities to perform actions. With man’s
intellect he can discern the good or evilness of his actions and at the same time equate the
repercussions of his actions once asked to justify them. Free will is present and inherent in men unless
they are idiots and with that they have the freedom of choice whether to perform or not the action at
hand. 2. Man is a the highest form of Animal – endowed with intellect, man can decide what’s best for
him although their desires are the same with brutes such as hunger, thirst, pain and sensual needs; man
moves based on reason while their lower counterparts have only instinct. Sentient beings like animals
rely on instinct which are natural biological drives, while men can decide whether an act is moral or not.
3. Man is a rational animal – Ratio is the Latin term for reason that means man has the power to discern
things based on his previous knowledge of things. Unlike brutes, man has the power of abstraction – this
is his ability to correlate ideas previously based on his mind as well as his understanding of the situation
at hand, thereby giving him a logical or correct decision. 4. The intellect and the will – they are
correlative with each other because the intellect is the agent of knowing while the will is the agent of
choice. From intellect – knowledge is stored this will then guide the will to decide which is basically
“good”. They co-exist and from their partnership “virtue” is born. Voluntariness of Human Acts A
voluntary act is under the control of the intellect and the will and must be answerable for their actions.
As mentioned in the previous module, only human acts are valid in ethics and at the same time possess
moral significance. There are four types of voluntary acts and they are: 1. Perfect voluntariness – when a
person acts with full knowledge and complete freedom – we are fully aware of what we are doing 2.
Imperfect voluntariness – when a person acts without full understanding and no freedom – we are made
to perform acts we did not like 3. Simple voluntariness – it is the disposition of a person doing the
activity regardless to his liking or not – this may be positive or negative. The former is by making him to
do something while the other is to prevent or stop him from doing things. 4. Conditional voluntariness -
it is the situation when the person was forced by circumstances or under duress which he would not do
under normal circumstances. Example is being extorted money by a neighborhood toughie in exchange
for his “protection”. But what modifiers may cloud the intellect and the will that may either reduce or
increase accountability: Modifiers of Human Acts: 1. Ignorance – this simply means absence of
knowledge. A doer’s responsibility for his actions may be increased or decreased due to this. A person
may have committed an act for he is unaware of it. There are three types of ignorance and they are:
Vincible ignorance that can easily be corrected such as calling a person with a wrong name or entering
the wrong classroom. On the other hand Invincible ignorance – cannot be rectified an example is a
waiter who gave the wrong food to the customer or a killer that claimed the life of a wrong victim. The
third is Affected ignorance – is the doer’s attempt to escape responsibility such as a suspect denying his
complicity in a crime he has done. 2. Passions – Psychic responses that may adhere or abhor them to
either desirable or undesirable tendencies. Positive emotions such as love, desire or hope are
manifestations of the first while hatred, horror and despair are example of negative emotions. There are
also two passions such as antecedent and consequent passions wherein the former are passions that
occur before the stimulus such as accidentally meeting a special someone; while the other came after a
stimuli we ourselves caused for example meeting a special someone that we are already aware of his
arrival. 3. Fear – it is the disturbance of the mind when confronted by danger to himself or a loved one.
Actions whether done with fear or out of fear may affect one’s action. Acts done with fear are voluntary
while acts done out of fear are two different things. If one moves with fear this means he has to decide
and yet is afraid he might err an example is an amateur singer performing in front of a large crowd or
driving a vehicle with limited know-how in driving. Actions out of fear are situations that needed
immediate decisions such as jumping out of a plane about to crash land or run away from a violent
situation. 4. Violence – it is physical force given to a free person to coerce him to do or not to do
something. Physical threats such as torture, starvation or mutilation are examples of violence but was
free will impaired? No, the free will is still there for they can still resist making their moral integrity
intact, in short, there is still a choice. 5. Habits – readiness to perform habitual acts. Habits are done
mechanically that thinking is no longer necessary may either be good or bad. It is second-nature to the
doer and doing it is instinct. Ethics Moral Standards and Human Freedom 3 Course Module References
and Supplementary Materials Books and Journals 1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos;
Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National Book Store Inc. 2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical
Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book Store 3. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro
Manila; National Book Store

Ethics Morality 1 Course Module Module 3 Morality At the end of this module, you are expected t0: 1.
Compare and contrast the two fundamental questions 2. Explain the norms of morality 3. Identify
defective moralities The Two Fundamental Questions Two important questions are raised one is “What
is Morality” and “What is the meaning of life?”. The first question pertains to the rightness or
wrongfulness of an act and what is the basis of the judge concerned. These are ethical questions that up
to this time, baffled sages and peons alike and remain unanswered. The second is about the summum
bonum (ultimate good) of human existence, what is the very reason why man exists on this world? In a
nutshell, those two questions are related – Ethics is about morality which is the basis of good, every
time we decide on dilemmas using morality men experienced happiness and that is “good”. The more
we attain happiness by being good – the closer we are to the Ultimate Good. To sum it up, both
questions boil down to two words “goodness” and “purpose”, a thing that is of use is good for it has
served its purpose. For example, a politician is good if he has fulfilled his promise to the people after
serving his term of office in doing so by being useful to his constituent, he felt that he lived a worthy life.
This will then be a step to reaching his ultimate goal – the ultimate good. A good life will ultimately lead
to ultimate happiness. The Norms of Morality Rationally speaking man acts in accordance to his nature,
that human nature quantify as justification as to why an act be it good or bad is performed. In doing so it
conflicts with the higher intelligence endowed to men. Is man basically good? We can say yes but of
what context of goodness is man supposed to follow? The morality of man follows a proximate norm
and an ultimate norm so where does human nature come in? As mentioned earlier man has baser
tendencies that is human nature equivalent to brutes that may come in the form of stimuli. The
proximate norm there is to follow human nature which is the low end of a human being. On the other
hand, the ultimate norm is to follow divine nature which are decisions that are based on morality. For
example, the stimulus of hunger based on proximate norm simply means to eat the food regardless as
to whether it is for somebody else, spoilt or poisonous. Human nature dictates that man has to satiate
his hunger no matter what and may be considered moral if we are to consider human nature. If man
decides to study the situation by not initially grabbing the “opportunity”, then he acted in relation to the
ultimate norm. However, we are not discarding human nature as a basis of human existence, man is a
social animal which is the nature of man’s need for association. In truth we can never reach divine status
but we must keep in mind that there is no conflict with the Natural law and the Eternal law (the Law of
God). The Natural is patterned after the Eternal Law, man must adhere to his nature of man which is
using his intellect unlike human nature that is only to follow his passions. Defective Norms of Morality
Human Nature is a simple foundation of man but there are philosophies and they are: 1. Hedonism –
this is also known as the Philosophy of Pleasure that pleasure alone is the primary purpose of man’s
existence. It is true man desires for happiness but a happy life need not be composed of pleasure alone.
True happiness is seeking good but wallowing in pleasure made man’s life baser than brutes. 2.
Utilitarianism – is simply the ends of an action must be good, if it is not then the action is unjustified.
From the word “utility” it means that anything that is of use to the agent is moral. There are two types
of utilitarianism and they are individual utilitarianism and social utilitarianism – the first is known as
egoism which is the definition given – the agent is the one who will gain. Altruism is the other term for
social utilitarianism but the receiving factor is the society where the agent belongs. 3. Moral Rationalism
– simply states that human reason is the only foundation of morality as postulated by German
Philosopher Immanuel Kant which he dubbed as “Categorical Imperative”. However as Kant further
explained we have to do good because we ought to be good in doing so he is implying blind obedience.
In his philosophy “autonomy of reason”, inasmuch as reason creates the law, it is “reasonable” for men
to obey it without question nor ambiguity. The general rule is that everyone thinks the same for men are
reasonable so conflict is a remote possibility. 4. Moral Positivism – states that morality is adherence to
State Laws as philosophizes by the English sage Thomas Hobbes. The State is the foundation of morality
since laws are geared for the common good apparently, an act is moral if he obeys the law and evil if he
disobeys it. Comparing to Moral Rationalism where reason is the law, Moral Positivism only has the
State Law as its source of morality. 5. Moral Evolutionism – In relation to Sociologist Herbert Spencer,
morality just like evolution is ever-changing until it reached its perfect form. Friedrich Nietsche added
that man was born with hardly any basis for right and wrong and their collective lives is a never-ending
struggle for change until they reach perfection. 6. Moral Sensism – Contrary to Moral Evolutionism men
are born with a special moral sense (not reason) that is comparable to the five senses. For example, man
can easily differentiate noise from music, salty from sweet as well as pleasant and unpleasant that may
also serve as means to moral judgment. 7. Communism - Although this is more of an economic theory its
social implication cannot be denied and is geared for a classless society. They believed in the philosophy
of material dialectics that means two material things are the only ingredients necessary for change. They
deny the existence of God, the free will and immortality for they do not matter being immaterial. Ergo,
anything that will lead to a classless society is good and moral and any thing otherwise is evil and
immoral. Ethics Morality 3 Course Module References and Supplementary Materials Books and Journals
1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National Book Store Inc. 2.
Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book Store 3. Montemayor,
Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book Store

Ethics Dilemma 1 Course Module Module 4 Dilemma and Culture in Moral Behavior At the end of this
module, you are expected to: 1. Appreciate the importance of dilemma to human reasoning 2. Gauge
your own level of thinking 3. Discern one’s level of maturity 4. Analyze the role of culture in human
behavior 5. Cite examples of cultural diversity between oriental and occidental societies What is
dilemma A social dilemma is an action situation in which an individual must decide on his own even if it
is against the socially-accepted norms. It is the situation that measure one’s maturity. Below is the scale
used by Lawrence Kohlberg in human reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg’s sequence of moral reasoning
Situation: You are a loving husband/wife whose spouse was suffering from terminal cancer. At present,
you are unemployed and cannot provide medicine for your suffering partner. One morning, your
beloved was screaming in pain and you are forced to find ways to ease the pain or better yet eradicate
it. You went to a drug store that has just opened, and the guard was out at that moment and the solitary
sales agent was busy preparing herself. The medicine was there but you are penniless to buy it, that is
just within your reach and the chance was ripe to steal it. Will you take the opportunity for your partner
or back track to avoid committing? Level 1: Pre Conventional Level – The concrete interests of an
individual is merely rewards and punishment. This is a childish mentality that are only encouraged or
discouraged based on what they can get from the situation at hand. Stage 1: “Obedience and
Punishment Orientation”. People stick to the rules to avoid punishment Favor: If partner dies there will
be trouble for you since you are the spouse and must make a move instead of being idle. Against: If you
steal you might get caught if not your conscience will bother you, this means that you have to make a
move otherwise you will be punished by your conscience by not doing so. Stage 2: “Reward Orientation”
– Rules are followed only for its benefits. Obedience occurred because of the rewards. It means that the
doer is only after what can he gain from the actions he perform or did not perform. Favor: If you steal
and got caught just return the just return the drug and forget everything. Somehow you might end up in
jail but the wife is still alive just the same Against: The sin committed is not that serious so a life term is
impossible but it will still be a lose-lose situation for this will temporarily save her life but may end up
dead sooner or later. Level 2: Conventional Morality – People approach problems as members of society
and would like to be a role model. Stage 3: “Good Boy Morality” - Individuals show an interest in
maintaining the respect of others and is doing what is expected of them. Favor: To be a good father is to
do everything for his family that if you do not steal the drug the people will label you as an
“irresponsible father” Against: If you steal the drug the people will tag you as a “criminal” and will bring
dishonor to your family. Stage 4: “Authority and Social Order maintaining Morality” – People conform to
what is right in a society. Favor: If you have a sense of honor, you wouldn’t let your wife die by denying
the only means of saving her life. You will feel guilty and this will haunt you for the rest of your life.
Against: You are aware that stealing is evil but the effect of that shall be more painful once you are sent
to jail. You will feel guilty and will haunt you for the rest of your life. You are no longer honorable. Level
3: Post Conventional Morality: People use moral principles which is seen as broader than any particular
society. Stage 5: “Morality of Rights and Laws” – People do what is right as a sense of obligation to law
and society, however they can be modified. Favor: If you don’t steal you’ll lose the people’s respect for
you avoided the act because of fear and not reason Against: If you steal you’ll lose your social standing
for violating the law, don’t get carried away by emotions Stage 6: “Morality of an Individual Principle and
Conscience” – A person follows laws based on ethical principles. Laws that run counter to principles are
violated. Favor: If you don’t steal and wife dies you won’t be condemned by society for you lived up to
your own expectations but did not live to your own standard of conscience Against: If you steal the drug
you will not be blamed by others but you’ll condemn yourself for not living within your own conscience
and your virtue of honesty. Ethics Dilemma 3 Course Module Culture in Moral Behavior Explained Dr.
Emma Butchel in her work, “Challenging the concept of Morality”, explained a comparison of morality
between Chinese and Western cultures. Both cultures have their respective sense of morality that even
conflicts the other. Her study also focused on the moral and social concepts these two societies abide.
One factor that polarized these civilizations is their behavior that helped mold their people to what they
are now, as they say tradition outlasts a lifetime so they can no longer alter moralities that they are
already used to. Both civilizations once immersed with their own, classify “odd” behavior reprehensible
that they branded them as either major offense, minor offense or at least tolerable however there are
behavior that may be integrated to their civilization. One example was during the time of Maoist China,
western culture was considered a taboo that fashion for them is a non-entity but with the transition of
Communist China to a capitalism – the very reason why the Chinese society adhered to Marxist
ideology, western culture made China into one of the richest country in the world. Cultural bias made
people fail to see the moral principle of their counterpart. Many societies even in the past adhere to
ethnocentrism, an idea that their culture alone is the only thing that matters and at the same time
dismissed others as either “uncouth” or “barbaric”. So why waste time with societies below their
station? In this case, western morality is “blind” to Asian values and as mentioned cultural bias clouded
their judgment that they can’t seem to understand the morality of another person’s culture that is the
foundation of their morality. The Hindus and some Asian countries used arrange marriages to ensure a
good future for their children that western countries find overlapping with their principles of their
freedom of choice. Another example was raised and it was the educational system that divided the
occidental from the oriental thought. Oriental schools believed in the “infallibility” of teachers that they
are the only source of knowledge and should not be questioned whereas the occidentals rely on the
idea that students have every right to debate with their teachers that even the philosopher Socrates
subscribed to. Flexibility and broadmindedness are the two things that can help bridge the gap between
the two opposing cultures. By opening our minds and removing whatever bias we habe we can have
room to put ourselves in the shoes of others and will help usher global unity. Man by nature tends to do
good so the culture of other people especially those we held with contempt or mirth also have goodness
in them. There is nothing wrong to understand another person’s morality devoid of cultural bias. What is
Culture? According to David Brinkenhoff and Lynn White culture is the whole idea that provides a
blueprint for living. It is a powerful force that lived in all peoples that tells us what is right from wrong.
Eating dogs for example is tolerated in the Philippines but is totally banned in the United States and
other Western countries. That is because not everything we do is acceptable to others. According to
Alan Johnson culture is the sum of symbols, ideas, forms, expressions and material products associated
with a social system. Edward Taylor defined culture as the complex whole which includes beliefs, arts,
laws, morals, customs and habits acquired by people as members of society. Symbols are manifestations
of culture and are anything that represents more than itself an example is a cross that to some it is just
an object or figure formed by two short intersecting lines or pieces but has several meanings. There are
four kinds of symbols namely 1) Symbolic objectives – they may mean a flag to represent a nation a
currency to mean a nation’s medium of exchange. 2) Symbolic characteristics of object – purple for
royalty, yellow for cowardice and red for war. 3) Gestures – actions that can give cultural control. 4)
Spoken and written words - the most important set of symbols in every culture for it is the building block
used to construct ideas. References and Supplementary Materials Books and Journals 1. Colendrina-
Bucu, Luz et al; Introduction to Psychology; Rex Bookstore; Quezon City 2. Panopio, Isabel et al;
Sociology Focus in the Philippines; Ken Inc.; Quezon City

Ethics Filipino Culture and Morality 1 Course Module Module 5 Filipino Culture and Morality, Morality
and Conscience At the end of this module, you are expected to: 1. Discuss the meaning of cultural
relativism 2. Prove why cultural differences are not applicable to Ethics 3. Compare and contrast Filipino
psyche and Asian thinking 4. Enumerate the development of values 5. Appreciate the importance of
conscience 6. Answer the question of the “greatest good” Cultural Relativism Culture relativity is a
concept that cultural norms and values must be understood based on the culture he is adhered to. As
the saying goes, “different strokes for different folks” which simply means that if I am to understand a
situation the explanation must primary begin with my own culture. According to William Graham
Sumner, in his book entitled “Folkways” written in 1906 culture can only be understood in its own value
and content. Example is December 30 to the Filipinos it is of value for it is Rizal Day but is worthless to
the Americans and the Japanese. On the other hand, February 22 is Washington’s Birthday to the
Americans but of no value to the Filipinos or the Japanese. Same is true every February 6 which is the
Foundation of the Japanese Empire but is just an ordinary day to Filipino and American calendars. The
example reflects the significance or insignificance of these dates reflecting a national holiday to some
and an ordinary day to others. In the first place who is Jose Rizal to the Japanese and Americans but he
is adored in the Philippines. Conversely George Washington is just a face in a one-dollar bill as far as
Filipinos and Japanese are concerned but a revered persona in America. Ethics and Cultural Relativism
Before we delve into that let us define ethical relativism, it is the theory that holds that morality is
related to the tenets of his culture. Right or wrong a certain belief that prevailed in a culture is shared by
everyone. In a nutshell, everybody thinks the same way considering that anyone who belongs to a
certain society subscribed to every norm they dictated. This is universality in a culture for as what
everyone believed, culture is shared by everyone and denial of their practices is a pariah among their
ranks. However not everyone shared their beliefs because blind obedience denies man his fundamental
right of his freedom of choice. With his free will, he can decide what is right or wrong but he is aware of
what his culture dictates him what to obey. For example During the Second World War, NAZI Germany
believed that the extermination of Jews is the “final solution” that may be akin to ethnic cleansing. The
dictates of their Fuehrer Adolf Hitler has to be taken into account by every German and is expected that
every German must obey it to the letter. But not all Germans believed in this among them was German
industrialist and war profiteer Oscar Schindler who saved twelve hundred Jews from the Auschwitz
Concentration Camp to work in his metal factory. This proves that ethical relativism is untrue. To discuss
further, although Communist China Party Chairman believed in the apogee of communism of human
development and abhorred western culture his successors believed otherwise among them were Deng
Xiaoping who even went to the US and begin China’s rise to industrialization –the worst enemy of the
communist/socialist ideology. Filipino psyche and morality Being a nation of multi-cultural race, Filipinos
are also cosmopolitan that our hospitality extends to almost every nation in the world. Filipinos are a
happy people that are known for their hospitality, subtleness, patient and fun-loving. Despite coming
from a third world country, personal and family honor are given priority if given a choice. They value
education highly that poverty is not an excuse to get a scholastic degree. At an early age Filipinos
consider shame as the worst among the negative trait they avoid they value dignity as an important
value in life that they cannot live in a society that consider them as outcast. Spanish and American
colonial rule that lasted for more than four centuries are the major ingredients in the Filipino psyche.
Comparing Filipinos to other Asian nations they are generally more easy-going than their Asian
counterparts. In a study conducted by the Hong Kong-based Political and Economic Risk Constituency
(PERC) the Filipinos are "the easiest people in Asia to get along with." Being a happy people that is
understandable. In the 2006 Happy Planet Index (HPI), the Philippines ranked 17th out of 178 countries
with the progressive United States at 150. This means to show that materialism is not a primary source
of Filipino happiness. In a study conducted by Howard, he described Filipinos as nice, cheerful and open
people, everyone is welcomed even social misfits being the most nonjudgmental and the least racist
country in Asia. Filipino negative traits in an article written by Alisa Krutovsky mentioned that Filipinos
have colonial mentality and are often tardy during appointments. Morality – a review Morality according
to Perry is man’s effort to harmonize conflicting human interests. As mentioned in the past modules
morality of a person is different from another person. One example is the case of public execution.
There are some sectors in the Philippine society that consider this evil for taking life ran contrary to their
belief that taking human life is against the laws of God. On the other hand public execution especially
the most humane type that is lethal injection is a necessity to curb men from committing evil deeds, a
necessary evil so to speak. Morality is the goodness or evilness of the act that may be justifiable. People
mistook that anything that we find good is moral because man’s pursuit of happiness is the primary
reason why we live in this world. This is not true, for man’s desire to be good is innate in him and may
prevent his pursuit of such act. A married man might entertain extra-marital affairs, especially to a lovely
woman that also implied interest in him and for him that is “good” for that is a means to his pursuit of
happiness. But then again he might neglect this passion once he recalled his marital vows which is the
greater good. Values Values are anything that satisfies human needs. Aristotle once said that the
ultimate good is to find things that will give us happiness and that is where happiness comes in, he
further added that value is a “fitting function” –anything that is important or significant to us. Anything
that enriched our life or at least made it meaningful such as a special someone, a friend, our laptop, our
birthdays or anything that is special are values. Even our beliefs and principles are values that we Ethics
Filipino Culture and Morality 3 Course Module even shared to our offspring that will guide them to their
adulthood. Values may also come as actions of our own or of others that we classify good acts are values
while evil acts are not because they result to unhappiness. Morally good values are genuine for their
goodness are evident whereas evil are called apparent values for they are evil things masquerading as
good. Kinds of Values 1. Biological values – they are important because they for the physical survival and
growth of man examples are food, shelter, work, pleasure, medicine and the likes. 2. Psychological
values – this contributes to his psychological and social life examples are companionship, friendship,
marriage etc. 3. Intellectual values – this developed man’s mental fulfillment such as truth, science, art
and religion 4. Moral values – this is for the formation of one’s character. Examples are generosity,
kindness, charity and honesty Conscience Is a feeling or inner voice that served as a guide to the
correctness or error of one's behavior? Some authors viewed it as the “inner law” or the “sixth sense”
that gives premonitions to acts we are to perform or acts we already did. Where did this come from?
Moral conscience is innate idea that simply follow God’s unwritten dictum of “follow good and obey
evil”. Man is basically good for man is a creation of God, being the source of goodness, He created man
endowed with free will but induced conscience to make sure His words are heard. An upright conscience
is a necessity for human dignity, because it knows moral principles and practiced them in each
circumstance. Only prudent judgments can recognize the truth. Anyone who follows his conscience is
prudent for he is guided not only by human reason but by the voice of God. God is the source of the
truth and through conscience man can grasp a semblance of reason. Inasmuch as conscience is present
in man he assumes responsibility. When an evil act is performed, he realized his error by feeling remorse
for his action then later regret it, which is a manifestation of conscience. An act that is willfully done is
appeared to be guided by conscience thereby responsibility is undeniable. The Greatest Good Jeremy
Bentham a British philosopher during the 19th Century answered that question when he said that the
“greatest good is for the greatest number”. He introduced Utilitarianism that is simply states that the
ends of an action must be good, if it is not then the action is unjustified. Which is simply anything of use
is good while useless are evil. But like a double-edged sword it also has a good side, he implied the spirit
of humanity where everyone lived in single planet and their desire to be happy and goodness are innate
in man. Everybody wants to be happy, so the best thing is to follow happiness and goodness that is
common to everyone. Being children of God, we have identical aspirations, so whatever we find good
might also be good to others. References and Supplementary Materials Books and Journals 1. Panopio,
Isabel et al; Sociology focus in the Philippines; Ken Inc.; Quezon City 2. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the
Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National Book Store Inc. 3. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The
Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book Store 4. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines;
Navotas Metro Manila; National Book Store Online Supplementary Reading Materials 1. Filipino
character and Personality; http://factsanddetails.com/southeastasia/Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-
3867.html; June 2015 2. Ethical Relativism; http://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-
decisionmaking/ethical-relativism/; August 1, 1992 3. Moral Conscience;
https://catholicity.com/catechism/moral_conscience.html; 2018

Ethics Feelings and Moral Decisions 1 Course Module Module 6 Feelings and Moral Decisions At the end
of this module, you are expected to: 1. Compare and contrast the contribution and non-contribution to
moral decisions 2. Explain the ethics of love 3. Differentiate virtues from vices What are feelings and
emotions? Before we begin this discourse, let us differentiate feelings and emotions. Feelings are
defined as an emotional state or reaction while emotions are distinctive feeling distinguished from
reasoning or knowledge. Simply put emotions or feelings do not play any role in a human act and is not
justifiable with regard to moral decisions. As mentioned in many books human acts are human actions
men perform knowingly, freely and voluntarily. Ergo a human act must have these three qualifications a)
he must be fully be aware of what he is doing or what he will do, b) he used his freedom of choice to
decide using his innate free will and 3) his decision is not coerced by any outside factor. Feelings and
emotions are one and the same for it plays merely to the weakness of men which some sociologists
dubbed as “human frailties”. It can never be used as an excuse for our negative actions for if we allow
our emotions to “decide” then we are not acting as human beings. Brutes react only to mere instincts
for they lack reason, emotions are devoid of reason and rely to spur-of-the-moment decisions or the
mood of the doer. The ethics of Love Many people are confused between love and emotions. We think
that emotions are strong because of love for it propels people to feel it. We have to refute this
perverted claim, in the scientific world emotions can be seen through the face of the doer (see
emoticons) from there we can discern happiness, sadness, anger and content but what moves them, it is
not love but drives. By drive me mean the cravings of men that they simply can’t do without such as
hunger, need for sex, companionship and the likes. From these needs man developed a desire to acquire
them by any means possible and emotions are born, if we succeed in doing so we felt happy or
contented if not it lead to frustration that may later result into anger or sadness. These craving of man
boosted his competitive nature that he won’t stop until he achieved it. In short, emotions are simply
attachments that resulted due to man’s desires. Love on the other hand is an intense feeling of deep
affection that is also a drive but compared to emotion which is solely for selfaggrandizement, love does
not necessarily have to be reciprocated. Man can love another person, thing or event even if it does not
render love in return. In relation to love when it comes to moral decision such love is acceptable just as
long as it is guided by morality and reason. Vice and Virtue Socrates once said that, “knowledge is virtue
and ignorance is vice”. We got these things from the habits we obtain from dealing with people in our
everyday lives. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a
foundation of principle and good moral being while vice is the opposite is what we know as vice.
Different from feelings, this is not a spur-of-the-moment affair, this develops as man progressed
intellectually and physically. Bad habits develop into vice that as mentioned earlier the opposite of
virtue. Moral Values – are those pertaining to the functions of the intellect and the will – that may be
our choices, decisions and actions that became habits. This later will develop spiritual growth that is part
of human perfection. Moral values have the following characteristics: a) they have intrinsic work – they
are good acts in themselves without any shadow of doubt, b) they are universally accepted by all people
and c) they are obligatory which means everyone is expected to abide by it considering that it is a
universally accepted good. Guidelines for choosing values: 1. Paramount or lasting values over temporal
ones 2. Values favored by the majority instead by a few individuals 3. Essential values must be preferred
over the accidental 4. Moral values must be preferred over physical values References and
Supplementary Materials Books and Journals 1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos;
Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National Book Store Inc. 2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical
Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book Store 3. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro
Manila; National Book Store Online Supplementary Reading Materials 1. Love isn’t an emotion;
https://theanatomyoflove.com/what-is-love/love-isn’t-anemotion/ ; October 26, 2016 2. Virtue;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue;