The Study of Philosophy and Ethics (GROUP 1)

PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is the systematic study of ideas and issues, a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest
for a comprehensive understanding of the world, a study of principles of conduct, and much more. Every
domain of human experience raises questions to which philosophy's techniques and methods apply.
Philosophical methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of any vocation. Indeed,
philosophy is, in a sense, inescapable. Life confronts every thoughtful person with some philosophical
question, and nearly everyone is guided by philosophical assumptions, even if unconsciously.

To a large extent, one can choose how reflective one will be in clarifying and developing his/her
philosophical assumptions, and how well prepared one is for the philosophical questions that life
presents. Philosophical training enhances our problem-solving capacities, our abilities to understand and
express ideas, and our persuasive powers. It also develops understanding and enjoyment of things that
enrich our lives, things such as aesthetic experience, communication with many different types of
people, lively discussion of current issues, and etc....

ETHICS

Ethics has been defined as the philosophical science dealing with the morality of human acts. It provides
the principles on the morality of human acts. Studying ethics is a must for each person because he has
to live a moral life. Man may do good because it is a duty, pleasure and happiness. It prevents karma,
avoids reincarnation. It harmonizes with nature, the commandment of God to attain eternal life and
whatever maybe man's reason, he has to act morally because he is a man- a rational animal.

The Different Branches of Philosophy

Epistemology - a branch of philosophy that addresses the philosophical problems surrounding the
theory of knowledge. It is concerned with the definition of knowledge and related concepts, the sources
and criteria of knowledge, the kinds of knowledge possible and the degree to which each is certain.

Metaphysics - a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of ultimate reality. It is customarily
divided into ontology, which deals with the question of how many fundamentally distinct sorts of
entities compose the universe, and metaphysics proper, which is concerned with describing the most
general traits of reality.

Aesthetics - a branch of philosophy concerned with the essence and perception of beauty and ugliness.
It also deals with the question of whether such qualities are objectively present in the things they
appear to qualify for, or whether they exist only in the mind of the individual.

Cosmology - a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of the universe as a whole, including its
past and its future.

Social and Political Philosophy - a branch of philosophy primarily concerned with the nature of
legitimate authority, the nature of society, and the relation between the individual, the community, and
the state.

Philosophy of Man - the study of all aspects of human life and culture. It examines such topics as how
people live, what they think, what they produce, and how they interact with their environments.
 Logic - commonly known as the art and science of correct thinking. It is a study that deals with the
principles of valid reasoning and argument.

Ethics - is the normative science that determines whether or not human beings acting in social settings
are doing in the appropriate or wrong way. Moral philosophy is another name for ethics, which is
derived from the Greek term ethicos. Ethics also deals with morality of human act.

Difference between Ethics and Morality

Etymologically, there is no difference between ethics and morality, because morality comes from the
Latin word mos or moris, which also means "customs". For this reason, Ethics is called moral philosophy.
However, there is a slight difference between ethics and morality, as stated by Babor (2003). Ethics
provides principles on the morality of human acts; it provides man with the theoretical knowledge of
the morality of human acts. While we know that there is a big difference between knowing and doing.
Not all men follow what he knows. Ethics, therefore, does not guarantee that man will be moral. He can
only be moral if he applies ethics. In other words, ethics provides the theory or principles of right or
wrong or goodness and badness while morality actualizes the theory. Morality is nothing else but ethics

Division of Ethics
GENERAL ETHICS – present truths about human acts, and from these truths deduce the general
principles of morality. General ethics is applied to the individual in relation to himself, God and his
fellow men.

SPECIAL ETHICS – is applied ethics. It applies to the principles of general ethics in different departments
of human activity, individual and social. It concludes man’s relation to the family, to the state and to the
world.

Importance of Ethics
The importance of the study of ethics follows immediately from ethics itself. Ethics means living in a
proper way and it is in the development of a good moral character and virtues that man finds perfection
and understands his purpose of existence. Everybody aims to have peace and harmony among all
people, which is indeed the common interest of the people and the government. The first way to the
moral development of the people is to educate them.

Relationship of Ethics to Other Sciences

1. Ethics and Logic – Ethics is the science of good and proper living. But good living presupposes
correct thinking and reasoning. Doing follows thinking.

2. Ethics and Psychology – both involve the study of man, human nature, and human behavior.

3. Ethics and Sociology – Society exists because of the observance of moral laws that make sociology
dependent on ethics. Both are complimentary, norms and cultures of the people which are the basis
of ethical standards of a particular society.

4. Ethics and Economics. Economics is the proper allocation and efficient use of available resources for
the maximum satisfaction of human wants. Man, indeed is an economic being. He has to earn a living.
His means of livelihood therefore must be normally acceptable: he has to observe corporate and
business ethics. It has to ensure that he is not enriching himself at the expense of others. He must
observe justice and fairness with his fellow beings.

5. Ethics and Education. Education liberates men from ignorance not only from ethical standards but
also from laws that are implemented by society. Education is concerned with the total human
development that includes the moral, intellectual and physical faculties of man. Through education man
becomes civilized and cultured which guides him to live morally.

6. Ethics and Law. Laws imposed by the society must be fair, just, humane. It must be for the welfare
of the majority of the people and not offensive to morality. There is a difference between what is moral
and what is legal.

7. Ethics and Art. Man's artistic creation must have a noble purpose, which should not be offensive to
morality. A piece of art should reflect beauty and must inspire every person who sees it.

8. Ethics and Political Science. Political Science is the study of state and government. Politics covers the
administration and management of our government. Our politicians must promote the temporal welfare
of the citizens. Politics is concerned with the material needs of man while ethics is for the spiritual, these
two are inseparable.

Nature of Man
Man is the Only Moral Being

● Man has intellect that separates him from all brute creations. Man has the ability to think before
doing a particular action. Man may foresee the consequences of his actions. He has the capacity to know
what is right and what is wrong. Morality of human acts cannot be applied to animals for they do not
process intelligence but instinct. Humans have the power to acquire knowledge from experience and
from the environment.

Man as a Rational Being

● Man's actions are in accordance with reason. Every action he makes has purpose and meaning. It is
the duty of man to be moral according to Immanuel Kant. Man as a rational being, means his actions are
diligently and intelligently made. He carefully examines and analyzes the consequences of his actions.

Man as an Animal

● Similarly, both man and animals possess appetite and knowledge. Animals similar to man need also to
gratify their instinctive sexual desires. But what separates man from animals is that man has intellect
and free will. Actions of animals lack meaning and are beyond their control and therefore makes
morality of human acts inapplicable to them, to this we can include imbeciles, morons, idiots, insane and
other psychologically deranged people.
 MORAL AND NON- MORAL STANDARDS (GROUP 2)
MORAL STANDARD

Moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human behaviour, especially the
distinction between good and bad behaviour. Moral standards involve the rules people have about the
kinds of action they believe are morally right and wrong.

NORMS + VALUES = MORAL STANDARDS

NORMS MEANS GENERAL RULES AND VALUES MEANS BELIEFS AND IDEALS OF A PERSON

EXAMPLE;

NORMS: It is wrong to kill innocent person or it is wrong to kill people.

VALUES: Helping the poor is good or cheating in exam is bad.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS

1. Welfare of beings

2. Relies on Sound Reasoning

3. Overriding Hegemony

4. Impartial, Fair and Just

5. Emotions and Vocabulary

NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a
non-moral way.

Examples;

1. Standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad

2. Standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal

3. Standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish.

A Non-Moral action is one that does not require morality and is acted out according to the prevailing
convections. If an action is performed without the intention of doing good, or with the intention of an
ulterior motive (Nakatagong Lihim), then it is a non-moral action. Hence, we should not confuse morality
with etiquette, law, aesthetics, or even with religion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-MORAL STANDARDS

1. Welfare of non-beings.

2. Relies on Authority Law.

3. Unmannerly in the People.

4. Ruthless.

5. Can Steal.

6. Judgemental of Others.

AMORAL STANDARDS

"Having or showing no concern about whether behaviour is morally right or wrong

EXAMPLE:

1. An infant, unlearned in what is right and wrong, is amoral.

2. Someone who lacks the mental ability to understand right or wrong due to illness might
be described as amoral.
 MORAL DILEMMA (GROUP 3)

A moral dilemma is a situation or event that questions the morals of a person in a temporary situation.
Moral dilemmas are ethical quandaries that present challenges as to which decision to make at any
given moment.

4 TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMA

1. Epistemic and Ontological Dilemmas

Epistemic Dilemma - involves situations where there are two or more moral requirements that conflict
with each other.

Ontological Moral Dilemma - on the other hand involves

two or more moral requirements, yet neither of these conflicting

requirements over rides each other.

2. Self-imposed and World-imposed Dilemma

Self-Imposed Moral Dilemma - is caused by amoral agent’s wrongdoings.

World-imposed Moral Dilemma - certain events in the world place the moral agent in a

situation of moral conflict.

3. Obligation and Prohibition Dilemmas

Prohibition Dilemma – A prohibition dilemma arises when an agent is in a choice situation. in which all
actions are forbidden.

4. Single Agent and Multi-person Dilemmas

Single Agent-the agent “ought, all things considered, to do A, ought, all things considered, to do B, and
she cannot do both A and B”.

Multi-person Dilemma - on the other hand, “…the situation is such that one agent, P1, ought to do A , a
second agent, P2, ought to do B, and though each agent can do what he ought to do, it is not possible
both for P1 to do A and P2 to do B.”
THE THREE COMPLEX SITUATIONS LEADING TO MORAL DILEMMAS ARE:

The problem of vagueness: One is unable to distinguish between good and bad (right or wrong).
principle. Good means an action that is obligatory. For example: code of ethics specifies that one should
obey the laws and follow standards. Refuse bribe or accept the gift, and maintain confidentiality.

The problem of conflicting reasons: One is unable to choose between two good moral solutions. One has
to fix priority, through knowledge or value system.

The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more solutions and none of them mandatory. These
solutions may be better or worse in some respects but not in all aspects.

LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA

1. Personal Dilemma
2. Organizational Dilemma
3. Structural Dilemma

Examples of Structural Dilemma:

1. Differentiation Versus Integration The tension between allocating work and coordinating
sundry efforts creates a classic dilemma. The more complex a role structure, the harder it is to
focused, tightly coupled enterprise.
2. Gap Versus Overlap If key responsibilities are not clearly assigned, important task fall through
the cracks. Roles and activities can overlap, creating effort, wasted effort and unintended
redundancy. An overlap occurs where two or more areas intersect each other, creating a region
covered by multiple areas. A gap occurs where two or more areas fail to meet at a boundary.
3. Lack of Clarity Versus Lack of Creativity If employees are unclear about of what they are
supposed to be doing, they often shape their role around personal preferences instead of
organizational goals, frequently leading to problem.
4. Excessive Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence If the efforts of individuals or
group are too autonomous, people often feel isolated and unsupported.
 GROUP 4 (ETHICS)

•What is moral dilemma?

•What are moral dilemma examples?
•What are the three levels of moral dilemmas?
Basically, the word ‘dilemma’ refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between two
or more options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones. From this meaning or definition
alone, we can see that not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.

Moral Dilemma

-Also called “ethical dilemmas, moral dilemmas are situations in which a difficult choice has to be made
between two courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle. It is safe to say
that at the very least, moral dilemmas involve conflicts between moral requirements

PERSONAL DILEMMA

-conflict arrives when a person is asked to choose between two important values for him or her.
-For example, choosing between one’s duties to his or her family one’s love for another person
Example:
- person wants to go outside the country or abroad like for example In family scenario, their family was
in debt but the father doubts to grab the opportunity to go abroad
-There is a father who is in debt and his son is seriously ill.

ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA

-encountered by institutions, business, organizations in their decision-making process, at this level the
dilemmas that the organizations’ experiences usually affect more than one person and they can be part
of the internal group or part of an external stakeholder.
Example:
-A company is faced with the decision of whether to lay off a large number of employees to cut costs
and maintain profitability, or to keep all employees on staff but risk financial instability.
-Letting Clients Go Walking away from toxic clients can be a common ethical dilemma. It’s hard to know
what the right thing to do is if they are bringing good income into your company and there are contracts
signed. But if it’s a toxic relationship, boundaries need to be set. If those aren’t working, the relationship
needs to end-as difficult as that can be.

STRUCTURAL DILEMMA
-affect a network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms like universal care, juvenile laws,
and immigration, this type of dilemma can affect a community and even a society at large.
Example:
-A government wants to promote economic development and create jobs, but it also wants to protect
the environment. This creates a structural dilemma, where the government must balance economic
growth with environmental sustainability. For example, the government may need to approve the
construction of a new factory to create jobs, but this could also lead to environmental pollution and
damage to natural resources.
-A company needs to reduce costs to remain competitive, but it also needs to maintain a high level of
quality to keep its customers satisfied. This creates a structural dilemma, where the company must
balance cost-cutting measures with maintaining quality standards. For example, the company may need
to reduce its workforce to cut costs, but this could lead to overworked employees and reduced quality
of work.

“The Moral Creature.”

Why only human beings can be ethical?
Only humans have the ability to understand moral values, rules, and principles, which is why humans
are referred to as “The Moral Creature.” Human morality and ethics are defined by humans because
they are the only ones with the mental ability to formulate and communicate ideas.

Humans have a moral sense because their biological makeup determines the presence of three
necessary conditions for ethical behavior:
(i) The ability to anticipate the consequences of one’s own actions;
(ii) The ability to make value judgments, and
(iii) The ability to choose between alternative courses of

FREEDOM
-power or right to act, speak or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint
A. Not absolute- it has limits
B. Exercising-responsibility for our actions
C. Great freedom comes with great responsibility
D. Chaos, anarchy in a society with limitless freedom.
 CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR (GROUP 5)

CULTURE

Culture affects personality, how we express ourselves, the way we think, how we solve problems, how
transportation systems function and are organized, how economics and government systems are put together,
and more.

ICEBERG

Culture is commonly depicted as an iceberg. This image was first used by Sigmund Freud, who likened
the conscious mind to the exposed tip of the iceberg and the unconscious mind to the rest, hidden beneath
the surface.

FACTORS
Culture has visible factors and visible ones. The cultural manifestations we see on the surface are easiest to
notice and get used to, while those that are hidden are more difficult to detect, understand, and effectively deal
with.

Culture, therefore, includes all the way of life above and below the surface: coping, beliefs, norms, practices,
rites, customs and traditions, expectations of others, language, food and dress.

GENERAL UNDERSTANDING OF CULTURE

Understanding the phenomena of our everyday lives — how they function, how they can help or harm us — is
important if we want to make better decisions and take better actions.

Culture is the learned and shared values, beliefs and behaviors of an interacting group of people.

Ethnicity

 Groupings of people that have a shared culture, a shared biological ancestry, or a shared origin place.

Language

 A communication system that has meaning to a group of people through speech.

Religion

 Beliefs and Ideologies. Can be ethnic or universalizing.

MORAL BEHAVIOR

-Action or actions that produce good outcomes for the individuals as a member of community or society.

-Schuman defines moral behavior as “Act intended to produce kind and/or fair outcomes”

- to act according to one’s moral behavior. Children demonstrate pro-social and moral behavior when they share,
help, co-operate, sympathize or in otherwise they demonstrate ability to care about others.

CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR

Culture undeniably does play a significant pseudo role within shaping moral behavior and extends even further to
social norms. Arguably, rather than defining our moral behavior per se, it influences and changes our definitions of
what ought to be deemed morally acceptable by consistent exposure to it.
 CULTURAL RELATIVISM (GROUP 6)
Introduction (What is Culture?)

It is the social behaviour and norms found in human societies. The sum of an individual’s way of life,
ranging from the food he or she eats, the clothes he or she wears, and the house he or she lives.

What is Cultural Relativism?

-Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments
using the standards of one’s own culture. The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices
that are not typically part of one’s own culture.
Ex. Food - Cultural relativism, for example, explains why certain cultures eat different foods.

Clothing Color - Something as simple as color may have very different meanings in dress in different
cultures. For example, red is a common funeral color in Zambia, Africa, and a wedding dress color in
traditional China.

Two different categories of Cultural Relativism

Absolute cultural relativism - indicates that whatever activities are practiced within a culture, no matter
how weird and dangerous they appear to be, should not be questioned by other cultures.

Ex. Mursi women cut their lower lip and extend it with a round plate. This is considered a symbol of
identity and beauty for the women.

Critical cultural relativism - asks questions about cultural practices and why they are practiced. It seeks
answers about cultural practices in line with who is accepting them and why they are doing so.

Ex. The residents of Spain practice El Colacho, which is a baby-jumping ritual practiced since 1620. It is
said that jumping over the babies chases the devil and keeps them safe.

Comparison: Cultural Relativism vs Universalism

Cultural Relativism is the idea of understanding a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments
using the standards of one’s own culture while Universalism refers to emphasizing fundamental truths
that should be universally applicable regardless of the difference in culture of some people.

Ex. In cultural relativism, Polygamy in a certain culture is respected by others from different culture. On
the other hand, Universalism does not accept this practice as having more than one partner is
universally improper.

Comparison: Cultural Variations

Ethnocentrism – Perspective that promotes an individual’s culture as the most efficient and superior. An
individual who exhibits ethnocentrism feels that his/her culture is the most appropriate as compared
with other cultures.

Ex. Colonial Imperialism

Xenocentrism – An individual who exhibits xenocentrism feels that his/her culture is inferior
compared with other cultures.

Ex. Filipinos imported products, Eurocentric Beauty Standards

 ASIAN & FILIPINO MORALITIES (GROUP 7)
WHAT IS MORALITY?

- Morality is the belief that some behavior is right and acceptable and that other behavior is wrong.

FILIPINO MORALITY?

- Filipinos as Asians are also collectivists who identify what is good and bad through their relationship
with their families, regional affiliations, and peer groups. Family basically determines moral behaviors
and what good Filipino is. The self-concept as moral person and moral standards are strongly-tied with
the family’s interrelationship with others.

10 FILIPINO CORE VALUES

1. PAKIKIRAMDAM
2. PAKIKISAMA
3. PAKIKIPAGKAPWA - TAO
4. HIYA
5. KAGANDAHANG - LOOB
6. UTANG NA LOOB
7. LAKAS NG LOOB O BAHALA NA
8. PAGKA MAASIKASO
9. PAGGALANG SA NAKAKATANDA
10. PAGMAMAHAL SA PAMILYA

WAYS & BEHAVIOR IN THE PHILIPPINES

 THE FAMILY IS AT THE CENTER OF THE FILIPINO COMMUNITY

 OPTIMISM, HUMOR, AND POSITIVITY ARE VALUED TRAITS IN THE PHILIPPINES
 SPIRITUALITY IS DEEPLY INGRAINED IN FILIPINOS
 FILIPINOS IN THE COUNTRY AND AROUND THE GLOBE CAN BE EXPECTED TO EXTEND A WARM
WELCOME TO THEIR GUESTS REGARDLESS OF WHERE THEY COME FROM, HOW WELL THEY KNOW
THEIR HOST, AND WHY THEY’RE VISITING SOMEONE’S HOME.

WHAT IS ASIA MORALITY?

- Asian cultures, like those of other continents, have developed a distinct moral and ethical code that
has helped them overcome socio political and cultural adversity. To a greater extent than their
Western counterparts, Asians prioritize the needs of the group over those of the individual. Personal
property rights are recognized, but most assets are pooled for the benefit of those in need.
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ASIAN TRADITION

1. Religious thought is intertwined with philosophical and ethical thinking

2. Love and compassion bind these intellectual traditions
3. Connectedness of personal cultivation and social responsibility
4. Enlightenment
5. These great teachings offer paths of “harmony with oneself, with others, with nature, with a
transcendent. “

WAYS AND BEHAVIOR IN INDIA

 The traditional greeting among hindus in India is namaste which means “good day “. They say this
greeting with hands held together as if in prayer, placed near the chin and with the head slightly
bent forward.
 Indians consider that the food they eat and religion are closely connected since all their
food emanate from their gods.
 Indians believed that the head is a very sensitive part of the body so it should not be touched by
other people.

WAYS AND BEHAVIOR IN INDONESIA

 When introduced to another person, an Indonesian usually offers his or her right hand for a
handshake while the left hand is placed on the chest to show sincere pleasure in meeting the other
person.
 Head of the person consider as the seat of the soul and sacred part of the body. For this
reason, patting or touching the head of another person even child is avoided.

CHINESE PHILOSOPHY & CONFUCIAN ETHICS

1. CONFUCIANISM IS A SYSTEM OF THOUGHT ATTRIBUTED TO THE TEACHER KONGQUI KNOWN

IN THE WEST AS CONFUCIUS.
2. ANALECT COMPILED BOOKS OF CONVERSATIONS WHICH IS THE MAIN SOURCE
CONFUCIAN TEACHING.
3. THERE IS ONE BASIC ASPIRATIION FOR ANY CONFUCIAN, THAT IS, TO BE A PERSON WHO HAS
THE VIRTUE OF THE REN, TO BE A PERSON WHO HAS INTERNALIZED THE WAY OF HEAVEN.

WAYS AND BEHAVIOR IN CHINA

 SOCIALLY HIERARCHY IS VERY IMPORTANT FOR THE CHINESE IN THEIR INTERACTION WITH
OTHER PEOPLE.
 DO GREET OTHERS BY USING A HANDSHAKE OR A NOD.
 RESPECT AND HIGH REGARD FOR ELDERS.
 Caring for the Elderly: Traditional and Today (GROUP 8)

Why is it Important?

It enables them to live a higher quality of life until the end. Your unconditional love is the best reason in
the world for looking for senior care for your loved one. There will come a time when the elderly will be
unable to function without care.

Caring for the Elderly: Traditional

 Nursing Homes (17th Century)

 Taken care by their family
 Showing Love and Respect
 Senior Citizen Benefits (1930)
 Retirement and Benefits (18th – 20th Century)
Caring for the Elderly: Today

 Nursing Homes/Care Homes

 Private Nurse/Caregiver
 Law/Right (Republic Act No. 9994)
 Programs/Projects

Why is Caring for the Elderly considered as an ethical value?

The answer is because it is simply the right thing to do. Caring for them is an ethical act because we are
not only expressing the love that they deserve but also showing our humanity as a person.
 THE FILIPINO WAY (GROUP 9)

The Filipino Culture

1. Due to the archipelagic nature of the Philippines, the culture of various regions has
distinct characteristics.

2. Spaniards, Americans, and Japanese

3. Mixed Culture

 “Mano” or “Honoring gesture”

 Filipinos are well-known to be hospitable
 Filipinos are family-oriented
 “Bayanihan”
 Filipinos are very resilient
 Filipinos are religious
 Filipinos respect culture and tradition
 THE MORALITY OF SLAVE (GROUP 10)

The Morality of Slave

Slave morality is a "nay-saying" attitude or herd morality which holds to the standard of that which is
useful or beneficial to the weak or powerless. The virtues are sympathy, kindness, and humility. Strong
and independent individuals are evil.

• Focused on qualities such as kindness, empathy, sympathy, etc.

• Values qualities such as kindness, patience, humbleness, equity, generous and virtues.

• Essence is the utility and relief of suffering.

• weighs actions on good and evil intentions.

 UNIVERSAL VALUES (GROUP 11)

 Universal values refer to the fundamental principles and standards that transcend cultural,
religious, and social differences., which are believed to be universally recognized and essential
for the promotion of a more just and harmonious global society.

 These values, such as respect for human rights, compassion, honesty, and tolerance, play a
crucial role in guiding individuals and communities towards ethical behavior and fostering a
sense of shared responsibility for the well-being of all. By embracing and upholding universal
values, individuals can help build bridges across diverse cultures and promote mutual
understanding and cooperation, while also advancing the cause of social justice and human
dignity. Universal values are essential in fostering a harmonious global society.

 They promote mutual understanding and cooperation, while also advancing the cause of social
justice and human dignity. The adoption of universal values is crucial in addressing global
challenges and ensuring sustainable progress for all. Moreover, universal values provide a
framework for resolving conflicts and promoting peaceful coexistence among individuals and
nations. In essence, universal values serve as a moral compass guiding humanity towards a more
equitable and harmonious world. The importance of universal values in promoting a harmonious
global society lies in their ability to guide ethical behavior, bridge cultural differences, and
address pressing challenges.

Why Universal Values are necessary for human survival

 Universal Values are fundamental ideas, principles or standards that are accepted as
inherently valid and essential for the ethical, moral and spiritual welfare of human beings. They
are
necessary for human survival because they provide a framework that guides our behavior and
decision-making, ensuring unity and harmony among individuals, communities and nations.


This framework helps to create a sense of collective responsibility for the well-being of all,
encouraging individuals and groups to act in ways that benefit society as a whole, rather than
simply pursuing individual interests. Furthermore, the promotion and integration of universal
values support social cohesion by fostering respect for diversity, equity, justice, peace and
ecological sustainability.

 When Universal Values are ingrained into society, they provide a foundation that ensures long-
term development and growth in all aspects of human existence. Universal values encourage
positive relationships, which lead to peaceful coexistence and sustainable development. In
essence, without universal values, humanity would be left to chaos and disorder, leading to
conflicts and social disintegration. In summary, universal values play a crucial role in promoting
human survival and well-being by fostering social cohesion, collective responsibility, respect for
diversity and sustainable development.
Importance of Universal Values In Human Survival

 The foundation of universal values should be accepted universally. We must know the
importance and why universal values are necessary for our survival. Universal values require us
to recognize the human characteristics, both good and bad, that we have in common with all
our fellow human beings and to show the same respect for human dignity and sensitivity in
people of other communities that we expect them to show for ours.

Values are important for us because

 1. It helps us grow and develop;

 2. It helps us create a future we want to experience;

 3. It guides our actions to help us gain influence among those people who matter to us, whose
love and respect we crave;

 4. It is important because it creates a connection between you and a group of people;

 5. It tells us how to behave if we want to be accepted, respected, and recognized by a social

group but in the most abstract way; and

 6. It is the key or the way to have power, become a good leader, acquire social status,
and promote the common good for every human being.
 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (GROUP 12)
There were three levels of moral reasoning that encompassed the six stages. Like Piaget, subjects were
unlikely to regress in their moral development, but instead, moved forward through the stages: pre-
conventional, conventional, and finally post-conventional. Each stage offers a new perspective, but not
everyone functions at the highest level all the time.

Stage 1 (Pre-Conventional) – Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?)
Self-interest orientation (What’s in it for me? Aiming at a reward)

Stage 2 (Conventional) – Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms, good boy – good girl
attitude) Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality)

Stage 3 (Post-Conventional) – Social contract orientation (Justice and the spirit of the law) Universal
ethical principles (Principle conscience)

STAGE 1: OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT

- The first stage highlights the self-interest of children in their decision making as they
seek to avoid punishment at all costs. In relation to our example above, the man should
not steal the medication from the pharmacy as he may go to jail if he is caught.

STAGE 2: INDIVIDUALISM AND EXCHANGE

- This stage observes how children begin to adopt the views taught, but also recognize
that there is more than one point of view for each matter. Each person is different and
will, therefore, have a unique outlook according to their interests. In terms of our
example above, they may reason that “he may think that it is right to take the drug,
but the pharmacist would not.”

STAGE 3: GOOD INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

- This stage recognizes the desire to be accepted into societal groups as well as how each
person is affected by the outcome. In terms of our example above, the man should take
the medicine from the pharmacy in order to be a good partner to his wife.

STAGE 4: MAINTAINING THE SOCIAL ORDER

- In this stage, laws and social order reign supreme. Rules and regulations are to be
followed and obeyed. In the above example, the man should not steal the medicine
because it is against the law.

STAGE 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT AND INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS

- This stage acknowledges the introduction of abstract reasoning as people attempt to

explain specific behaviors. In our example above, the man should steal the medication
for his wife because she is deathly ill and the laws do not take the circumstances into
account.

STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES

- The final stage of Kohlberg’s theory states that moral reasoning is based on personal
values. In the above example, it is okay for the man to take the medication without
paying as objects or property are not as valuable as his wife’s life.
 RIGHTS AND DUTIES
 Turn right, keep right, no left turn, which means keep it right. A Corsican said you keep what is
proper, while we keep what is right. An arresting officer informs the other man of his rights as
suspect. What is ought to be, is right. It is anything due to everyone. Even a condemned man
has a right and in his single minute on earth he has the right to exercise what is due to him or
what is his right. In Ethics, particularly on topic of morality, it is a power of everyone to do, to
say, to defend, to receive, to give, to hold and not to hold or to do and not to do. By legality, it is
power given to a person, group, firm, organization or institution. Corresponding with all the
power or right are duties and obligations.

 The Substance of Right

Eddie E. Babor (2002) identified substances or elements of right. Subject, is the person or institution
endowed with a right to do, or to hold or to get something. Object, is the "something" on which the
subject has the moral right. This object has three kinds namely; to commit or omit, to wit and to keep.

 Law, the Origin of Right

Right originates not from the person holding it. Man has right because law provides him this. Law
provides man the power to do, to express, to act, to receive, etc. Without law man has no right. Law
extends and limits the right of man. It is always the law that matters and not the man who is trusted by
law to perform his right so as they say "No one is above the law." Now, what is this law that gives man
the power to do? It can be a natural law and the human law that is civil and ecclesiastical. Civil, the laws
enacted by congress; ecclesiastical, the laws that govern the church.

Types of Right

There are ten kinds of rights, namely; natural, acquired, public, private, positive, negative, alienable,
perfect and imperfect. Each of these types is explained below.

 Natural rights. They are also called basic human rights that include; right to life, to freedom,
to obtain properties, to education. It also includes medical care, shelter and livelihood. Those
are the rights endorsed by man in his birth.

 Acquired rights. Those rights obtained by individuals after fulfilling some requirements as
prescribed by law.

 Public rights. Those rights given to the people by the ecclesiastical and civil law.

 Private rights. Private firms, institutions or organizations have their own laws formulated under
the civil law particularly the constitution of the country.

 Positive rights. These are not confined to a person. As an example, anybody has the right to
own or not to own a property.

 Negative rights. These are power of the persons to perform negative acts such as; stealing,
intoxication drinking, to refuse to killing etc.
  Alienable rights. These are transferrable or renounceable rights. Positive and negative rights fall
under this classification of rights.

 Inalienable rights. These are powers that cannot be transferred or renounced. Examples
are religious rights or right to life.

 Perfect rights. These are mandatory enforceable by law. As illustration anyone has the right
to collect payment or debt. The rights of anybody to help the poor, or victims of calamities.

 Imperfect rights. These are different from the perfect ones. They are not judicial or not
enforceable by law. Example is the right to give a tip to the bashers in the food court or
the hotel ushers.

 DUTIES

As they say in every given right there is a corresponding duty. Like right, duty is also what ought to be
or to be done. It is the obligation of a person to respect right, the right of others. Like right, it also
originates from law.

Kinds of Duty

There are six kinds of duties namely; natural, positive, affirmative, negative, perfect and imperfect. Each
is briefly discussed below.

 Natural duty. This emanates from the natural law. Examples are; the duty of everyone
to preserve life, the duty to follow God

 Positive duty. This originates from the positive right. If it is a right, it is renounceable, but if it is
a duty, it is not renounceable.

 Affirmative duty. Since man is endowed with morality, it is his duty to do moral acts. For
example, it is a moral act to do well.

 Negative duty. This is moral obligation of every person to avoid or omit making negative acts,
or acts that go against his rationality, the source of his morality. It is everyone's obligation to
avoid the act of stealing, backbiting and etc.

 Perfect duty. It is judicial duty or perfect duty of employers to give 13th month pay to
the employees. It is a duty imposed upon to everyone by law.

 Imperfect duty. Unlike the perfect duty, imperfect is not judicial or it is not bound by law. It is a
kind of duty which when left unfulfilled the person concerned is not punishable by law. It is your
duty to donate your unused dresses to the typhoon victims, yet if you cannot do it, the law
cannot go against you.
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REASON AND WILL (GROUP 13)

Explanation of Reason and Will in Ethics

In ethics, reason refers to the faculty of the mind that is responsible for rational thought, logic, and
understanding. It is the ability to think critically, analyze information, and arrive at logical conclusions. In
ethical decision-making, reason plays a crucial role in assessing moral principles and determining what is
morally right or wrong.

On the other hand, "will" refers to the faculty of the mind that is responsible for making choices and
taking action. It is the ability to act according to one's own desires and goals. In ethical decision-making,
will is the driving force behind our moral actions, as it motivates us to act on our moral beliefs and
principles.

In essence, reason and will work together in ethical decision-making. Reason provides us with the
necessary knowledge and understanding to make informed moral decisions, while action enables us to
act on those decisions in a meaningful way. Without reason, we may not know what is morally right or
wrong, and without will, we may not be able to act on that knowledge.

Importance of understanding the difference between Reason and Will

Understanding the difference between reason and will is important in ethics for several reasons:

 Helps in making informed moral decisions: Reason allows us to understand and evaluate moral
principles and values, while will enable us to act on those principles. Understanding the
difference between reason and will helps us to make informed moral decisions based on
rational thought and critical analysis.

 Enables self-reflection: When we understand the difference between reason and will, we can
reflect on our own decision-making processes and identify areas where we may need to
improve. This self-reflection can help us to better align our actions with our moral beliefs and
values.


Modifiers of Human Act (Group 15)

 In ethics, modifiers of human acts refer to the factors that can affect the moral goodness or
evilness of a person's actions. The Catholic Church, in particular, identifies three main modifiers
of human acts, known as the "three sources of morality":
 Object
 This refers to the nature of the act itself. Certain actions, such as helping someone in need
or telling the truth, are considered inherently good, while others, such as lying or killing, are
considered inherently evil.
 Intention
 This refers to the motive or purpose behind the action. Even if the object of the act is good, if
the intention behind it is bad, then the action is considered morally questionable.
 Circumstances
 his refers to the specific situation in which the action takes place. Certain circumstances, such as
self-defense, can mitigate the moral culpability of an action, while others, such as committing a
crime for personal gain, can make an otherwise good action morally wrong.
 These three modifiers of human acts work together to determine the moral quality of a person's
actions. According to the Catholic Church, for an action to be considered morally good, it must
have a good object, a good intention, and be performed under circumstances that do not negate
its moral values.