ETHICS - REVIEWERS

PPT Name: Ethics Defined

a. Etymological
The word “ethics” comes from the Greek word “ethos,” - meaning ‘custom, a habitual way of
acting, character,’ a meaning that the Latin terms “mos,” “moris” also connote. Among Greeks,
“ethics” meant what concerns human conduct/human action.

b. Descriptive Ethics
Largely a concern of cultural anthropologists and sociologists. Its task is to describe how some
person, members of a culture, or society address all sorts of moral issues, what customs they
have, and so how they are accustomed to behave.

c. Meta-Ethics
Concerns itself with the meanings of the moral terms - like good and bad, right and wrong, duties
and right, etc. Here, the concern is with the understanding of the use of these terms, their logical
forms, and the “objects” to which they refer. Sometimes the concern of meta-ethicists is even
more fundamental: What is the possibility of moral philosophy?

Normative Ethics
 Ethics is normative with regard to the goodness of our living, the right orientation of our
existence.
 practical because it aims at guiding the human action.

Moralists are not content to describe human conduct:

 They intend to judge and to rectify it.
 They propose rules and give warnings;
 They provide counsels and issue precepts, so as to make clear to men the path of right living
and to help them to walk upon it. (De Finance, 9-10)

Normative can be understood in two ways:

1. One can have in mind the art of living, the technique for acquiring happiness (understood in an
individual or in a social sense). Teleological

2. It can be also understood as the science which is concerned with what is worthy of a human
being. To live rightly will not then be the equivalent of: to live happily,
but: to live as one should. Deontological

SUMMARY
 Normative Ethics is concerned with acts, principles, norms of right and wrong;
 what characteristics make a person virtuous or vicious; what rea-sons can be given for these
judgments.
 It is an inquiry into the norms or principles of justi-fiable behavior and the values they
embody.
 It is not merely an exercise of describing or explaining, but of justifying behavior.
 The hope is to be able to guide people in their decisions and actions.

CONCLUSION
 Ethics has to do with self-determination, and so with human freedom.
 Ethics is normative, “not with regard to the correctness of our thinking, but with regard to
the goodness of our living, the right orientation of our existence.
 Ethics is the “categorically normative science of human actions, pursued in accordance with
the natural lights which reason casts.” (De Finance)

PPT Name: The Need to Study Ethics

1. Ethics makes clear to us why one act is better than the other.
2. Ethics contributes an orderly social life by providing humanity some basis for agreement,
understanding some principles or rules of procedure.
3. Moral conduct and ethical system both of the past and of the present, must be intelligibly
appraised and criticized.
4. Ethics seeks to point out to men the true values of life.

Assumptions of Ethics:
1. Man is a Rational Being
2. Man as Free

The Objects of Ethics:

1. Physical: The doer of the act.
2. Non Physical: The act done by doer.
Human acts- are said to be the formal objects of ethics because they have moral value.
Acts of man: Involuntary natural acts, Voluntary natural acts, Amoral and Neutral Acts.

HUMAN ACTS
 These include action that are conscious, deliberate, intentional, voluntary and within the
preview of human value judgment.
 These acts are either moral or immoral, because these are products of man’s rationality and
freedom of choice, which contain an element that allow for moral judgment and setting for
moral responsibility.

Classification of Human Acts

1. Moral or Ethical Acts: These are moral Acts which observe or conform to a standard or norm
of morality.
2. Immoral or Unethical Acts: These are acts that violate or deviate from a standard of morality.

Acts of Man
1. Involuntary Natural Acts: these include the involuntary, intuitive or reflex acts exhibited by
man.
2. Voluntary Natural Acts: Non-moral Acts. These acts involves a certain degree of freedom or
voluntariness. However they are categorized under acts of man because they are neither moral nor
immoral.

Components of Moral Acts

 Intention: or motive of the act.
 The means of the act: this is the act, object or person employed to carry out the intent of the
act.
 The end: The intent of the act is always assumed to be directed towards the desired end or
perceived good.

Amoral or Neutral Acts

These acts do not apply to human acts because human acts can either be moral or immoral but not
morally neutral. However, depending on the circumstances surrounding a neutral acts it may
merit some ethical judgment.

Human will
Moral acts stem from the human will that controls or influences the internal and external actions
of man.
 The will stirs a person to act or hampers him from acting.
 It colors the motives for his engaging or disengaging in a certain action.

PPT Name: What Ethics is and is not

What is Ethics?
Ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many
situations in which they find themselves as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople,
teachers, professionals and so on.

What Ethics is not?

1. Ethics is not the same as feelings.

 Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices.
 “Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do
something wrong, but many feel good even though they are doing something wrong”.
  Feelings tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right thing if it is hard.

2. Ethics is not religion.

Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do advocate high
ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face.

3. Ethics is not following the law.

 A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law can deviate from
what is ethical.
 Law can become ethically corrupt.
 It can serve the interests of the few.

4. Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms.

 Some cultures are quite ethical
 But others become corrupt or blind to certain ethical concerns (slavery before civil war)

5. Ethics is not science

 Social and natural science do provide us with information for ethical choices, but alone does
not tell us what we ought to do.

Identifying Ethical Standards is hard

Two fundamental problems:
1. on what do we base our ethical standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face?

CONCLUSION
 Ethics has to do with self-determination, and so with human freedom.
 Ethics is normative, “not with regard to the correctness of our thinking, but with regard to
the goodness of our living, the right orientation of our existence.
 Ethics is the “categorically normative science of human actions, pursued in accordance with
the natural lights which reason casts.” (De Finance)

PPT Name: Natural Law

“NATURAL” seems to be used to refer to some kind of intuition that a person has, one which is
so apparently true to him that it is unquestioned.
 “Natural” is used to justify a certain way of behaving by seeing its likeness somewhere in the
natural world.
 “Natural” can also refer to as instinctual actions not guided by reason.
 “Natural” is used to describe what seems common in one’s environment

Thomas Aquinas, a renowned Dominican friar and a prominent scholar of the Middle Ages, is
celebrated as a Doctor of the Roman Catholic Church. His magnum opus, the Summa Theologiae,
is a comprehensive work that addresses key aspects of Christian theology. He was canonized in
1323.
The Context of the Christian Story
The fundamental truth maintained and elaborated by Aquinas in all his works is the promise right
at the center of the Christian faith:

 Aquinas emphasizes the central Christian belief that humans are created by God with the
ultimate purpose of returning to Him.
 In the context of ethics, the second part, focusing on human life and its journey toward God,
is of primary interest.
 Aquinas’ ethics are more complex and coherent than a mere exhortation to obey rules,
avoiding the simplistic divine command theory explored in the first chapter.
 His magnum opus, Summa Theologiae, followsthis story’s trajectory in three parts

Three Story Trajectory:

1. The first part discusses God, focusing on His goodness, might, and creative power.
2. The second part addresses human life, highlighting the pursuit of happiness, which
ultimately rests in God.
3. The third part centers on Jesus as the Savior, emphasizing the role of God’s grace.

GEEK HERITAGE NEOPLATONIC GOOD

In Neoplatonism, the Good is not simply a moral or ethical concept, but rather a
metaphysical principle that encompasses the highest form of existence and the perfection of all
qualities. The Neoplatonist concept of the good represents the highest reality, the ultimate source
of existence and the perfect unity to which all beings strive to reconnect. It contains qualities such
as unity, beauty, truth and goodness, and serves as the guiding principle of spiritual ascent and
self-realization.

What is Neoplatonic Good?

Neoplatonic philosophy is a strict form of principle-monism that strives to understand everything
on the basis of a single cause that they considered divine, and indiscriminately referred to as "the
First", "the One", or "the Good"The central belief of Christian faith, that God creates and He
cares and governs the activity of the universe and of every creature has been shaped and defined
by an idea stated in the work of Greek philosopher, Plato.

The Ides of the Good Excerpt from The Republic by Plato

In "The Republic," Socrates engages in dialogues with his companions. exploring topics such as
the nature of justice, the structure of an ideal state, and the characteristics of a just individual. The
work is divided into ten books and covers a wide range of subjects. Overall, "The Republic" is a
thought-provoking exploration of various philosophical ideas, including the nature of reality,
knowledge, justice, and the ideal society. It continues to be widely studied and referenced in the
fields of philosophy, political theory, and ethics.

The Good and the One Excerpt from the Enneads Plotinus
According to Plotinus, the Good represents the highest principle or ultimate source of existence.
It is a transcendent and perfect realm of pure goodness, beauty and unity. On the other hand, the
One represents the fundamental unity or singularity that underlies all existence. The concept of
good and one in the philosophy of Plotinus reflects the idea of a transcendent and perfect reality
that underlies and governs the physical world.

ARISTOTLE
In ancient Greek, Aristoteles, philosopher and scientist, one of the greatest intellectual figures of
western history.

Aristotelian Being and Becoming

In Aristotle’s exploration of how to discuss beings, he propose four (4) concepts which provide a
way of understanding any particular being under consideration. Any being can be said to have
four causes: material, formal, efficient and final.

 Material causes the material components or elements possess certain materially or physical
stuff.
 Formal Cause the being is individuated- it becomes the unique, individual being that it is-
because it is made up of this particular stuff.
 Efficient Cause - one can also realize that a being does not simply "pop up" from nothing,
but comes from another being which is prior to it.
 Final cause - being has an apparent end or goal.

ESSENCE AND VARIETIES OF LAW

Essence
-As rational beings, we have free will. Through our capacity for reason, we are able to judge
between possibilities and to choose to direct our actions in one way or the other hand
-Our actions are directed towards attaining ends or goods that we desire.

COMMON GOOD - There are many possible desirable ends or good, and we act in such ways
as to pursue them. Since we are not an isolated being, that is we belong in a community, we
consider what is good for the community as well as our own good.

PROMULGATION - The determination of the proper measure of our acts can be referred to as
law. A law is considered with the common good. It is necessary to communicate to the people in
order to enforce them and better ensure compliance.

Varieties
1. Eternal law- refers to what God wills for creation, how each participant in it is intended to
return to him.
2. Natural law- it has natural inclination to its proper act and end: and this participation of the
eternal law in the rational creature.
3. Human law- refers to instances where human beings construct and enforce laws in their
communities.
4. Divine law- refers specifically to the instance where we have precepts or instructions that
come from divine elevation.

In common with other beings

Natural law theory posits that humans, as rational beings, share a commonality with all other
beings in the sense that there are certain fundamental moral principles that apply universally.
These principles are not unique to humans but are part of the broader natural order.

Aquinas does identifies that there is in our nature, common with other beings, a desire to preserve
one’s own being.

In common with animals

Thomas Aquinas asserts that humans share certain natural inclinations with other animals,
including the desire for sexual intercourse and the care of offspring. However, he highlights the
intrinsic connection between the sexual act and procreation, leading to varying degrees of ethical
acceptability for different behaviors.

KEYPOINTS
1. Shared Natural Inclinations: Aquinas acknowledges that humans, like other animals, have
natural inclinations related to sexual intercourse and the care of offspring. These inclinations
are considered inherent aspects of human nature.
2. Intrinsic Connection between Sex and Procreation: Aquinas emphasizes the connection
between the sexual act and procreation, suggesting that any actions that interfere with this
natural purpose might be ethically problematic from the perspective of natural law.
3. Care for Offspring: Caring for and providing for the young is seen as ethically
commendable. Neglect, abuse, or harm to children is regarded as morally wrong.
4. Contraception: Aquinas' perspective suggests that various forms of contraception, which
allow sexual activity while inhibiting procreation, might be considered ethically questionable
from the natural law viewpoint.
5. Homosexual Acts: Aquinas cites homosexual acts as an example of sexual activity that does
not lead to procreation and, therefore, could be considered deviant from the perspective of
natural law.
Challenging Aquinas’ Perspective:
1. Scientific Knowledge: Modern scientific knowledge has expanded our understanding of
sexuality in the animal kingdom, including various forms of sexual behavior, including
homosexual behavior. This challenges the notion that all animals naturally engage in
heterosexual intercourse.
2. Separating Sex and Procreation: Contemporary ethical debates often involve the separation
of sexual activity from procreation through contraception and assisted reproductive
technologies, challenging the idea of a necessary connection between the two.

PPT Name: Utilitarianism

(An Introduction to the Moral Theories of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill)

Oplan Exodus - On January 25, 2015, the 84th Special Action Force (SAF) conducted a police
operation at Tukanalipao, Mamasapano in Maguindanao known as Oplan Exodus, It was intended
to serve an arrest warrant for Abdul Basit Usman and one of FBI’s most wanted criminal Zulkifli
bin Hir or Marwan, a Malaysian terrorist and bomb-maker who had a $5 million bounty on his
head.

Mamasapano Clash - Oplan Exodus, executed by the 84th Special Action Force (SAF) led to a
tragic clash with the militant groups (MILF, BIFF, and a private armed group) in Maguindanao,
resulting in the loss of lives on both sides.

 Subsequent Senate investigations focused on the legality and morality of wiretapping,

specifically its potential intrusion into private communication.
 The events surrounding Oplan Exodus shed light on complex ethical and legal issues
concerning wiretapping, individual rights, and public safety.
 This report delves into the aftermath of the mission, the subsequent Senate investigations,
and the moral implications of wiretapping. The case prompts us to question the interplay
between government actions, individual rights, and societal well-being.

The tragic operation brought forth heated debate between Senate President Franklin Drillon and
Senator Francis Escudero for the public hearing of an audio recording of the alleged conversation
that attempted to cover up the massacre of the PNP-SAF commandos. Drilon questioned the
admissibility of these recordings as evidence under the Anti-Wire Tapping Law whereas
Escudero cited the legal brief of the Free Legal Assistance Group (FLAG) arguing that the Anti-
Wire Tapping Law protects only the recording and interception of private communications.

Mamasapano Clash and Utilitarianism

When considering the moral permissibility of wiretapping, we calculate the costs and benefits of
wiretapping. If we calculate the costs and benefits of our actions, then we are considering an
ethical theory that gives premium to the consequences of actions as the basis of morality and as
such is utilitarianism. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure
and the determination of right behavior based on the usefulness of the action's consequences. This
means that pleasure is good and that the goodness of an action is determined by its usefulness.
Putting these ideas together, utilitarianism claims that one's actions and behavior are good in
asmuch as they are directed toward the experience of the greatest pleasure over pain for the
greatest number of persons.

For Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill:

 Utility refers to a way of understanding the results of people's actions. Specifically, they are
interested on whether these actions contribute or not to the total amount of resulting
happiness in the world. The moral permissibility of wiretapping rests on a utilitarian ethical
framework, which prioritizes the consequences of actions.
 Utilitarianism asserts that actions are morally good if they result in the greatest happiness or
pleasure for the greatest number of people. This perspective suggests that individual rights
can be sacrificed for collective well-being.

Four Theses of Utilitarianism

1. Consequentialism: The rightness of actions is determined solely by their consequences.
 2. Hedonism: Utility is the degree to which an act produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis
that pleasure or happiness is the good that we seek and that we should seek.
3. Maximalism: A right action produces the greatest good consequences and the least bad.
4. Universalism: The consequences to be considered are those of everyone affected, and
everyone equally.

Two Types of Utilitarianism

Act: An Action is right if and only if it produces the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for
the greatest number. (Jeremy Bentham)

Rule: An action is right if and only if it conforms to a set of rules the general acceptance of
which would produce the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number. (John
Stuart Mill)

THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY, also known as the greatest happiness principle, is a

foundational concept in utilitarianism. It states that actions or decisions should be evaluated based
on their ability to produce the greatest overall happiness or pleasure and minimize suffering or
pain.

An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation is a book by the English philosopher
and legal theorist Jeremy Bentham "originally printed in 1780, and first published in 1789."
Bentham's "most important theoretical work,"

Sovereign masters
 Pleasure and Pain
 The fundamental desires or motivations that drive human behavior.
 Bentham believed that individuals are primarily motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and the
avoidance of pain. These desires for pleasure and the aversion to pain are considered the
"sovereign masters“.

NOTES:
The term "felicific calculus" was coined by the philosopher Jeremy Bentham in his work "The
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation.“
 It refers to a hypothetical method or framework that Bentham proposed for quantifying and
comparing the amount of pleasure or happiness produced by different actions. The goal of
the felicific calculus was to provide a systematic way of evaluating the moral value of
actions based on their consequences in terms of happiness and suffering.

Theory of life
Jeremy Bentham, the philosopher known for his development of utilitarianism, had a concept
called the "theory of life." This theory is closely connected to his utilitarian philosophy and his
beliefs about human nature and well-being.
 Bentham's theory of life is based on the idea that individuals are primarily motivated by their
pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. According to Bentham, people seek pleasure
and try to minimize pain, and these desires guide their choices and actions.

John Stuart Mill introduced the idea of higher and lower pleasures.
Higher Pleasures - Are those that engage our intellectual, emotional, and moral faculties. These
pleasures are often associated with activities that promote personal growth, intellectual
development, and cultural enrichment. For example, the enjoyment of literature, art, philosophy,
and meaningful social interactions can be considered higher pleasures.

Lower Pleasures - Are more sensory and immediate in nature. They are associated with physical
sensations, basic desires, and instant gratification. Examples of lower pleasures could include
pleasures derived from simple sensory experiences like eating, drinking, or physical comfort.

PRINCIPLE OF THE GREATEST NUMBER

 Equating happiness with pleasure does not aim to describe the utilitarian moral agent alone
and independently from others.
  This is not only about our individual pleasures, regardless of how high, intellectual, or in
other ways noble it is, but it is also about the pleasure of the greatest number affected by
the consequences of our actions.
 Utilitarianism cannot lead to selfish acts. It’s neither about our pleasure nor happiness alone;
It is not dismissive of sacrifices that procure more happiness for others.
 It is necessary for us to consider everyone’s happiness, including our own. As the standard
by which to evaluate what is moral. Utilitarianism is interested with everyone’s happiness.
In fact, the greatest happiness of the greatest number.

PPT Name: The ethical dimension of human existence

Ethics is the study of determining the grounds for the values with special significance to human
life.

The primary concerns of the ethics - Recognizing the notion of GOOD and BAD, and RIGHT
and WRONG.

Kinds of evaluation:
1. AESTHETIC - Derived from the greek word “Aisthesis” which means “Sense” or “Feeling.”
It refers to the judgement of personal approval or disapproval that we make about what we see,
hear, smell or taste.
2. TECHNICAL - Used to refer to a proper way (or right way) of doing things.
3. ETIQUETTE - Concerned with right or wrong actions.

Ethics - It is acknowledge as an intellectual discipline belongs to philosophy. Can be spoken as

the discipline of studying and understanding ideal human behaviour and ideal ways of thinking.

Moral - It is maybe used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or describe the
acts that people perform.

Descriptive Study of Ethics - reports how people, particularly groups, make their moral
valuations without making any judgment either for or against these valuations.

Normative Study of Ethics - is often done in philosophy or moral theology, engages the
question: What could or should be considered as the right way of acting?

Moral Issue - distinguish what is situation that needs a moral valuation.

Moral Decision - a choice made based on a person's ethics, manners, character and what they
believe is proper behavior.
Moral Judgement - When a person is an observer who makes an assessment on the actions or
behavior of someone.
Moral Dilemma - choosing right over wrong, or good over bad, and considering instead the more
complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing
between the lesser of two evils.
Moral Theory - a systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining certain moral
principles.

“The Greek thinker” Plato is credited as one of the pioneers of philosophy as his various
writings bring up and discuss carefully and creatively some of the questions that later thinkers
will find to be of lasting significance to humankind, such as "Can virtue be taught?" "What is
beauty?" and "What is love?" He started a school in Athens which would be known as the
Academy and is believed to be the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.

Sources of authority:
1. Law - ]The term positive law refers to different rules and regulation that are imposed by
authority to be follow by the community or people.
2. Religion - Foundation of ethical values or “DEVINE COMMAND THEORY”. It provides
us not just prohibitive but also gives us guidance on what actions are desirable or admirable to
strive. Supreme Authority can inspire and make us obey that nothing can else can.
3. Culture - Ways of thinking and standard are different from each other. “Cultural
Relativism” there is no single universal standard for valuation and that this hold true as well in
the realm of ethics. Promotes a sense of humility.
Theories of Ethics:
1. Subjectivism - The recognition that the individual thinking person (the subject) is at the
heart of all moral valuations. Subjectivism leaps to more radical claim that the individual is the
sole determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong.
2. Psychological egoism - A theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all human
actions.
3. Ethical Egoism - Prescribes that we should make our own ends, our own interests, as the
single overriding concern. We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do
that only if it ultimately benefits us. This theory acknowledges that everyone ought to put
herself at the center.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM - States that self-interest motivates all humans action.

Everybody is ultimately motivated solely by his/her self-interest.
Describes the reason for human behavior and actions.

ETHICAL EGOISM - States that all people to be motivated by self interest for their actions.
Prescribes selfishness or self-interest to be the ultimate motivation for individual actions.
Recommends how human behavior for individual actions.