1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Donald E. Super’s (1910-1994) career development theory is perhaps the most widely known

life-span view of career development. Developmental theories recognize the changes that people

go through as they mature, and they emphasize a life-span approach to career choice and

adaptation. These theories usually partition working life into stages, and they try to specify the

typical vocational behaviors at each stage.

Furthermore Donald Super’s (1953) life span developmental theory includes five major stages.

The first, growth, occurs from birth to ages 14 or 15 and is characterized by the development of

attitudes, interests, needs, and aptitudes associated with self-concept. During the exploratory

stage (ages 15 through 24), occupational choices are narrowed, and the establishment stage (ages

25 through 44), is characterized by work experience. From ages 45 to 65 the person experiences

a continual adjustment process to improve the working situation. Finally, during the decline

phase (ages 65 and over) there is reduced work output and eventual retirement. Super’s theory

has been expanded and reined over the years. Super’s (1996) theory has increasingly been

viewed as the most comprehensive of the developmental approaches.

2.0 OVERVIEW OF SUPER’S THEORY

In the 1950s, when Super began to formulate his theoretical conceptions, differential psychology

and the trait-and-factor theory permeated vocational counseling. The dominant assumption was

that differing abilities and interests were crucial in determining occupational choice and success.

For this reason, vocational counseling was seen primarily as a process of helping individuals

match their abilities and other traits with those required by accessible occupations. By applying

the matching model, practitioners of vocational guidance assisted their clients in choosing the

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“right” vocation, that is, the one that is well matched or congruent with an individual’s abilities,

interests, and personality traits. Super recognized the valuable contribution of the trait-and-factor

theory and the matching model to vocational theory and guidance practice. But he also believed

that they were too static and insufficient in explaining the complexities of vocational behavior.

Super proclaimed that occupational choice should be seen as an unfolding process, not a point in

the time decision. Therefore, he proceeded to supplement the trait-and-factor approach by

constructing a comprehensive career theory in which (a) career development is seen as a lifelong

process unfolding in a series of developmental stages and (b) career selection is not a one-shot

decision but the cumulative outcome of a series decisions.

In his attempts to shape a comprehensive career theory in the 1950s through the mid-1990s,

super complemented the traditional individual difference approach to vocational guidance with

three additional perspectives:

(1) Developmental perspective focusing on the life course of vocational behavior and stressing

continuity in career development,

(2) Phenomenological perspective emphasizing the role of self-concept in the development of an

individual’s career, and

(3) Contextual perspective bringing forward the importance of multiple social roles and their

interaction across the life span.

2.0.1 Developmental Perspective: Understanding Careers In The Life Span

While traditional vocational guidance focused on occupational choice and the prediction of

occupational success at some later point in time, Super stressed the need to understand and

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predict a career. He defined a career as a sequence of occupations, jobs, and positions held

during the course of a lifetime, including also prevocational and post vocational activities. Super

asserted that what was actually needed in vocational guidance was a career model, which takes

into account the sequence of positions that an individual occupies during her or his working life.

Interest in understanding careers led Super to look into peoples’ career patterns, which portray

one aspect of vocational development, the sequence of changes in occupational level and field

over a period of time. Although initially “set out” by the individual’s parental socioeconomic

level patterns are also determined by individuals’ abilities, personality traits, and the

opportunities to which they are exposed. The analysis of career patterns supported the view that

the life cycle imposes different vocational tasks on people at various times of their lives.

Drawing on the work of developmental psychologists and sociologists who independently

studied stages of life and work, Super and his colleagues outlined five major stages of career

development, with each one characterized by three or four appropriate developmental tasks:

Growth (roughly age 4 - 13), According to Super, the first stage of career development is the

growth stage. During this stage people form attitudes and behaviors that are important for the

development of their self-concept and learn about the general nature of the world of work.

According to Super, our interactions with the social environment influence our personal

expectations and goals.

In addition, this first life stage, the period when children develop their capacities, attitudes,

interests, socialize their needs, and form a general understanding of the world of work. This stage

includes four major career developmental tasks: becoming concerned about the future, increasing

personal control over one’s own life, convincing oneself to achieve in school and at work, and

acquiring competent work habits and attitudes.

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Exploration (Ages 14 - 24): The second stage of the career development process is exploration,

considered by many to be the heart of the career decision-making process. This is the period

when individuals attempt to understand themselves and find their place in the world of work.

Through classes, work experience, and hobbies, they try to identify their interests and

capabilities and figure out how they fit with various occupations. They make tentative

occupational choices and eventually obtain an occupation. Super described the exploration stage

of career development as consisting of three major development tasks. The first one, the

crystallization of a career preference is to develop and plan a tentative vocational goal. The next

task, the specification of a career preference, is to convert generalized preferences into a specific

choice, a firm vocational goal. The third vocational task is implementation of a career preference

by completing appropriate training and securing a position in the chosen occupation.

Establishment stage (25 - 44 years): Once you’ve completed the exploration stage of career

development, you’ll enter the establishment stage, where you’ll gain work experience

associated with your career choice. It’s a time for trying out your choice to determine if it is a

good one. It’s a period when the individual, having gained an appropriate position in the chosen

field of work, strives to secure the initial position and pursue chances for further advancement.

This stage involves three developmental tasks. The first task is stabilizing or securing one place

in the organization by adapting to the organization’s requirements and performing job duties

satisfactorily. The next task is the consolidation of one’s position by manifesting positive work

attitudes and productive habits along with building favorable coworker relations. The third task

is to obtain advancement to new levels of responsibility.

Maintenance Stage (45 - 65): The fourth stage of the career development process is the

maintenance stage, where stability within a particular career becomes the primary objective. It

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is the period of continual adjustment, which includes the career development tasks of holding on,

keeping up, and innovating. The individuals strive to maintain what they have achieved, and for

this reason they update their competencies and find innovative ways of performing their job

routines. They try also to find new challenges, but usually little new ground is broken in this

period.

Disengagement (over 65): In the last stage of career development, disengagement, there is a

reduction in the role that particular work plays in one’s life. Individuals in the disengagement

stage make a decision to retire or to change careers altogether. In this final stage, the period of

transition out of the workforce. In this stage, individuals encounter the developmental tasks of

deceleration, retirement planning, and retirement living. With a declined energy and interest in

an occupation, people gradually disengage from their occupational activities and concentrate on

retirement planning. In due course, they make a transition to retirement living by facing the

challenges of organizing new life patterns.

More so, Super’s model demarcates the stages both with age bounds and task markers.

Originally, Super viewed the stages as chronological, but later he also acknowledged an age

independent, task-centered view of stages. For example, individuals embarking on a new career

in their middle adulthood might go through exploration and establishment stages. Thus the five

stages spreading across one’s entire life span, or the “maxi cycle,” might also be experienced as

“mini cycles” within each of the maxi cycle stages. Individuals cycle and recycle throughout

their life span as they adapt to their own internal changes or to changed opportunities to which

they are exposed. Super assumed that not everyone progresses through these stages at fixed ages

or in the same manner. This notion led him to develop and elaborate on the construct of career

maturity (initially called vocational maturity), which denotes the readiness of the individual to

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make career decisions. Operationally, it is defined as the extent to which an individual has

completed stage-appropriate career developmental tasks in comparison with other people of the

same age. Super and his colleagues devoted much effort to define this construct and develop

appropriate measures. They identified five primary dimensions of vocational maturity:

“painfulness” or awareness of the need to plan ahead, readiness for exploration, informational

competence (comprising knowledge about work, occupations, and life career roles), decision-

making skills, and reality orientation. Super believed that a young person should be mature

enough to benefit from career assessment and counseling. In adults, where recycling through

career stages is less dependent on age, Super suggested that readiness for career decision making

should be referred to as career adaptability.

2.0.2 Phenomenological Perspective: The Notion of Occupational Self-Concept

In his account of vocational behavior, Super incorporated in his developmental perspective the

idea that people base their career decision on beliefs about their own abilities and other self-

attributes. He saw career choice as the process of implementation of self-concepts, work role as a

manifestation of selfhood, and career development as an active process of improving the match

between one’s self-concept and the occupational environment. Self-concept can be defined as the

way the person sees herself or himself. For example, a young woman might believe that she is

bright and creative, self confident, spontaneous in behavior, and unwilling to assume

responsibility. This composite of her beliefs about her own abilities, traits, and values make up

her self-concept. Since the self-concept is a subjective phenomenon or an appearance in

experience, this perspective is often denoted as phenomenological.

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In addition, Super accepted the view that self-concept is central for understanding a person’s

behavior. It is the product of the interaction of a person’s inherited characteristics, neural and

endocrine makeup, opportunity to play various roles, and resulting outcomes of role-playing suc-

cess. Formation of self-concept begins in infancy when a sense of identity is developed. As they

grow, individuals develop a personal image of their own abilities, personality traits, values, and

roles. They then compare this subjective picture of themselves with what they get to know about

the world’s occupations, and they then try to translate their self-concept into an occupational

perspective. The outcome is the occupational self-concept, defined by Super as a constellation of

self-attributes that are vocationally relevant for the individual. The occupational self-concept

eventually may transform into a vocational preference. Super believed that the career

development process can be guided, among others, by aiding subjects to develop and accept their

occupational self-concepts.

Thus the process of career choosing and development is basically that of developing and

implementing a self-concept. The degree of satisfaction people attain from the work role is,

according to Super, proportional to the degree to which they have been successful in their

endeavor to implement self-concepts. This endeavor, however, requires a continuous personal

adjustment; self-concepts develop and change throughout people’s lives as does also their living

and working environments. This makes the career choice and adjustment a continuous process.

2.0.3 Contextual Perspective: Social Roles and Their Interaction across the Life Span

The third segment of Super’s theory brings forward a contextual perspective, that is, the view of

career development in the context of all life roles enacted by an individual. The work role, albeit

of central importance for many people in our culture, is only one among many life roles that an

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individual occupies in his or her life. None of the roles can be properly understood without

taking into account the whole constellation of roles. Already in his early theoretical writings,

Super referred to work as a way of life and noted that satisfactory vocational adjustment is

possible only when both the nature of work and the way of life complement an individual’s

aptitudes, interests, and values. However, this interdependency of various spheres of life is more

completely addressed in Supers’ later writings, when he developed his life-span, life-space view

to career development and portrayed it graphically in his popular Life-Career Rainbow.

Super conceives life space as a constellation of social functions arranged in a pattern of core and

peripheral roles. People play a variety of roles during their life. Some of them begin early in the

life course (e.g., that of child), others later (e.g., that of student), or still later (e.g., that of

pensioner). At some life stages, a number of simultaneous roles (e.g., that of worker, spouse,

homemaker, parent, and citizen) may constitute an individual’s life structure. However, it is

usually two or three roles that are salient or relatively more important than others. The salient life

roles constitute the core of a person; they are fundamental for the person’s identity and essential

for life satisfaction. The fact that people play several simultaneous roles means that roles interact

and impact one another. The interaction among the roles can be supportive, supplementary,

compensatory, or neutral. It can also be conflicting if some of the roles absorb too much of the

available time and energy. As a matter of fact, for most people the interpenetration of different

spheres of life is inevitable in some life stages. By combining the life space with the life-span or

developmental perspective, the Rainbow model shows how the role constellation changes with

life stages. As Super noted, life roles wax and wane over time. This simple account was indeed

needed to clearly emphasize an all too-often forgotten point that peoples’ careers cannot be

understood outside of their social context. To fully understand an individual’s career, it is

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necessary to explore the whole web of his or her life roles. After all, according to a more recent

view of Super’s, it is the constellation of role interactions that constitutes the career.

2.1 Career Development Process

Career development is a lifelong process involving psychological, educational, economic,

sociological, and physical factors, as well as chance factors, that interact to influence the career

of an individual. Cultural influences have not been adequately considered in theories of career

development. However, research suggests that there are important factors among cultural groups

in areas such as work values and career decision-making attitudes (Leong, 1995). Therefore,

cultural factors should be included in the list of influences upon the career development of

individuals. Despite the importance and apparent complexity of the career development process,

the latest survey by the National Career Development Association (NCDA; Hoyt & Lester, 1995)

revealed that only about one third of the adults in the United States were in their current jobs as a

result of conscious planning. Thus the majority of adults entered their jobs because of chance

circumstances. In addition, 28% of those surveyed indicated that they would change their jobs

within 3 years. Assisting an individual through the career development process is a primary task

of a vocational psychologist. There are a great number of techniques and interventions a

vocational psychologist may use to facilitate an individual’s career development. These

techniques and interventions include individual and group career counseling, workshops,

mentoring, testing (e.g., ability, interests, needs), job shadowing (i.e., following a worker in a

desired job around for a day), interviews with various people (e.g., employers, workers, college

admissions personnel), apprenticeships, internships, school to work transition services, and use

of career resources. One major career resources is the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (U.S.

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Department of Labor, 1991), which defines and classifies occupations and the characteristics of

workers in each occupation. Typically, there are three major outcomes for these interventions;

the making of a career choice; the acquisition of decision skills; or enhanced general adjustments

to the work situation, such as job satisfaction and success. The use of a theory of career

development serves as a guide for the psychologist in the selection of assessment tools and

techniques. Psychologists have developed several useful theories of career development.

2.2 Career Development Needs of Special Groups

There are some groups of people for whom circumstances or conditions require some adjustment

in the usual career development process. Although the career development process must be

somewhat individualized for each person due to unique characteristics and circumstances, there

are commonalities generally shared by others within groups of people. Groups that may face

some different experiences in the career development process include women, ethnic and racial

minority groups, persons with disabilities, delayed entrants into the work force (e.g.. displaced

homemakers. returning military personnel. prior offenders), midlife changers (voluntary or

involuntary), older workers, and gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals.

Compared with men, women experience special problems in their career development that have

not been adequately addressed in the major career development theories. Some progress has been

made, as reflected in the work of Hackett and Betz (1981), Farmer (1985), and Fassinger (1985),

for example. It is suggested by these writers and others that women career issues are much more

complex than are those facing men. Different cultures may have different conceptions of the

family, gender roles, and work-family relationships. For example, “career” may have a

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collective, not an individual meaning. Although it is important to understand the meaning work

and related concepts have for an individual’s racial or ethnic group, it is also important to assess

the salience of membership in a cultural group to better understand a person’s career behavior. A

person with disabilities is one who is usually considered different physically or psychologically

from a normal person because of birth, developmental problems, accident, or disease. These

disabilities may or may not be a vocational hindrance. An important recent development relating

to individuals with disabilities and work is the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act

(ADA) of 1990. In this act, a distinction is made between essential and nonessential job

functions, and an employer may only consider the former when hiring or promoting. In

vocational rehabilitation, psychologists and counselors will engage in all or some of the

following activities when working with a client: vocational testing, situational assessment (work

sampling, vocational evaluation), skills training, employment preparation, counseling, job

referral and placement, work adjustment training, and post placement counseling.

It must be noted that the identification of group differences and cultural and environmental

influences in the emergence of those differences cannot be translated into definite conclusions

about individuals who are members of identifiable groups. All individuals are influenced to

varying degrees by their environment, but psychological research has shown that differences

between persons within a particular group typically exceed the degree of difference between

groups. Therefore, although the exploration of group influence can advance the understanding of

career development. It is important for the vocational psychologist not to extend these findings

rigidly when working with individual clients.

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3.0 Implication for career counseling

A vocational psychologist studies many important issues that people might encounter in their

career development process. Often these same issues are what prompt an individual to seek the

assistance of a psychologist or career counselor. These issues include career transitions (i.e.,

school to work, midlife changes, and work to retirement), work and well-being, job satisfaction,

career advancement, career coping strategies, networking, work motivation, and stress and

burnout. Motivation and stress are two of the most common issues of importance to the career

development process.

Motivation to work varies from person to person. For many people, work is more than earning a

wage. Most individuals share the basic human need for self-fulfillment through meaningful

work. Choosing a particular career may fulfill other needs, such as status, security, or

satisfaction. The type of tasks required for a particular occupation, the working conditions (both

physical and interpersonal), and the working hours required (e.g., shift work) may also influence

motivation to work. The work environment and the demands of work have the potential to be

stressors that may interact with stressors outside work (e.g., family stressors). These stressors, as

frequently cited in the literature, include poor physical working conditions (e.g. excess heat),

work overload or under load, home and work pressures, job dissatisfaction, shift work, and poor

relationships with colleagues or management. Stressors may also stem from the person. For

example, a Type A personality is characterized by excessive competitiveness and ambition,

which may cause the person to experience greater occupational stress. Stress overload may result

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in burnout, which is the depletion of physical and mental resources that results in nonproductive

behavior, job dissatisfaction, boredom, accidents, or interpersonal conflicts.

4.0 The Current Trends in Career Development

The world of work has been changing rapidly in the last few decades due to new technology,

changes in the organization of work, shifting requirements for worker knowledge and skill, and a

global labor surplus (Herr & Cramer, 1996). All these changes affect the career development of

individuals over the life span. Current trends for the area of career development include the

following:

 Substantial changes will continue to occur in the occupational, economic, industrial, and

social environments and structures, and these changes will influence individual career

development. For example, the use and sophistication of technology have increased

dramatically. New jobs are created, and the need for other jobs is reduced or even

eliminated, thus requiring more workers to change jobs or even move to another

occupational group.

 As job opportunities shift, there will be more participation in retraining programs. There

is a greater need for a better educated work force. There are fewer opportunities for an

unskilled work force because the jobs they do are done for less money in under

developed countries. A survey by the National Alliance of Business (1990) found that

64% of the companies responding were dissatisfied with the reading, writing, and

reasoning skills of today’s entering work force. Flexibility in work schedules (e.g., job

sharing. part-time work) will likely increase, giving more options to workers with

particular needs.

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  There will be even greater attention to the career development of a more diverse

population. The work force today includes more women, members of racial and ethnic

groups, openly homosexual and bisexual individuals, and persons with various types of

disabilities. There is a greater awareness of the need to attend to career development

issues across the life span.

 As the “baby boom” cohort approaches the traditional retirement age, there is an

increasing interest in research concerning the decision to retire. Although financial status

is a critical factor in the decision to retire, physical limitations and health problems and

psychological factors such as satisfaction with career attainment and anxieties about

separation from the workplace also play a role.

5.0 The strength and impact of the theory

Theories about career choice and development attempt to explain both the factors

involved in the career planning process and the way they interact. Theories can help you

know how to assist clients to identify the important things to consider in making a career

decision. Theories about career choice and development try to predict some future events,

such as satisfaction/dissatisfaction in a specific kind of work or development and things

that clients should be thinking about at a later life stage. They increase understanding

about job dissatisfaction/mismatch and help you plan individual client or group services.

Theories provide guidelines, tools, and techniques to help you explain practice. They can

help you draft a plan for career interventions or workforce development considerations.

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6.0 Limitations of Career Theory

Though there are profound strengths in theories, be aware of their weaknesses and

limitations. Following are some of the limitations you need to recognize:

Each theorist views career choice and development from a different lens and focuses heavily on

specific selected aspects. Donald Super and Sunny Hansen look at the process of career

development very comprehensively, studying and describing it across the entire life span through

multiple life roles.

Career development theory and practice are based on the culture of a specific country and should

not be transported to other countries and cultures without research designed to determine

whether they have meaning in that country or culture.

Developmental Theory considers a different set of assumptions tied to the life span It

suggests life can be divided into a specific number of age-related stages. Each stage has a

list of specific tasks that should be accomplished during that age range. If the tasks of a

given age range are accomplished, an individual is developmentally on-schedule or

mature and is more likely to accomplish the tasks of the next life stage. If the tasks of a

given age range are not accomplished during the appropriate age range the individual is

developmentally off schedule or immature and may have difficulty in later life stages.

Developmental theorists focus on events and progress over the life span, the factors that cause

this progress to occur well and on schedule or poorly and off-schedule, and the outcomes of both.

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7.0 Applicability of Super’s theory in Nigeria
super’s theory of career development has proved immensely influential in career counseling

practice, development throughout the life span, interest inventories and the organization of

occupational information used in a wide range of applied settings. This theory is applicable in

Nigeria in the following levels settings:

 Nigerian federal civil service in which the retirement status is set after thirty five (35)

years of service or sixty (60) years of age. In this case Super’s theory also presumed

retirement age at this level.

8.0 Conclusion
In summary, Super felt careers are made up of the activities in the various life roles that we

choose to play. The amount of time and energy invested in each of these roles may be different

at different times in the life span, thus adjusting the appearance of our personal career rainbows.

The self-concept should be ideally expressed through a combination of these roles. Further, one's

interests, abilities, and values can be used in various life roles, not only the role of worker.

Theoretically, individuals who play only two or three roles may find life less rewarding and

satisfying. On the other hand, individuals who play multiple roles intensely may enjoy much life

satisfaction. When some roles are removed or decreased it is important to fill the available "life

space" with new roles or expanded roles. Individuals can exert much control over their lives

and careers by choosing and managing the content and degree of commitment to each of these

roles. Perhaps the most important single idea of Super was his tenet that occupational choice

should be seen as an unfolding process. Interestingly enough, his theory building was also an

unfolding process; he continued to augment and refine his theory throughout his life. Thus his

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theory also evolved through various stages that can be traced in their name modifications: from

the original Career Development Theory to Developmental Self-Concept Theory, and then to the

currently prevailing Life-Span, Life-Space Theory.

Super incorporated the ideas of many predecessors in his attempt to compile an integrative body

of knowledge that comprises various perspectives on career development. The result was a

comprehensive but also fragmental theoretical account. Super himself admitted that disparate

segments of his theory need to be cemented together more thoroughly. He hoped that this task

will be eventually accomplished by future theorists. However, in spite of his reluctance to

present a more parsimonious and coherent theoretical statement, his theorizing was most

appealing. Together with his followers, he has had, and continues to have, a major impact upon

career development research and counseling.

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