SUPERS LIFE SPAN, LIFE SPACE THEORY

Since the 1940s, Super has been promoting the idea that career development is a
process that unfolds gradually over the life span. Super has worked on his
developmental theory which occurs more or less concurrently with the theory by
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma. This theory continues to develop until
the 1990s under several names such as career development theory to
developmental self-concept theory to life span, life space theory.
Life spaces need individuals to play related life roles. Super (1990) noted that
people have different life spaces due to the following factors:
(a) Personal factors (needs, values, interest and aptitudes); and
(b) Situational factors (family, neighbourhood, country of residence, economic
policies, the existence of gender and racial bias).
Super recommends a total of 14 propositions underlying his career development
theory. His earlier contributions was a set of 10 propositions (Super, 1953), later
expanded to 12 (Super & Bachrach, 1957). The latest 14 propositions are as
follows:
(a) People differ in their abilities and personalities, needs, values, interests,
traits and self-concepts.
(b) People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, each for a number of
occupations.
(c) Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality
traits, which is large enough to allow both some variety of occupations for
each individual and some variety of individuals in an occupation.
(d) Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people
live and work, and, their self-concepts change with time and experience,
although self-concepts as products of social learning are increasingly stable
from late adolescence until late maturity, providing some continuity in
choice and adjustment.

(e) The process of change summed up in a series of life stages (a maxicycle) is

characterised as a sequence of growth, exploration, establishment,
maintenance and decline. These stages can then be sub-divided into (i)
fantasy, tentative and realistic phases of the exploratory stage and (ii) the
trial and stable phases of the establishment stage. A small (mini) cycle takes
place in transition from one stage to the next.
(f) Nature of career pattern that is, the occupational level attained and the
sequence, frequency and duration of trial and stable jobs is determined by
an individuals socio-economic level, mental ability, education, skills,
personality characteristics (needs, values, interests, traits and self-concept),
career maturity and by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed.
(g) Success in coping with demands of the environment and of the organisation
in that context at any given life-career stage depends on the readiness of the
individual to cope with these demands (that is, on his/her career maturity).
(h) Career maturity is a hypothetical construct, its operational definition is
perhaps as difficult to formulate as that of intelligence.
(i) Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating
the maturing of abilities, interests and coping resources and partly by
aiding in reality testing and in the development of self-concepts.
(j) The process of career development is essentially that of developing and
implementing occupational self-concepts. It is a synthesising and
compromising process in which the self-concept is a product of the
interaction of inherited aptitudes, physical make-up, opportunity to
observe and play various roles and evaluation to the extent of which the
results of role-playing meet with the approval of supervisors and fellows
(interactive learning).
(k) The process of synthesis or compromise between an individual and the
social factors between self-concepts and reality, is of role playing and of
learning from feedback, whether the role is played in fantasy, in the
counselling interview, or in such real-life activities as classes, clubs, part time work and entry jobs.
(l) Work satisfaction and life satisfaction depends on the extent to which one
finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interest, personality traits
and self-concepts.
(m) The degree of satisfaction people attain from work is proportional to the
degree to which they have been able to implement self-concepts.
(n) Work and occupation provides a focus for personality organisation for most
men and women, although for some people this focus is peripheral,
incidental or even non-existent. The other focus areas, such as leisure
activities and homemaking, may be central.
According to Hartung (2013), the life span, life space theory views career choice
and development in three ways:
(a) A movement overtime through discreet developmental stages by
accompanying the developmental tasks that constitute to the life span
theory;
(b) As arrangement of worker and other roles that constitutes the psychological
life space where people design their life; and
(c) As implementation of self-concept in work roles.
The next subtopic will discuss the three important components of the theory,
namely life space in terms of career development, stages and tasks; life span in
terms of life roles and self-concept in terms of adjusting oneself to a situation.

Life Span/Career Development Stages

The understanding of stages and developmental tasks are essential to Supers life
span, life space theory. For this purpose, Super (1990) presented the life career
rainbow to depict the theorys dimensions of chronological time and contextual
space of development stages and life roles. Figure 3.2 illustrates the modified
version of the original life career rainbow to show the life stages and
corresponding age range.
Career maturity is the first dimension depicted by the life career rainbow (Super,
1990). It is the life span or the maxi cycle. The career stages are shown in
sequence on the outer band of the rainbow (see Figure 3.2), namely the following:
(a) Growth (childhood);
(b) Exploration (adolescence);
(c) Establishment (young adulthood);
(d) Maintenance (middle adulthood); and
(e) Decline or disengagement (old age).

The following are the descriptions of the five career stages:

(a) Growth (Birth to 14 Years Old)
According to Hartung (2013), it is expected that opportunities and
experience gained at home, through play and school will develop a childs
curiosities, fantasies, interests and capacities to construct a future possible
self to be realised in work and social roles. This stage is characterised by the
development of capacity, attitudes, interests and needs associated with self concept (Zunker, 2006)
(b) Exploration Stage (15 to 24 Years Old)
The exploration stage begins with an individuals awareness that an
occupation is an important aspect of life. This stage focuses on the goal of
crystallising, specifying and implementing the vocational self-concept in
the life role (Hartung, 2013):
(i) Crystallisation is a process of formulating a general vocational goal
through awareness of resources, contingencies, interest, values and
planning for the preferred occupation (Zunker, 2006).
(ii) The next phase of specification involves forming a clear and stable
vocational identity through exploration of preferred occupation. It
involves narrowing down vocational choices and moving from
tentative choices to more specific choices.
(iii) The implementation is the period of completing training for
vocational preference and entering employment.
(c) Establishment Stage (25 to 44 Years Old)
The establishment stage is a period of conforming to a preferred career by
actual work experience and use of talents to demonstrate career choice as
an appropriate one. This stage is characterised by trial and stabilisation
through work experience (Zunker, 2006).
This stage involves the tasks of stabilising, consolidating and advancing the
self-concept and establishing a career pattern to develop security in the
world of work:
(i) Stabilisation is concerned with settling down in a job and being able
to meet the job requirements.
(ii) Once an individual becomes comfortable in their position, they will
move to the consolidation stage where they become more competent,
reliable and professional in their job.
(iii) Advancement in the job occurs at any point after stabilisation and
consolidation have been achieved. It refers to moving into a higher
position, involving more responsibility and a higher pay.
According to Hartung (2013), stable self-concepts and career patterns result
from successful establishment wherein the main goal concerns implementing
the self-concept in the work role to yield both a means to earn a living and
have a meaningful way of living a life.
(d) Maintenance Stage (45 to 64 Years Old)
During the maintenance stage, the individual attempts to continue with, or
improve the occupational situation (Brown, 2012). The person continues to
achieve self-satisfaction and maintain his or her vocational self-concept.
Maintaining a vocational self-concept involves several strategies such as the
following (Hartung, 2013):
(i) Holding on to a secured position through continued job proficiency;
(ii) Updating skills and knowledge through education to enhance
performance; or
(iii) Innovating new ways and ideas to keep work vigorous and fresh.
(e) Decline or Disengagement Stage (65 Years Old and Above)
The engagement stage presents to the life-time worker a major life
transition of retirement (Shultz & Wang, 2011). In a Malaysian scenario, the
engagement stage may start earlier due to the early retirement age. This
stage shifts the focus of an individual from life roles at work place to life
roles in the family and community. The disengagement tasks involve
decelerating workloads and reducing productivity levels, planning for
retirement and finally ends with withdrawal of individuals from the
workforce and actually living their retirement (see Figure 3.3).
Super (1955) emphasises the importance of career maturity in managing a career
life stage. Super defines career maturity as a group of physical, psychological,
and social characteristics that represent the individuals readiness and ability to
deal with the developmental problems and challenges that are faced (Brown,
2012).
While career maturity can be seen from a societal perspective as a rather static
concept (a matching of activities and age), the individual perception of the
situation and the decision-making problem turns it into a dynamic concept
(activities that are related to the problem that needs to be solved). Decision making process becomes
easier as a person matures in his or her job. The concept
of career maturity was later replaced by the term career adaptability
(Savickas, 1997) after taking into consideration limitations and constraints in
using a biologically based term.
According to Super (1951), not all individuals proceed through the
developmental stage in a neat order as outlined earlier. Movement through
stages and tasks constitute a maxi cycle of career development, which also
includes several mini-cycles through which individuals recycle by revisiting their
similar tasks early in their life (Hartung, 2013). Table 3.1 denotes the notion of
recycling through developmental stages.
Life Space/Life Roles
The life space aspect of Supers theory concerns the connection of various life
roles of individuals over their life span. As presented by the inner arch or the Life
Career Rainbow, the life space constitutes core roles an individual can play in
their life.
Super (1990) proposed that individuals will have six major life roles over their
life span. In chronological order, the following life roles are as a:
(a) Child;
(b) Student;
(c) Leisurite;
(d) Citizen;
(e) Worker; and
(f) Homemaker or parents.
The original Supers life career rainbow shows how the role varies within the
lifetime of the individuals. Each arch represents a role in a lifetime and the
thickness of the shaded area indicates the importance to corresponding life role
at a particular age. The salience inventory by Super and Nevill (1985) measures
the importance of all the roles, except that of child, in terms of commitment,
participation and value expectations.
An individual may take on the role of a student several times during his or her
life span. During the school years, studying includes activities such as going to
school, taking a course or attending co-curricular activities. Individuals may
choose to continue their education at several points in their life. In the current
situation, the role as a student may extend until old age. Many people continue
education on a part-time basis at some stage during their life either for pleasure
or to enhance their current employment or for success (Sharf, 2006).
Leisure is considered as an important component in life. Liptak (2000) stresses
the importance of leisure in various life spans. According to Liptak, leisure can
play an important role in career development than work, especially in the
beginning and end of the life span. Therefore, the role as a leisurite is seen as
increasingly important over the life span. Leisure serves as a substitute for work and trying out new
activities (Sharf, 2006). Leisure activities can also assist
individuals in balancing their other life roles and avoiding life stressors.
The role as a citizen will become increasingly important as a person matures.
Individuals in the maintenance stage are more likely to participate in a
community service, trade unions and political parties. This participation will
gradually increase over time as they find more meaning in these activities which
contributes to their self-concept.
The most important and salient role in the life of an individual will be as a
worker. Most individuals actively play this role from the age of 25 to 65 years
old. During this period, many adults may work at one or more jobs which define
the most significant part of their career development.
Similar to other roles, the importance a person places upon being a home maker
or a parent will determine the amount of time she or he focuses on that particular
role. Some individuals give more weight to being parents while their children are
growing up and gradually let go as they become adults. Meanwhile, others may
focus on the role as a worker while their children are still young but later
discover the need to give more attention as their children become teenagers. As
shown in the career rainbow, the role as a home maker becomes important once
again after retirement age as individuals spend more time at home.
Self-concept
Super and his colleagues were involved in the research effort on self-concept for
over 50 years. Super uses the self- concept theory as the third keystone to frame
the life span, life space theory (Hartung, 2013). The self-concept theory is key to
understanding the lifelong development of a person and should be seen as
including not only an internalised personal view of the self, but also an
individuals view of the situation or condition in which he or she exists. The self understanding and
the behaviour will always be influenced by the environment.
Super et al. (1997 as cited in Zunker, 1994) concluded that vocational self-concept
develops through the following:
(a) Physical and mental growth;
(b) Observations of work;
(c) Identification with working adults;
(d) General environment; and
(e) General experiences.
According to the life span, life space theory, individuals develop not one but
rather constellations of self-concept, or ideas about themselves based on
experiences in wide arrays of life spheres. The primary concern is the vocational
life sphere where individuals make decisions on vocational self-concepts
followed by career choices (Brown & Lent, 2013).
Additionally, under influence of the learning process while exercising a job, the
person may increase or expand his or her skills and even develop changes in the
self-concept theory. This will lead to a situation where the person seeks a new
work situation or attempts to adjust to the changes in the position so that the
person will feel comfortable and satisfied again. Since, neither the worker nor the
job is static, the work life will be a process of constant change or adjustment.
Supers (1990) Archway of Career Determinants (see Figure 3.5) illustrates the
unique architecture of self and self-concept development and visually models the
personal and situational factors that contribute to life span, life space
development.

IMPLICATIONS OF SUPERS THEORY

TOWARDS CAREER GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING
Supers theory brings focus on lifelong career development. It reminds
practitioners the need to understand the life stages and life roles of a client to
assist them in their career choice and development beginning from childhood
and proceeds continuously over their lifetime.
Due to this theory, the career counselling model moved from the idea of
matching individuals to the environment to the idea of understanding the
maturity of clients in making career decisions at different life stages.
The life span, life space theory can be used to develop career guidance and
counselling programmes by focusing on a specific development stage at a time.
This enables the counsellor to attend clients from the same stage of development
effectively. This also enables counsellors to distribute their responsibilities more
effectively.
Supers work emphasises the importance of self-concept when making career
decisions. Individuals need to identify their life roles and understand its impact
on their career development. Career counsellors play a significant role in
assisting clients to answer the question of Who am I? and guide them to relate
what they know about themselves with career information.
The unique blend of life roles during any particular stage of development
imposes a great challenge to individuals. A comprehensive career and guidance
programme may not only require the counsellor to attend to a clients career
related issues but also to his or her personal related issues.
By applying the developmental approach in career guidance and counselling
practice, practitioners work on assisting clients to manage their career and life
roles into a liveable and satisfying pattern.
Supers life span, life space theory is applicable to clients from multicultural
backgrounds by exploring and understanding the significance of various life
roles and career development from their unique cultural perspectives.

GINZBERGS CAREER DEVELOPMENT

THEORY
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma introduced one of the most significant
theories of career development in their book entitled Occupational Choice: An
Approach to General Theory (1951). Their study focused on the determinants of
career choices of upper middle class white adolescence. One of the objectives was
to identify and evaluate the major factors in the vocational decision-making of
individuals during the successive period of his maturation.
Ginzberg (1952) stated that no adequate theory has been developed to explain
how the multiplicity of factors within the environment, and the forces within the
individuals, act and react on each other so that an individual could finally resolve
the problem of their occupational choice.
These are the three basic assumptions underlying Ginzbergs theory of career
development:
(a) Occupational choice is a process;
(b) The process is largely irreversible; and
(c) Compromise is an essential aspect of every choice.

Ginzberg et al. (1951) argue that there are many stages to an individuals career
choice and that a one off matching session as practiced in the trait and factor
based theories are not adequate to truly understanding an individuals career
choices. Ginzberg and associates highlighted that the career decision making
process happens in three stages as follows:
(a) Fantasy stage (up to 11 years old);
(b) Tentative stage (between 11 and 17 years old); and
(c) Realistic stage (between 17 and young adulthood).
Now, let us explore the following description of the three stages:
(a) Fantasy Stage (Up to 11 Years Old)
During this stage, children only fantasise about their career choice, taking
examples from the most significant role models around them. During the
fantasy stage, children believe they can become whoever they choose to be.
Zunker (2006) described the fantasy stage as a purely play orientation
which gradually becomes work oriented and reflects an initial preference
for certain kinds of activities.
Children translate their impulses and needs into career choice. Although
some children are aware that their interest may change in the future, they
are still vague about career choices due to lack of exposure to career
information.

(b) Tentative Stage (From 11 to 17 Years Old)

This stage is called tentative stage because adolescents have not
incorporated the reality factors in their decision-making considerations as
yet. Ginzberg et al. (1951) proposed that at the age of 11, adolescents will
stop fantasising about career choices and gradually start to base their
choices on interests, capacities, values and finally experience the
transitional process marked by gradual recognition of work requirements
and possible entry to college or job.
Let us look at the description of the four phases:
(i) The Interest Phase
At the beginning of the interest phase, adolescents are more interested
to talk about what they like to do than what they are able to do. The
adolescents will begin to understand more about the world of work
through involvement in the community and exposure through social
media. They will begin to ask themselves, Is this something I would
like to do? when involving themselves in activities or observing the
career roles of their significant others. During this phase, quality of
performance is not a concern to most adolescents. In the US,
involvement in high school sports which was initially based on
interest has grown to be the foundation of career for highly
professional athletes.
(ii) The Capacity Phase
At about 13 and 14 years of age, the capacity phase begins. At this
point, adolescents are able to more accurately assess their own
abilities. According to Ginzberg et al. (1951), the educational process
becomes more important in their preparation for work, their time
perspective improves and they are more likely to have realistic views
about themselves and their future. A counsellor can help an
adolescent to assess their capacities during a counselling session to
help them with his or her career decision-making process.
(iii) The Value Phase
The development of values tentatively begins at the age of 15 and 16
years old. Most adolescents will begin to take into consideration their
values when making a career decision. They will start to consider the
answers to questions such as Which is more important to me, money
or helping others? or Will my choice help me in being a better
person? and other questions relating to values. They may also start
considering future life plans which include marriage and self development.
(iv) The Transition Phase
The transition phase will usually occur at the end of high school years
when a teenager makes decisions to pursue higher education or work.
Decision-making on what major to take, which university to enter or
what job to take on is an important step towards a more realistic view
of life and career.
(c) Realistic Stage (Between 17 to Young Adulthood)
The transition phase from the tentative stage will move into the realistic
stage. This is where teenagers will seek to work out a compromise between
their interest, abilities and values and the opportunities and limitations in
their environment (Ginzberg, 1952).
The realistic stage consists of exploration, crystallisation and the
specification phase. These phases take place in the following ways:
(i) During the exploration phase, individuals will seek to gather as much
information as possible about the world of work. Following this, they
seek for the last time to acquaint themself with their alternatives
(Ginzberg, 1952).
(ii) This is followed by the crystallisation phase, whereby options become
clearer and individuals seek to make career choices.
(iii) Lastly, during the specification phase, individuals will delimit their
career choices and focus on the best one.

IMPLICATIONS OF GINZBERGS THEORY

TOWARDS CAREER GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING
Ginzbergs theory contributes to the understanding of the role of development as
the basis for career development. Career choice no longer looks at the aspect of
pre-determined traits and factors but rather it is part of the developmental
process.
Since Ginzberg et al. (1951) rejects the idea of a one-off matching session between
a clients traits and factors in a particular environment. His developmental theory
suggests that offering guidance at multiple points in an individuals life is of key
importance.
Ginzbergs theory implies the importance of a school career guidance
programme during the adolescence and teenage years of each individual. Good
career guidance and a counselling programme during these periods of career
development will provide a basis for effective career choice in the adult years.
The career guidance programmes could involve adolescents as early as 11 years
old to enrich their knowledge about the available careers.
Ginzbergs theory has been compared to Supers life span, life space theory. The
realistic period of Ginzbergs theory possesses some similarities with Supers
exploration stage. It can be said that Supers theory continues where Ginzberg
has left off. Ginzberg and associates did not continue to explain on the career
development of individuals once they have entered the occupation. Ginzberg
and associates basically focus on career choices while Super has extended his
theory to look at lifelong career development.