Moulay Ismail University Department of English

Faculty of Arts & Human Sciences Semester 2: Composition 1

Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter One: Comparison/ Contrast Essays

Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two things, for
example, your hometown (that is, the town where you were born or grew up) and your
university town. Such topics may allow you to organize your essay either around the
similarities between these two subtopics (for example, between your hometown and
your university town) or around the differences between them. If you write about the
similarities, the essay will be a comparison essay. On the other hand, if you want to
write about the differences, your essay will be a contrast essay.

Sample 1.
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are
small rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of
only about 10,000 people. Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about
11,000 local residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the college
students are attending classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is
that they are both located in rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of
farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way,
Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle.
Thirdly, both of these towns are similar in that both contain college campuses.
Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron College, which is famous for its
Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival.
Likewise, the town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College, which
is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-
Calling Contest.

The passage above is from a comparison paragraph; that is, a paragraph which
discusses the similarities between two subtopics. Notice how the ideas in this
paragraph are organized. As usual, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the
paragraph. After that, the paragraph continues by discussing one point of similarity

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between the towns of Gridlock and Subnormal, namely, their small population.
Specific details are given to support the statement that "both are small rural
communities." Following this, the paragraph briefly discusses a second point of
similarity between the two towns, that is, their geographic surroundings. Here, the
paragraph also gives supporting details to illustrate their similarity, namely, that they
are "both located in rural areas." , etc. As you can see, therefore, this comparison
paragraph is structured (organized) according to the points of similarity between the
two towns.

We can place the points of similarity and their supporting details in a table in order
to see more clearly how this short paragraph is organized:

Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Similar Points

TOPIC My (a) hometown and (b) college town are
SENTENCE similar.

POINT #1 Both are small rural communities.

     DETAIL (a)  Gridlock has about 10,000 people.

 Subnormal has about 11,000 local

residents.
     DETAIL (b)
 It has about 4000 college students.

POINT #2 Both are located in rural areas.

 Gridlock is surrounded by many acres

of farmland.
     DETAILS (a)  This farmland is devoted to growing
corn.

 The land is also used to grow

soybeans.

 Subnormal is in the center of land

     DETAILS (b) used for raising hogs.

 This land is also used to raise cattle.

POINT #3 Both towns contain college campuses.

     DETAILS (a)  Gridlock is home to Neutron College.

 This college is famous for its
Agricultural Economics program.

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  It is also famous for its annual Corn-
Watching Festival.

 Subnormal contains Quark College.

 This campus is famous for its
     DETAILS (b) Agricultural Engineering department.

 It is also famous for its yearly Hog-

Calling Contest.

Another way of organizing a comparison is not according to supporting details that are
similar, but according to subtopic. A subtopic is a main example, or main supporting
idea, that illustrates the topic sentence of a paragraph. That is, we can organize the
paragraph by first discussing all the relevant points associated to one subtopic, then
discussing those of the second subtopic. Look at the following example, based on the
above paragraph:

Sample 2.
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, my
hometown, Gridlock, is a small town. It has a population of only about 10,000 people.
Located in a rural area, Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which are
devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains a college
campus, Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as
well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. As for my college town, Subnormal, it
too is small, having a population of about 11,000 local residents, which swells to
15,000 people when students from the nearby college are attending classes. Like
Gridlock, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and
cattle. Finally, Subnormal is similar to Gridlock in that it also boasts a beautiful
college campus, called Quark College. This college is well known for its Agricultural
Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

As you can see, after the topic sentence, this paragraph first discusses the relevant
details about Gridlock and then presents the details about Subnormal. As with the
paragraph above, we can illustrate this paragraph's structure in the following way:

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 Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Subtopic
TOPIC
My hometown and college town are similar.
SENTENCE

SUBTOPIC #1: GRIDLOCK

 Gridlock is a small town.

o It has about 10,000 people.
 Gridlock is in a rural area.
o It is surrounded by many acres
of farmland.
o This farmland is devoted to
growing corn.
DETAILS ABOUT o The land is also used to grow
GRIDLOCK: soybeans.
 Gridlock is home to Neutron College.
o This college is famous for its
Agricultural Economics
program.

o It is also famous for its annual

Corn-Watching Festival.

SUBTOPIC#2: SUBNORMAL

 Subnormal is a small town.

o Subnormal has about 4000
college students.
o It has about 11,000 local
residents.
 Subnormal is in a rural area.
o Subnormal is in the center of
land used for raising hogs.
DETAILS ABOUT
o This land is also used to raise
SUBNORMAL:
cattle.
 Subnormal contains Quark College.
o This campus is famous for its
Agricultural Engineering
department.
o It is also famous for its

o Yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

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Comparison Conjunctions

These are not the only ways to give coherence to a comparison paragraph. There are other
conjunctions, too. Here is a list of comparison conjunctions you can use:

Conjunctions

Similarly, -There are many parks to visit in that city. Similarly,

Likewise, there are several parks in my hometown, too.
-My parents were born in a small village. Likewise,
my brothers and I grew up in a small town.
...the same as .. -Is the restaurant where you ate dinner the same as
the place where I ate last month?
Similar to -Their new computer is similar to the one my
(just) as … as brother bought.
...also... -His coat is just as warm as the more expensive one.
..., too.
both
both … and -Both my neighbor and I are selling our cars.

Complete these sentences with phrases form above.

1. The architecture of some modern government buildings __________________ the

type of construction used hundreds of years ago.

2. In recent years, new technology such as mobile telephones has made life more
convenient. ___________________, the Internet has made a wide variety of
information available to everyone.

3. ________________ the lakes ________________ the rivers are clear and beautiful.

4. The capital city is just ____________ modern ____________ the cities in many
other countries.

Sample 2.
Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana lived at different times in different countries, but
their lives had some surprising similarities. First of all, both women had a difficult
childhood. Monroe spent many years without parents in an orphanage, and Diana’s
mother left the family when she was only six. Later in their lives, the two women
married famous men. Princess Diana married Princess Charles, and Marilyn Monroe
married a famous baseball player and later a famous writer. They also had difficult

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marriages and eventually separated from their husbands. Another similarity between
Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana was that they were both very popular. Diana was
called ‘The people’s princess’ because she was so friendly. Although Monroe was
famously sexy, she was well-liked because she seemed very innocent. However, even
though both women seemed to have very happy lives, they actually had emotional
problems and often felt sad and depressed. Monroe went through serious depression
and had to go to a hospital for treatment. Likewise, Diana suffered from an eating
problem and was depressed during parts of her marriage. A last similarity between
Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana was their deaths at an early age. In fact, they were
both thirty-six years old when they died, Monroe in 1962 and Diana in 1997. Maybe
their similar life circumstances and lifestyles explain why Princess Diana and Marilyn
Monroe also had similar personalities.

Sample 3.
Studying abroad and studying in your own country both have definite benefits for a
student. Living in another country can be an exciting experience because everything
seems new and different. The challenge of living in a new environment can give you
courage and self-confidence, too. If you want to learn another language, living abroad
is a great way to do that because you can read magazines or newspapers, watch
television programs, or make friends with people who are native speakers. Another
good reason to live abroad is to learn more about another culture. On the other hand,
there are also advantages to staying in your own country to study. It is cheaper than
living abroad, so you can save more money. Also, in your home country, everything is
familiar. You don’t need to worry about being taught in a foreign language, and you
can understand the culture and expectations of teachers. Finally, if you stay in your
own country, you can be close to your family and friends. Therefore, if you are
thinking about where to study, consider all of these benefits and make a decision that is
right for you.

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Contrast Paragraphs

As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at

least) two things. You can organize contrast paragraphs in much the same way that you
can organize comparison paragraphs. That is, you can organize them either according
to points of similarity or according to subtopic. Here is an example of such a paragraph
organized by subtopic. Notice the contrastive expressions in bold letters.

Sample 1.

Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly
different in many ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different.
Arizona is large, having an area of 114,000 square miles, whereas Rhode Island is
only about a tenth the size, having an area of only 1,214 square miles. Another
difference is in the size of the population of each state. Arizona has about four million
people living in it, but Rhode Island has less than one million. The two states also
differ in the kinds of natural environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a
very dry state, consisting of large desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every
year. However, Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone and receives an average of
44 inches of rain per year. In addition, while Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has
no seashore, Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant
coastline. Although the two states are different in many aspects, each has its own
charm and beauty that attract many tourists.

Contrast Paragraph -- Organized by Different Points

TOPIC (a) Arizona (b) Rhode Island are different
SENTENCE in many ways

POINT #1 Physical size.

 Arizona has about 114,000 square

     DETAIL (a)
mile.

 Rhode Island has about 1,214 square

     DETAIL (b)
miles

POINT #2 Population .

     DETAILS (a)
 Arizona has about 4 million people

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      DETAILS (b)  Rhode Island has less than one
million people

POINT #3 Natural environments

 Arizona is a very dry state.

 It consists of large desert areas
     DETAILS (a)
 It does not receive much rainfall.

 It is a landlocked state and has no

seashore
 Rhode Island is located in a
temperate zone
     DETAILS (b)  It receives an average of 44 inches
of rain per year

 It lies on the Atlantic Ocean and

have a significant coastline

Contrast Conjunctions

Here are some contrast conjunctions that you can use:

Short Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

However, On the other hand,

In contrast, even though + [sentence]
By contrast, although + [sentence]
Different from whereas + [sentence]
..., but unlike + [sentence]
..., yet while + [sentence]
nevertheless,

Complete these sentences with phrases from above

1. Some tourists enjoy going on organized tours. _________________ many other

tourists prefer travelling on their own.

2. The two books are very _________________ each other.

3. The cost of studying in a college or university in Britain is very high.

_________________ in many countries, the cost is much lower.

4. Changes in technology are occurring _______________ quickly _____________ in

the past.

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Sample 2.
Reading a story in a book is often different from seeing it as a film. When you read a
story, you need to use your imagination. A book usually gives a lot of description
about the people, places, and things in the story, so you can create pictures in your
mind. In addition, the conversations between people are always written with details
that describe how the people look or feel while they are talking. When you read, you
use a lot of imagination to help ‘see’ the characters in the story. However, when you
see a film, it is a different experience. When you watch a film, you do not need to use
your imagination. The pictures on the screen give all the details about the people,
places, and things in the story. The conversations are spoken out loud, so you just
listen and watch. The feelings of the people come through their faces, body
movements, and voices. Although a book and a film might tell the same story, reading
a book and watching a film are very different experiences.

Sample 3.
There are three main differences between eating fresh food and canned food. The most
notable difference between these two kinds of foods is their flavor. Fresh food has great flavor
and taste because it keeps all their natural conditions. Canned food, however, lacks a lot of its
flavor characteristics because there are some other chemical products added to the natural
foods. Secondly, there is a health factor that affects both of them. Canned food is unhealthy
since in order to keep the shelf life for longer times, it is tinned with many conservatives and
chemical factors. On the other hand, fresh food does not include any chemicals, so it is
healthier. Another difference between these two kinds of foods is the cost. Canned food is
much more expensive than fresh food. For example, a small can of peas might cost as much as
one kilo of fresh ones. In conclusion, before eating, choose the best type of food for your
convenience and lifestyle.

Sample 4.

Students who have Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith are immediately aware of the difference in the
lecturing manner of each teacher. Mr. Jones has a pleasant voice, which helps hold the interest
of the students. He pronounces clearly in a rhythmic pattern emphasizing key words. His
moderate tone and inflected words make his lectures interesting. Mr. Jones also adds humor to
his subject, and he welcomes questions from students who do not understand the material. He
takes his time and explains slowly. He tries to make sure that his students understand

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a concept before he moves on to something new, and he is very enthusiastic about his subject.
Mr. Smith, on the other hand, has a different tone, pronunciation, expression and attitude from
Mr. Jones. He has a booming voice, which commands rather than teaches, and sometimes it is
hard to understand because he runs his words together. His lectures are not as interesting as
those of Mr. Jones, either, because Mr. Smith speaks in a boring monotone. He also hates to
be interrupted, feeling that he must cover everything. Mr. Smith teaches every class in a
serious, determined mood. Each teacher has a different voice, tone, pronunciation, expression,
and attitude; as a result, their lectures are very different.

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 Moulay Ismail University Department of English
Faculty of Arts & Human Sciences Semester 2: Composition 1
Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter Two: Cause/ Effect Essays

A cause-effect essay shows the reader the relationship between something that happens and its
consequences, or between actions and results. You will study two kinds of cause-effect
essays. Very simply, in one method, the writer focuses on the causes of something. This is
called the focus-on-causes method. In the second method, the writer emphasizes the effects or
results of a cause. This is called the focus-on-effects method.
Let us take the topic of culture shock as an example. You have the choice of writing either a
cause essay or an effect essay. If you decide to use the focus-on-causes method, you would
focus mainly on the causes of culture shock- perhaps three or four things that lead people to
suffer from culture shock. However, if you decide to use the focus-on-effects method, you
may want to emphasize the effects of culture shock-perhaps three or four things that people
with culture shock feel or experience.

Sample essay 1.
Even though we know that “honesty is the best policy,” most people often lie in their
everyday lives because of many reasons. First, we sometimes lie to minimize our mistakes.
While it is true that we all make blunders sometimes, some of us do not have the courage to
admit them since we might be blamed for the errors. For example, students might lie to their
teachers about unfinished homework. Another reason we lie is to get out of situations that we
do not want to be in or cannot manage. For instance, when we do not want to attend a
meeting, a party or just feel too tired to go to work, we might give an excuse that is usually a
lie. Moreover, many people would prefer to tell a lie when they do not want to hurt someone
else’s feelings. For example, if a good friend shows up with an unflattering new haircut, you
are likely to give a positive compliment on his/her haircut instead of telling the truth and say
that you do not like your friend’s style. All in all, people lie for many reasons, both good and
bad, but before we resort to lying to cover up mistakes or to avoid unpleasant situations, we
should perhaps rethink our motives for lying.

Sample essay 2
In recent decades, since cities have grown so large, about 50% of the Earth's population
lives in urban areas because of several reasons. First, the increasing industrialization of the
nineteenth century resulted in the creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located in
cities. These jobs, with their promise of a better material life, attracted many people from rural

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areas. Second, there were many schools established to educate the children of the new factory
laborers. The promise of a better education persuaded many families to leave farming
communities and move to the cities. Finally, as the cities grew, people established places of
leisure, entertainment, and culture, such as sports stadiums, theaters, and museums. For many
people, these facilities made city life appear more interesting than life on the farm, and
therefore drew them away from rural communities.

Sample essay 3.
Pollution which is one of the biggest problems facing the world today has many effects
on human life. First of all, pollution is bad for people's health. For example, smog, caused by
car's exhaust fumes and factory emissions, can lead to lung diseases in humans. Also, food
and water can be polluted by poisonous chemicals, and this can cause cancer in the people
who consume them. Another effect of pollution is the destruction of human habitat. Thus, an
oil spill can make an area where people previously lived uninhabitable. Another example is
the nuclear disaster in Fukushima, Japan, which made it impossible for people to live in a
large area around the site of the explosion. Finally, pollution can have a negative effect on
people's psychology. People who live in a clean, unspoilt landscape like the Swiss Alps will
tend to be more positively affected by their environment than people who live in a polluted,
rubbish-strewn city such as London. To sum up, pollution has many negative effects on the
lives of humans.

Sample essay 4.
Recurring headaches can have initiate disruptive effects on a person’s life. Initially, in
many cases, these headaches make a person nauseous to the point that he or she must go to
bed. Furthermore, sleep is often interrupted because of the pain. Disrupted sleep worsens the
physical and emotional state of the sufferer. For those who try to maintain a normal lifestyle,
drugs are often relied on to get through the day. Such drugs, of course, can lead to other
negative effects. Drugs can inhibit productivity on a job, perhaps even causing regular
absences. Not only is work affected, but the seemingly unpredictable occurrence of these
headaches leads to disruption in family life. The interruption to a person’s family life is
enormous: cancelling plans in the last minute and straining relationships with friends and
family. It is no wonder that many of these people feel discouraged and even depressed due to
the cycle of misery reoccurring headaches cause.

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Cause and effect signal words and phrases
Cause Effect
The next reason is The first effect of (X) is (Y)
Because of Another result of (X) is (Y)
As a result of As a consequence,
As a consequence of Consequently,
because/since/as Therefore,
(X) results in (Y) Hence,
(Y) is due to (X) Thus,
Owing to (X) has an effect on (Y)
(Y) is because of (X)
(Y) is the effect of (X)
(Y) is the consequence of (X)

Complete the sentence by filling in a cause or an effect as required. Circle what was needed
to complete each sentence : cause or effect.
1. Karim did not go to school because __________________________________________.
cause/effect

2. Due to _______________________________, Fatima was late for work again.

cause/effect

3. Since Souad bought all the chocolate in the shop, Sarah ____________________________
cause/effect

4. If ______________________________________, there will not be enough space in the

care. C
cause/effect

5. Amina works late every Friday so that _________________________________________.

cause/effect

6. Since Said’s parents found out about the party he hosted without their permission, _______
___________________________________________________________________________.
cause/effect

7. Owing to __________________________________, the tickets were all sold out.

cause/effect

8. In view of Mandisa’s fear of heights, ___________________________________________

cause/effect

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Read the following paragraph. Punctuate it and find the errors in the use of some cause-
effect conjunction.
There are several reasons why my father is in excellent health even though he is over eighty
years of age for one thing he is in excellent condition because he has stopped smoking
cigarettes he quit smoking because of whenever he climbed stairs he would invariably stop
several times and cough loudly his good health is also since his cutting down on the wrong
kinds of foods for example whereas before he would eat fatty red meat and deep-fried dishes
several times a week nowadays he seldom does so as a result he has more energy he is also in
good physical shape as a consequence his devotion to exercise he swims three times a week at
the local gym and so on sunny days he prefers to walk home rather than take the bus so my
father is in better shape than some of his children are

PARAGRAPH COHERENCE
Coherence is crucial to writing. Why? It is up to 25% of your score: it is as important to your
final score as both grammar and vocabulary.
I. WHAT IS COHERENCE?

A paragraph is coherent if all sentences are arranged in a clear, logical order.

You can make a paragraph coherent by:
 Arrange ideas logically.
 Link sentences together.
1. Arranging ideas

There are 3 main ways in which you can arrange your ideas in a paragraph.

Type of order Example Used in

1. Time order From earliest to latest Process, Line Graph
Description
2. Spatial order From top to bottom, from near to far, Description Paragraph
from left to right
3. Sequential order Most general to most specific, most Opinion paragraph
familiar to least familiar, least
important to most important

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 2. Linking sentences

There are a variety of ways to make your writing more cohesive, here are a few ideas:
1. Repeating key words: use the same word or its synonym again.

2. Using pronouns (it, they, this, that, these, those, etc) link back to nouns.

3. Using transition signals: coordinators, subordinators and sentence connectors.

Make sure that each sentence starts with a reference back to the previous sentence.
Model paragraph
There are many people who claim that global warming is the most significant threat facing us today.

They argue that it is a danger not just to the current generation, but also to the generations to come.

Indeed, it is this threat to our future that is of most concern.

One effect of global warming is there will not be enough food to feed the world in the near future.

II. SENTENCE CONNECTORS

Using sentence connectors is one of the ways to make a paragraph coherent.

Sentence connectors are words or phrases that indicate the relationship among sentences.
Sentence connectors often stand at the beginning of a sentence and followed by a comma.
Function Sentence connectors
To introduce the first idea First of all, Firstly, First and foremost, To start with,
To introduce an additional idea Secondly, Moreover, In addition, Furthermore,
To introduce an opposite idea However, In contrast, On the other hand, Nevertheless,
To introduce a similar idea Likewise, Similarly, In the same way,
To introduce an alternative Otherwise, Instead, Alternatively,
To introduce an example For instance, For example, As an illustration, To illustrate,
To introduce a result Therefore, Thus, Consequently, As a result,
To introduce the last idea Lastly, Finally, Last but not least,
To introduce a conclusion In brief, Overall, To summarize In conclusion,

ACTIVITY 1
 Work in groups.
 Use the sentence connectors in the table above to fill in the banks below to
increase the coherence of the paragraph.
 You have 5 minutes.

Each of the U.S. manned space exploration project has specific major goals.
(1)___________, the Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings
could survive and function in outer space. (2) _____________, the Mercury project tested

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 rockets with the new Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. (3)
_____________, the Gemini project was carried out to find out whether two people could
work in the weightless environment of space. (4)____________, Gemini astronauts were
sent out to take “spacewalks.” (5)_____________, they floated outside their spacecraft in
a spacesuit, connected by a tether.

Moulay Ismail University Department of English

Faculty of Arts & Humanities Semester 2: Composition 1
Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter three: Types of paragraphs

Narration

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Most people have had countless experiences that have affected them in some way. Have you
had an experience that gave you the feeling of total peace? Have you had a terrifying
experience? Have you had a funny experience in a new culture?
The purpose of narrative essays is to develop some personal experience that has affected you
in some specific way.
A narrative short essay is organized as follows:
1. Main idea (+ background information)
2. Body
3. Conclusion
A clear main idea sentence includes a topic and a comment. The topic is the event, experience,
or situation. The comment is the writer’s opinion, emotions, or other idea about the topic. The
body develops actions and details (who…? When …? Where ….? What …? Why …? How
…? The conclusion ties the entire essay together and gives closure.

Sample 1.
I will never forget the time I got lost in the medina when I was five years old. My mother and
aunt were looking at clothing piled up on several long tables. After a few moments I lost
interest in the clothing and wandered toward a display of shiny silver jewelry. I turned to ask
my mother if she would buy me a bracelet, but she was not there. For a moment I felt that I
could not even breathe, and the sound of my heart seemed to be pounding in my ears. Then I
began crying and screaming at the top of my lungs. Within seconds, several adults tried to
comfort me. “Don’t worry,” an old man kept repeating. “Your mother will find you soon.”
Looking back on this incident, I am sure that he meant well, but at the time, he only
frightened me because he had an untrimmed beard, hardly any teeth, and smelled strongly of
tobacco. Suddenly my mother pushed through the crowd and I stopped sobbing. I will never
forget the relief I felt when her strong arms pulled me to her even though she said, “Why
didn’t you stay with us? Don’t do that again!”

Sample 2.
Almost everyone has tasted Coca Cola, but not many people are aware of how it was
invented. The man who created this beverage was John Styth Pemberton, born in 1833 near
Atlanta, Georgia. Pemberton was a pharmacist who invented several medicines in the 1870’s,
including Triplex Liver Pills and Globe of Flower Cough Syrup. He made his medicines in an
iron pot in his back yard, mixing each batch with a boat oar. In 1885 he invented a syrup
which he named French Wine Cola, invented as a nerve stimulant. One year later he modified
that syrup. First he replaced the wine with a pinch of caffeine, but the mixture tasted bitter, so

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he added some flavoring: some extract of cola nut and a few other oils. Pemberton intended
this syrup, which he sold to drugstores in the Atlanta area, to relieve headaches, especially
those caused by dinking too much alcohol. One morning in 1886 a man with this type of
headache came to a drugstore in Atlanta and asked for some Coca Cola. Druggist usually
responded to such a request by stirring a teaspoonful of Pemberton’s syrup into a glass of tap
water. That morning, however, the druggist accidentally mixed the syrup with carbonated
water. The suffering customer felt better almost immediately and spread the word about the
new carbonated beverage. Gradually the drink came to be served not as medicine but as
refreshment.

Sample 3.

I will never forget my first few moments at the Anchorage airport. I was ten years old at the
time, and my parents were moving from Japan to Alaska for their new job. I was very excited
about living in a new country, but I was totally surprised by what I saw. As soon as the
airplane arrived in Anchorage, I eagerly looked out of the window. One word describes what I
saw: white. All I saw was white snow all over the ground. Even the trees at the edge of the
runway were covered with white. The next thing I saw was a mechanic servicing an airplane
and wearing a huge, white coat to cover his entire body and face. He looked more like a polar
bear than a person. I started to feel desperate. I kept trying to tell myself positive things about
Alaska, picturing fun activities such as catching fish and climbing icy mountains, but another
voice in my mind told me, “Sue Lyn! Your life in Alaska is going to be miserable! You can’t
have fun outside wearing a polar bear coat!” I kept telling myself that it would all be okay.
Maybe I could even find new indoor hobbies. I was trying to think positively, but it was
difficult. With all these worries, I walked towards the airport terminal. “Anchorage Welcome
You,” it said on the arrival door. As I entered the building, people greeted me with big smiles.
The warm welcome by the people made me feel a little better. But I will always remember the
sight of the white polar bear mechanics on the snow-covered runway of the Anchorage,
Alaska, airport.

Put the following narration in the correct order.

The first guy threatened me again and kept demanding the money. However, I could not talk
because the other guy was squeezing my throat.
After I delivered the pizza, I started back to the car with the money in my hand.

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Of course they took the money, which was about fifty-five dollars. Before they left, though,
they pushed me down onto the sidewalk. Somehow, I made it back to my car and drove away.
I was very frightened because I knew that I couldn’t fight them.
The fear from that night will always stay with me, but the experience taught me how to act in
this kind of situation. The key is to keep cool and to stay away from isolated places at night.
I stepped back, but then I felt someone behind me grabbing me around the neck.
I had the most terrifying experience of my life two years ago when I was a newcomer to the
city.
I was working as a deliveryman for Dominic’s Pizza, and I had to make a night delivery. The
neighborhood I went to looked isolated, with almost no lights on at all.
As soon as I stepped out of the apartments building, a tall man suddenly stood in mu way and
tried to grab the money, saying with a rough voice, “Give me the money!”

Moulay Ismail University Department of English

Faculty of Arts & Humanities Semester 2: Composition 1
Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter four: Types of paragraphs

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 Opinion paragraph

An opinion paragraph is a type of persuasive writing. That is to say, its purpose is to convince
people to believe something or to do something. For example, advertisers want you to believe
that you need their product so that you will buy it, and people who write letters to the editor
may want others to read their ideas, and then join them in changing something about their
communities.
An opinion paragraph expresses the writer’s opinion or opinions about mostly a controversial
topic. It usually pushes the reader to think about the issue and maybe cause him/her to
reconsider his/her own opinion concerning that issue.

Read the following sample and answer the questions.

1. What is the TS of the paragraph?
2. What is the author’s opinion on cell phone usage by drivers?
3. List three reasons that the writer favors to ban on cell phones while driving?
4. Does the paragraph have a concluding statement? If yes, underline it
5. What is the author’s reaction in this paragraph? Do you agree or disagree with
the author’s opinion? Why or why not?

Sample 1.
Because cell phones and driving are a deadly mix, I am in favor of a ban on cell phone
use by drivers. The most obvious reason for this ban is to save lives. Every year, thousands of
drivers are killed because they are talking on cell phones instead of watching the road while
they are driving. The first reason should be enough to support a ban on cell phones when
driving, but I have two other reasons. My second reason is that these drivers cause accidents
that kill other people. Sometimes these drivers kill other drivers; sometimes they kill
passengers or even pedestrians. These drivers certainly don’t have the right to endanger
others’ lives! Finally, even in cases where there are no injuries or deaths, damage to cars
from these accidents costs us millions of dollars as well as countless hours of lost work. To
me, banning cell phones while driving is common sense. In fact, a wide range of countries
has already put this ban into effect, including Australia, Brazil, Japan, Russia, and Turkey.
Driving a car is a privilege, not a right. We must all be careful drivers, and talking on a cell
phone when driving is not safe.

Sample 2.
School uniforms should be mandatory for all students for a variety of reasons. First,
they make everyone equal. In this way, the “rich” kids are on the same level as the poor ones.
In addition, getting ready for school can be much faster and easier. Many kids waste time

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choosing what to wear to school, and they are often unhappy with their final choices. Most
important, some studies show that school uniforms make students perform better. Many
people might say that uniforms take away from personal freedom, but I believe that the
benefits are stronger than the drawbacks.

You can introduce opinions using phrases such as I think, I believe, as far as I am concerned,
in my opinion, etc. These can make you sound less sure of your ideas. Instead, you can use
modals. These, in fact, show the strength of a writer’s opinion or argument.

Example:
Affirmative.
The city could add more cycle paths. weakest
should
ought to
has to / must strongest

Negative.
The city doesn’t have to allow more cars. weakest
shouldn’t
can’t / must not strongest

Put these sentences in order to make a paragraph.

____ He was receiving a call.
____ My friend and I leaned forward, listening carefully to the film.
____ It was very distracting.
____ Last night, I went to see a film with my friend. It was a thriller.
____ He decided to answer the call.
____ We think that people should turn off their mobile phones when they watch a film, or not
bring them at all!
____ It was very exciting.
____ The man next to us has a mobile phone.
____ Suddenly, we heard a loud sound- a silly tune.
____ He spoke out loud to his friend.
____ Mobile phones should not be allowed in cinemas.
____ My friend and I felt annoyed.
____ At the most exciting moments, the actors did not speak. Only quiet music was playing.

Possible ways to develop an opinion paragraph.

Facts
Facts are simply statements which should appeal to the reader’s mind, not just to the
emotions. The source of facts should be clear to the reader. We might look for supporting
facts in appropriate books and magazines.

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Referring to an Authority
An authority is an expert, someone who can be relied on to give unbiased facts and
information. If we wish to convince our readers that smoking is a dangerous habit, we might
use one of the surgeon general’s warnings that appear on every pack of cigarettes. For
example: “Smoking causes lung cancer, heart disease, emphysema, and may complicate pregnancy.”
The surgeon general is an excellent and knowledgeable authority whose opinion on medical
matters is considered valid and unbiased.

Example
Example shows readers exactly what the main idea of the paragraph means. An example
should clearly relate to the argument and should be typical enough to support it. We should
avoid examples that are not typical enough to support our general statement.

Predicting the Consequence

It helps the reader visualize what will occur if something does or does not happen. We should
avoid exaggerating the consequences. To convince the readers that conserving energy is a
duty of every citizen, we might say, “If we do not conserve our resources, we may soon face the
time when schools, colleges, and public buildings will be open only half-days because they lack of
heating fuel.”

Moulay Ismail University Department of English

Faculty of Arts & Humanities Semester 2: Composition 1
Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter five: Types of paragraphs

Process

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The process paragraph generally describes how to do something. Thus, it should be organized
in a chronological order. This type of writing, which is also called how-to writing, can be
instructional or advisory. Both kinds should give a series of steps to follow in a precise order.
For this purpose, some chronological connectors or transitions are useful. The following is a
list of these transitions.
Beginning: First/ The first step/ The first thing/ Initially/ Begin by/ etc.
Continuing: After/ Before/ As soon as/ At the same time/ During/ Immediately/ Later/
Meanwhile/ In the meantime/ Next/ The next step/ Second, third, etc,/ Then Subsequently/
etc.
Ending: Eventfully/ Finally/ The final step/ The final thing/ The last step/ etc.

Sample 1.
There are some specific steps involved in writing a good paragraph or essay. The first
step is brainstorming. Writers can use techniques like free-writing, mindmapping and
outlining/planning to help them brainstorm. In this first stage, it is important for a writer not to
edit but to let ideas flow and to simply get them down on paper. After brainstorming comes
the first draft. This is the step where the writer’s ideas start to come together and take shape.
There may be some grammatical errors or other small mistakes in the first draft since many
writers just try to put their ideas on paper before editing their mistakes. The first draft is also
where writers should develop a topic sentence or thesis to guide the structure of their essay.
Finally, the last step is the final draft. This is when writers edit their work. They should take
care at this stage that all sentence structure and punctuation is correct, and that their work is
formatted correctly. To conclude, writing a good paragraph is not easy, but everyone can be a
successful writer by following some basic steps.

Transition words and chronological order

Sentence connectors Others

- Then - The first step ... (no comma)

- First,(Second, Third, etc.) - Then (no comma)
- Next,(The next step/thing) - The next step ... (no comma) Now
- The last step (Finally,) (no comma)
- In addition, - The final step ... (no comma) Next,
- Before - After five minutes, Finally, After
- After that that,
- When - After you take the pizza out of the
- Meanwhile oven,

Examples

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 1. First, preheat the oven to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. Then prepare the pizza
sauce.
2. The next step is to mix the pizza dough.
3. After five minutes, check the pizza.
4. Before you take the pizza out of the oven, cut it into 8 pieces.

Complete the paragraph with the time order signals and add commas if necessary: Use
each signal once. Use these time order signals:
- Finally
- The third step
- To sum up,
- Second,
- The first step.

Choosing Classes

Choosing the right classes each semester can be stressful, but you can reduce your
stress by following these steps. (1) _________ is to become familiar with the graduation
requirements for your major. Do not depend on others to give you correct information.
Instead, study the pages in the college bulletin dealing with your major and memorize the
requirements. (2) _________ plan, plan, plan. Write out a program for each semester to make
sure you have all the courses you need for graduation. Be aware that some classes have
prerequisites - classes you must pass before you can register for them. (3) _________ is to
talk with as many older students as you can. Ask them which courses are good and which
ones are not. Don't waste your time and money on bad classes. (4) ________ _ register each
semester as soon as you can. Waiting even an hour may mean that the classes you want or
need are filled. (5) _________ plan ahead to avoid missing any required classes, to avoid bad
classes, and to graduate on time.
Put these sentences in order to make a paragraph.

How to Make Ice Cream in a Bag

____ Seal the gallon bag securely.
____ Open the bags, grab a spoon, and enjoy your ice cream!
____ Gently rock the gallon bag from side to side for ten to fifteen minutes ' or until the
contents of the quart bag have turned into ice cream.
____ Put 1/2 cup of heavy cream, 1/2 cup of milk, 1/4 cup of sugar, and 1/4 teaspoon of
vanilla into a quart-size sealable plastic bag.
____ Close the quart-size bag and seal it tightly.
____ Put 2 cups of ice and 1/2 to 3/4 cup of salt into a gallon-size sealable plastic bag.
____ Surprise your friends on your next camping trip by making ice cream in a plastic bag.
____ Place the sealed quart bag inside the gallon bag of ice and salt.

Read the following outlines and write a paragraph using the given information.

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Example 1.
Topic sentence: The government of Indonesia has a three-step program to control population
growth.
A. Most important: education of the people.
- About the problems of overpopulation.
- About the processes of controlling population.
B. Availability of birth prevention techniques.
- Birth control pills, intrauterine devices.
- Sterilization.
C. Laws to control the birth rate.
- Eliminate financial allowance for all third children of government employees.
- Consider making that law applicable for the entire populace.
Concluding sentence: The ultimate result of this program will be to limit population growth to
2%.

Example 2.
Topic sentence: Keeping a good friend does not happen automatically; there are several steps
that help good friends stay together.
A. Be generous.
- Time.
- Money.
B. Be a good listener.
- Listen to your friend’s concerns, problems, hopes, and fears.
C. Keep your friend’s secrets.
- Maintain trust and confidence.
Concluding sentence: If you are generous, a good listener, and respectful of your friend’s
privacy, you will not lose your good friend.

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