Physical Properties

 Physical properties of material are those which can be observed without change
of identity of material.
 State – there are three states of materials, and these are solid, liquid, or gas.

 Color – the reflective property of a material

 Shape and Size Shape and Size- Dimension of any metal reflect shape and
size of material, length, width, height, depth etc. Also, it determines specific
rectangular, circular, spherical, or any other section. You can also read
Engineering Materials – Atomic Structure Introduction.
 Solubility – it is the maximum amount of a solution that can be added to a
solvent.
  Viscosity – it is the resistance of a material to flow.

 Density – Density of material is defined as mass per unit volume. It is

defined as ratio of mass volume of material.

 Porosity of Materials- When material is in melting condition, it contains

some dissolved gases with in material. When material is solidifies these
gases get evaporate and leave behind voids. Porosity of materials
represents quantity of voids in solid materials.
 Specific Gravity of Materials- It is defined as ratio of density of material
with respect to density of reference material or substance. It does not have
any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation water is considered as reference substance.
Mechanical Properties
 Mechanical properties of metal indicate the nature of its inherent behaviour under
the action of the external force.
 Malleability – The ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions
(plastic deformation) without failure.
 Ductility – The ability of a material to change shape (deform) usually by
stretching along its length.

 Strength – It is the ability of a material to stand up to forces being applied

without it bending, breaking, shattering or deforming.
 Tensile strength – The maximum strength, in tension (pulling), that can
be absorbed without fracturing, breaking, or snapping.
 Flexural strength – Applied stress at the time of fracture from a test in
which the stress is perpendicular to the axis of deformation (bending).
 Hardness – The resistance to being permanently deformed or bent.

 Toughness – A characteristic of a material that relates to its response to

sudden blows or shocks.
 Brittleness – It is defined as the property of metal by virtue of which it will
fracture suddenly without any appreciable deformation.
 Elasticity – The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in different
directions, returning to its original position once the stress is removed.

 Plastic deformation – The ability of a material to permanently change

shape, without failure, with an applied force.

 Stiffness – It is the measure of a material’s ability not to deflect under an

applied load.
  Fatigue - The behavior of materials under fluctuating and reversing loads
(or stresses) is termed as fatigue. This behaviour is different from that
under the steady load. Fatigue is, however, not a dynamic effect. The rate
of loading is usually not a factor is fatigue behavior. Fatigue behavior is
experienced by all materials whether metals, plastics, concretes, or
composites.

Electrical Properties
 The characteristic of a metal which enables the flow of electric current through it
is called electrical properties.
 Conductivity – A measure of how easily a material allows electrical
current to flow through.
 Resistivity – A measure of a material’s resistance to the flow of electric
current.
 Dielectric Strength – It describes the response of dielectric materials
(poor
conductors) to applied electric fields and depend on polarization of electric
charges.
 Thermoelectricity – If link formed by joining to two metals is heated, a
small voltage of millivolt is produced. This effect is called thermoelectricity
or thermoelectric effect.

Thermal Properties
 It is the properties or characteristics of materials which are the functions of
temperature or heat.
 Specific Heat – The efficiency of a material in absorbing heat. High
specific heat means a material heats fast and cools down fast.
 Thermal Expansion – Nearly all materials expand when heated and
contract when cooled. The extent to which this happens is the coefficient of
thermal expansion.
 Thermal Conductivity – Thermal conductivity is the rate at which heat
flows through a material.
  Glass Transition Temperature – The point at which a polymer or glass
changes between a rigid solid and a viscous fluid (reversible).
 Melting Point – The temperature at which liquid begins to form as a
material is heated.

Magnetic Properties
 The magnetic properties of a material are those which determine the ability of
material to be suitable for a particular magnetic application.
 Permeability – It is defined as a measure that indicates the ease in which
magnetism may be developed in the materials.
 Coercive Force – It is defined as the force which opposes the
magnetizing force.
 Hysteresis – The lagging of magnetization of a ferromagnetic substance
behind the magnetic field is called Hysteresis.

Classification of Metals
What is Metal?

Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of differentially

oriented fine crystals. Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature.
However, some metals such as mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature.
All metals are having high thermal and electrical conductivity. All metals are having
positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Means resistance of metals increases
with increase in temperature. Examples of metals – Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum,
Iron, Zinc, Lead, Tin etc.

Metals can be further divided into two groups:

Ferrous Metals

All ferrous metals are having iron as common element. All ferrous materials are having
very high permeability which makes these materials suitable for construction of core of
electrical machines. Some common ferrous metals include alloy steel, carbon steel, cast
iron and wrought iron. These metals are prized for their tensile strength and durability.
Carbon Steel – also known as structure steel – is a staple in the construction industry
and is used in the tallest skyscrapers and longest bridges. Ferrous metals are also used
in shipping containers, industrial piping, automobiles, railroad tracks, and many
commercial and domestic tools.
Ferrous metals have a high carbon content which generally makes them vulnerable to
rust when exposed to moisture. There are two exceptions to this rule: wrought iron
resists rust due to its purity and stainless steel is protected from rust by the presence of
chromium.

Most ferrous metals are magnetic which makes them very useful for motor and electrical
applications. The use of ferrous metals in your refrigerator door allows you to pin your
shopping list on it with a magnet.

Steel

Steel is made by adding iron to carbon which hardens the iron. Alloy steel becomes
even tougher as other elements like chromium and nickel are introduced. Steel is made
by heating and melting iron ore in furnaces. The steel can is tapped from the furnaces
and poured into molds to form steel bars. Steel is widely used in the construction and
manufacturing industries.

Carbon Steel

Carbon steel has a higher carbon content in comparison to other types of steel making it
exceptionally hard. It is commonly used in the manufacturing of machine tools, drills,
blades, taps, and springs. It can keep a sharp cutting edge.

Alloy Steel

Alloy steels incorporate elements such as chromium, nickel and titanium to impart
greater strength and durability without increasing weight. Stainless steel is an important
alloy steel made using chromium. Alloy steels are used in construction, machine tools,
and electrical components.

Cast Iron

Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon, and silicon. Cast iron is brittle and hard
and resistant to wear. It’s used in water pipes, machine tools, automobile engines and
stoves.

Wrought Iron

Wrought iron is an alloy with so little carbon content it’s almost pure iron. During the
manufacturing process, some slag is added which gives wrought iron excellent
resistance to corrosion and oxidation, however, it is low in hardness and fatigue
strength. Wrought iron is used for fencing and railings, agricultural implements, nails,
barbed wire, chains, and various ornaments.

Non-Ferrous Metals
All non-ferrous metals are having very low permeability. Non-ferrous metals include
aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin, as well as precious metals like gold and silver.
Their main advantage over ferrous materials is their malleability. They also have no iron
content, giving them a higher resistance to rust and corrosion, and making them ideal
for gutters, liquid pipes, roofing and outdoor signs. Lastly, they are non-magnetic, which
is important for many electronic and wiring applications.

Aluminum

Aluminum is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminum is easily cast, forged,
machined and welded. It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because
aluminum is lightweight, it is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft and food
cans. Aluminum is also used in castings, pistons, railways, cars, and kitchen utensils.

Copper

Copper is red in color, highly ductile, malleable and has high conductivity for electricity
and heat. Copper is principally used in the electrical industry in the form of wire and
other conductors. It’s also used in sheet roofing, cartridge cases, statutes, and bearings.
Copper is also used to make brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.

Lead

Lead is a soft, heavy, malleable metal with a low melting point and low tensile strength.
It can withstand corrosion from moisture and many acids. Lead is widely used in
electrical power cables, batteries, building construction and soldering.

Zinc

Zinc is a medium to low strength metal with a very low melting point. It can be machined
easily, but heating may be required to avoid cleavage of crystals. Zinc is most widely
used in galvanizing, the process of applying a protective zinc coating to iron or steel to
prevent rust.

Tin

Tin is very soft and malleable, ductile with low tensile strength. It’s often used to coat
steel to prevent corrosion. Tinplate steel is used to make tin cans to hold food. In the
late 19th century, tin foil was commonly used to wrap food products, but has since
largely been replaced by aluminum foil. Tin can also be alloyed with copper to produce
tin brass and bronze.

Material Conduction is the transfer of energy in the form of heat or electricity from
one atom to another within an object by direct contact. Conduction occurs in solids,
liquids, and gases. However, solids transfer energy most efficiently since the molecules
in solids are most tightly packed, and the molecules are closer together. For liquids and
gases, the density of the particles is generally lower than those of solids and the
particles are farther apart, so the energy transfer is less efficient.

Materials used in the field of Electrical Engineering are called the Electrical Engineering
materials. Based on properties and area of applications, Electrical Engineering
materials can be classified as below-

Conductors are the materials which have very high conductivity. The number of free
electrons is very high in a conductor at room temperature, which is the basic reason of
high conductivity of conductors. Examples: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum etc. The
number of free electrons is very high in silver, which makes the silver a best conductors
of electricity. The binding force on these free valance electrons by nucleus is very low.
Due to which these electrons can easily be freed from the nucleus and can participate in
the flow of electricity.

Semiconductors are materials which have the conductivity between conductors and
insulators. Semiconductors are the elements of group-III, group-IV and group-IV
elements. Semiconducting materials have covalent bond. At normal temperature the
conductivity of semiconductors is very low. With increase in temperature the
conductivity of semiconductors increases exponentially.
Example: Germanium, Silicon, Gallium Arsenic etc.

Superconducting

But at very low temperature, some metals acquire zero electrical resistance and zero
magnetic induction, the property known as superconductivity.

Some of the important superconducting elements are- Aluminium, Zinc, Cadmium,

Mercury, and Lead. Typical superconducting compounds and alloys are- PbAu, PbTl2,
SnSb, CuS, NbN, NbB and NrC.

Corrosion
Corrosion is a dangerous and extremely costly problem. Because of it, buildings
and bridges can collapse, oil pipelines break, chemical plants leak, and bathrooms
flood. Corroded electrical contacts can cause fires and other problems, corroded
medical implants may lead to blood poisoning, and air pollution has caused corrosion
damage to works of art around the world. Corrosion threatens the safe disposal of
radioactive waste that must be stored in containers for tens of thousands of years.

Types of Corrosion

 Uniform Corrosion is considered an even attack across the surface of a

material and is the most common type of corrosion. It is also the most benign as
the extent of the attack is relatively easily judged, and the resulting impact on
material performance is fairly easily evaluated due to an ability to consistently
reproduce and test the phenomenon. This type of corrosion typically occurs over
relatively large areas of a material’s surface.

 Galvanic Corrosion is the degradation of one metal near a joint or juncture that
occurs when two electrochemically dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in
an electrolytic environment; for example, when copper is in contact with steel in a
saltwater environment. However, even when these three conditions are satisfied,
there are many other factors that affect the potential for, and the amount of,
corrosion, such as temperature and surface finish of the metals. Large
engineered systems employing many types of metal in their construction,
including various fastener types and materials, are susceptible to galvanic
corrosion if care is not exercised during the design phase. Choosing metals that
are as close together as practicable on the galvanic series helps reduce the risk
of galvanic corrosion.

 Crevice Corrosion is also a localized form of corrosion and usually results from
a stagnant microenvironment in which there is a difference in the concentration of
ions between two areas of a metal. Crevice corrosion occurs in shielded areas
such as those under washers, bolt heads, gaskets, etc. where oxygen is
restricted. These smaller areas allow for a corrosive agent to enter but do not
allow enough circulation within, depleting the oxygen content, which prevents re-
passivation. As a stagnant solution builds, pH shifts away from neutral. This
growing imbalance between the crevice (microenvironment) and the external
surface (bulk environment) contributes to higher rates of corrosion. Crevice
corrosion can often occur at lower temperatures than pitting. Proper joint design
helps to minimize crevice corrosion.

 Pitting Corrosion is one of the most destructive types of corrosion, as it can be

hard to predict, detect and characterize. Pitting is a localized form of corrosion, in
 which either a local anodic point, or more commonly a cathodic point, forms a
small corrosion cell with the surrounding normal surface. Once a pit has initiated,
it grows into a “hole” or “cavity” that takes on one of a variety of different shapes.
Pits typically penetrate from the surface downward in a vertical direction. Pitting
corrosion can be caused by a local break or damage to the protective oxide film
or a protective coating; it can also be caused by non-uniformities in the metal
structure itself. Pitting is dangerous because it can lead to failure of the structure
with a relatively low overall loss of metal.

 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is a result of the combination of tensile stress

and a corrosive environment, often at elevated temperatures. Stress corrosion
may result from external stress such as actual tensile loads on the metal or
expansion/contraction due to rapid temperature changes. It may also result from
residual stress imparted during the manufacturing process such as from cold
forming, welding, machining, grinding, etc. In stress corrosion, the majority of the
surface usually remains intact; however, fine cracks appear in the microstructure,
making the corrosion hard to detect. The cracks typically have a brittle
appearance and form and spread in a direction perpendicular to the location of
the stress. Selecting proper materials for a given environment (including
temperature and management of external loads) can mitigate the potential for
catastrophic failure due to SCC.

 Intergranular Corrosion is an examination of the microstructure of a metal

reveals the grains that form during solidification of the alloy, as well as the grain
boundaries between them. Intergranular corrosion can be caused by impurities
present at these grain boundaries or by the depletion or enrichment of an alloying
element at the grain boundaries. Intergranular corrosion occurs along or adjacent
to these grains, seriously affecting the mechanical properties of the metal while
the bulk of the metal remain intact.
An example of intergranular corrosion is carbide precipitation, a chemical
reaction that can occur when a metal is subjected to very high temperatures
(e.g., 800°F - 1650°F) and/or localized hot work such as welding. In stainless
steels, during these reactions, carbon “consumes” the chromium, forming
carbides and causing the level of chromium remaining in the alloy to drop below
the 11% needed to sustain the spontaneously-forming passive oxide layer. 304L
and 316L are enhanced chemistries of 304 and 316 stainless that contain lower
levels of carbon, and would provide the best corrosion resistance to carbide
precipitation.
Preventing Corrosion

 Establishing a Physical Barrier- Coating a metal surface with paint or enamel

provides a barrier between the metal and the moisture in the environment, thus
removing the opportunity for both oxygen and moisture to come in contact with
the metal.

 Sacrificial Coatings-The process of coating a metal surface with another metal

that is more likely to be oxidized is referred to as sacrificial coating. The
corrosion-prone iron alloy steel is commonly coated with zinc, a more active
metal, in a process known as galvanizing. Corrosion of the sacrificial zinc results
in its oxidation; the iron is reduced, which renders it cathodic and inhibits its
corrosion.

A galvanized surface Protecting iron alloys with a coating of a more active metal
through the process of galvanizing prevents the alloys from corroding.

A contrast to the previous scenario can be seen when iron or an iron alloy is
plated with a less active metal, such as tin. As long as the tin coating remains
intact, corrosion is not possible. If, however, the tin coating becomes degraded,
exposing the underlying metal, corrosion will occur. This is because the exposed
iron undergoes oxidation and is rendered anodic. The tin accepts electrons from
the oxidized iron, and the three criteria for corrosion are met.
 Cathodic Protection- Another way to protect against corrosion is to confer a
continuous negative electrical charge on a metal. This method is referred to as
cathodic protection. Cathodic protection replicates the effects of a sacrificial
coating but with a more active metal. The source of negative charge is usually an
external direct-current power supply. Cathodic protection is used to protect
underground fuel tanks and pipelines, among other things.

 Passivation- Passivation is a process through which a thin film of corrosion

products builds on a metal surface to serve as a barrier against oxidation. The
formation of a passivation layer is affected by environmental pH, temperature,
and chemical conditions. The Statue of Liberty, for example, is coated with a
blue-green patina caused by several chemical reactions, which serves to protect
the copper metal underneath.

 Anodization- Anodization is another surface treatment that protects against

corrosion. The metal to be protected is bathed in a specific substance, and
electrochemical conditions are adjusted such that uniform pores several
nanometers wide appear in the metal’s oxide film. These pores allow an oxide
film, thicker than a passivation layer, to build up. The resultant protective layer is
very hard and very resilient.

 Sacrificial Anode Protection- Using the same principle as sacrificial film

coating, a sacrificial anode, made of a metal more active than the metal you want
to protect, can be used to prevent corrosion on submerged or buried metal
structures. The sacrificial anode will corrode before the metal it is protecting
does. However, once the sacrificial anode corrodes, it must be replaced;
otherwise, the metal it is protecting will begin to corrode as well.