BRICKS

A brick is a building unit of hard/durable inorganic matter the size of which can be conveniently
handled. It has a rectangular x-section with length = 2w + 1 mortar joint and depth about 2/3 width.

Classification could be by place of origin of parent material is the clay, Mode of manufacture – hand
made, wire cut, shop moulded etc,

Raw materials for brick production include clay, shale and sand.

Use: common bricks, engineering bricks, facing/backing bricks

Manufacturing

Clay comes from chemical weathering of igneous rocks feldspar is the chief mineral and one variety of
feldspar is orthoclase which disintegrates easily to clay; pre-form = kaolin.

Bricks are made from clay ranging from loose sandy deposits trough soft/plastic surface deposits to hard
mud stones, shales and marls boulders.

Stiff clay – cannot be molded with finger

Firm clay – can be moulded with difficulty

Very soft – extrudes between fingers when squeezed

Silt – natural sediments of finer grade material dry plastic and gritty

Constituents

Good brick earth consist of silica 50-60% (sand) and alumina (as clay) in a proportion as to have a plastic
mass when mixed (for easy moulding) and does not sunk, crack or warp considerably upon drying.

Little lime is essential as flux enabling silica to break at furnace temperature and bind particles together.
Excess is harmful little iron oxide does the same function and also give characteristics brown colour.

Magnesia decreases shrinkage and while this is desirable significant proportion may result in decay of
brick.

Manufacturing process

The production of bricks involves the following processes

Winning of the clay – from quarries or pits or obtained as a bye products of mining operations (top
vegetation has to be cleared),

Pugging/ tempering of the clay

This describes the stage where the lumps are broken up, watered and kneaded into a homogenous mix of
creamy consistency – a process which is most conveniently done in a pug mill. At this stage the

LL 25 – 40% - (LL is liquid limit)

PI 7 – 13% - (PI is plasticity index)
Shrinkage 15 – 25%

MOULDING

Two common methods of moulding are

● Hand mould: Ground moulded, slope moulded, sand moulded, table moulded
● Machine mould: Plastic clay method and dry press.

In the plastic method, one machine performs all kneading operations and transfers the resulting
materials into an annexed rectangular spout prepared clay is forced out of the spout as a continuous bar
and is cut by wires fixed within, hence it is referred to as the wire cut process.

Dry press

Clay is grounded to fine powder and small quantity of water is added to obtain very stiff and almost dry
mixture. This is machine pressed into brick shape and transferred to burners without prior drying.

1. Drying of Bricks
2 – 3 days; staggered stacking checks against cracking.
2. Burning
During burning the bricks undergo 3 major stages
𝑜
Water smoking: a great deal of moisture is expelled up to a temp of 6000 C. Note that, the
mixing water is driven off at 1000C but bulk of the chemically combined is not till between
400-600, Oxidation between 3000 and 9000.
2 2
This temperature allows the combustion of carbonaceous matter and release of gases as C0 , S𝑂
etc and steam.
 𝑜
Vitrification: i.e. the formation by glass above800 𝐶. Two major constituents alumina of silica
melts and fuse in the interior into a pasty viscous mass – the fluidity which increases with
temperature. Glass so formed indicates the fusion of the materials. Burning is normally carried
out in kilns or clamps

Clamp

1 – 2 months burning

1 – 2 months cooling

Kilns – intermittent – loading – firing – cooling (2 – 3 days) up to 50,000 bricks are produced.

Continuous – Bulls, tunnel, rufman 12 to 14 chambers each capable of holding 20 – 40 thousand bricks

Representing

- Loading - drying/ pre-heating

- Burning - cooling
- Unloading zones

Characteristics of Good Bricks

Colour – deep red, cherry to copper

Shape – Uniform + strangh shapp edges

Size – standardized MS (225 × 112.5 × 75mm), (215 × 102.5 × 105mm)

Texture – fine, compact, uniform (no lumps, loose girth or fissures)

Water adoption – 20% of dry wt. (if soak for 1 day)

2
Strength (compressor) – up to 105kg/𝑐𝑚 (Min = 35)

Hardness – when dropped

- When struck against another

Efflorescence – Immerse in water for 24 hours and dry grayish/deposit indicates presence of soluble salts
low 10-50 80(moderate high (harm fill).

Other clay products

1. Hollow blocks
2. Tiles, (10 – 15mm thick) for floors and walls (vitrified or ceramic types). It can also be used for
drains and roof coverings.
3. Terra cotta: Red-brown earthen ware usually unglazed for pottery / sculpture, pots and vessel
4. Ceramic products such as water closets, wash hand basins, kitchen sinks, urinal bowls and bidet.
Quality, construction requirements (water & tap holes, wt., stud slots)
STONES

Building stones are quarried from rocks the solid portions of the earth’s crust and may be used in the
construction industry as aggregates (coarse/fine), slabs/columns, stairs, lintel, etc.

Classification of rocks could be done in any of the four ways:

A. Degree of hardness -Hardest e.g diamond

- Very hard e.g granite

-Hard e.g Basalt, quartzite

-Medium e.g dolomite and limestone

-Soft e.g gypsum, sandstone, slate

-Softest e.g talc

B. Chemical composition

C. Physical structure

D. Geological formation

Chemical Composition – Siliceous (silica predominant) e.g granite basalt, quartz

Argillaceous – clay (alumina) laterite, slate

Calcareous (calcium carbonate) limestone, marble, dolomite

Physical Structure – Stratified i.e. possess planes of clearage (sedimentary)

- Unstratified : compact granular (igneous)

- Foliated : thin laminations (metamorphic)

Geological Formation – Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

- Magma: if exposed cools and solidified into even under ordinary pressure.

Types of Igneous stones - This can be due to the cooling process

a. Volcanic – if exposed to atmosphere rapid cooling; fine grained + glass (e.g Basalt) crystallic.
 b. Hypabyssal – comparatively slower rate within shallow depths. Crystalline coarser grain e.g
Dolerite
c. Plutonic – very slow at considerable depth, coarsed and crystalline

Sedimentary stones: result from serial deposition of sandstone, shale, shelly/clacerous organism e.g
fauna, gravel in alternating layers can be easily split along bedding plane e.g limestone.

Metamorphic stones: results from the action of heat on igneous and sedimentary rocks under high
pressure with corresponding change in character (normally to hard durable foliated structure) e.g marble,
quartzite.

Quarrying methods:

Construction stones occur in the form of natural rock masses or layers on the surface. The process of
extraction of suitable stones from their natural rock beds or layers is commonly called quarrying of
stones. A quarry is a place where different types of stones are extracted. Quarrying methods are classified
as either through blasting or without blasting.

Quarrying of stones without blasting

In these methods, blocks of rocks are broken loose from their natural outcrops by men using hand tools or
purpose channelling machines. No explosive device is used at any stage in this method of quarrying of
stones. Soft rocks and also those rocks which have layered structure are easily quarried by these methods.
As a first step, the loose cover of soil over the rock (the over burden) is first removed and the rock surface
is cleared. It is then systematically broken into blocks of desired sizes either by driving wedges or by
cutting channels.

Some of the methods of quarrying without blasting are wedging, channelling and heating.

The wedging method

Wedging involves drilling few holes at carefully selected places on the stone mass either manually using
chisels and hammers or hammer drill (in quarry sites). Once the holes are ready, steel wedges are inserted
in between two steel strips and repeated for all the holes drilled in a sequence. Such firmly inserted
wedges are struck almost simultaneously. This process develops cracks along the lines joining the holes.
Afterward, long iron bars are inserted in the holes and cracks, and then the blocks of the rocks ae pushed
forward onto the free face of a quarry.
The channelling method

This method involves the use of cutting devices powered machines called “channelizers”. This method is
suitable for costly stones like marbles and limestones. The channelizer can cut groove as deep as 3 meters,
as wide as 5cm and as long as 3 meters. The quarrying process involves cutting grooves of required
lengths and depths at the back and sides of the working face of the quarry. Drilling of holes from the free
front side horizontally to meet the back channel at its base. Separating the blocks from the rock using
wedges and rods and lastly, hoisting and transporting the blocks to lorries or trucks.

The heating method

It is an old, crude method which may be useful locally for obtaining small quantities of stones. Rocks are
heated for a few hours by burning heaps of firewood over their surface. This results in the expansion of
the upper layers and their cracking and separating from the lower layers.

Quarrying of stones by blasting

This method consists of using explosives for breaking stones from very hard rocks such as quarrying for
granites, sandstones and quartzite. The basic principle of this method is to explode a small quantity of an
explosive material at a calculated depth within the rocks and the force generated due to this explosion is
sufficient only to create cracks and loosen blocks of good size.

Quarrying by blasting requires experienced persons thoroughly acquainted with blasting explosives and
knowledgeable with the strength qualities of rocks. The operations involved drilling of blast holes,
charging of blast holes and firing the shots.

COMMON TESTS FOR BUILDING STONES

Smith’s test: presence of soluble (earthly) matter indicates weakness. Soak small sample chips of
freshly quarried stone for 1 hour, stir for 30 mins and observe colour, if clear then strength
guaranteed.
Freezing test: stones with low saturating coefs are unlikely to be affected by first. Soak sample
for 24 hours. Immerse in freezing machine at -12degC for another 24 hours. Thawed or warmed
specimen at room temp or heat temp and observe the behaviour of the stone. The procedure can
be repeated several times.
Brards test: boil damp stone in concrete soda sulphate solution. Suspend stone for a day and
weigh. Lost in weight reflects frost attack.
Acid test: This test is carried out to understand the presence of calcium carbonate in building
stone. A sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken and paced in a solution of
hydrophobic acid having1% strength for seven days and solution is stirred at intervals. If powder
is formed on the surface (effervescence), shows the presence of calcium carbonate. This indicates
that the stone is susceptible to poor weathering.
A good stone however, maintains its sharp edges and the surface is free from powder.
Crushing test: This is the maximum load at which stone sample crushes or fails divided by the
area of the bearing face of the specimen. Stone samples are cut into cubes sizes
40mm×40mm×40mm. And load applied axially in a crushing test machine. Rate of loading is
140kg/sq.cm per minute
Water absorption test: The test is done to calculate the percentage water absorbed by stone. The
procedure involves drying a stone sample at 100degC – 110degC for 24hour.The weight is
recorded as W1. The sample is later immersed in distilled water at room temperature for 24hours..
The sample is dried with a damp cloth and weigh (W2)
The absorption value of the stone is calculated as ( W2-W1 )× 100
W1
Saturated coefficient test
Specific gravity test
Total porosity test
-sample cubes dried for 72 hours at 105°c, cool at room temp in dessicator and weigh gives W1.
- immerse in distill water for 24 hours (ambient temperature). Wipe surface water and weigh. This
gives W2.
-Boil sample water for 5 hours and cool, weigh suspended in water. This gives W3.
-surface dry and reweigh as W4.
(Wx-W1)%, X= W2or W4
% absorption = ( W2-W1 )× 100
W1

Sat. Coef. = W2 - W1(water absorption)

W4 - W1(porosity)

Site = W1
W2- W3 = Density.
Significance
Application: Arches, Walls, Cornices.
 METALS
INTRODUCTION
Metals can be defined as been elements which readily form positive ions and which are
characterized by opacity and high thermal and electrical conductivity. The lightest metal in
common use, aluminum, has about 2640 kg/m3, the densest lead weighs about 11400kg/m3. In the
pure form, metals are often very soft, e.g lead, aluminum and iron. Most metals used in buildings
are alloys containing controlled proportion of different metals. Their properties are not directly
related to those of the parent metals.

SELECTION OF METALS
The following are required properties that could aid the selection of metals for construction
purposes:
- High strength
- Toughness at low temperature
- Corrosion resistance
- Properties such as ductility (ability of metal to be drawn into thin wire).
Metals generally are classified into four types according to use:
(a) Structural use: for columns, beams, trusses and lattice beams (in roof construction).
(b) Non-structural use: iron bars, railings, fences, doors, staircases, balustrade, iron monger and
handrails.
(c) Weathering use: used as roof cladding, to keep the sun out and to provide comfortable
condition in the room.
(d) Mechanical services: use of metals in pipes, aluminum pipes for hot air, used for
environmental services, plumbing, drainage and gutters.

CLASSIFICATION
Metals are described based on two headings namely ferrous and non-ferrous metal.
Ferrous metals and alloys
Ferrous metals are produced from iron ore (ore is a solid rock or mineral from which metal is
obtained), e.g cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
IRON
- Ductile
- Malleable -ability of metal to be hammered or pressed into shape or easy to be influenced.
The properties of iron are governed by the following:
- Characteristics and composition of iron ore used in smelting (process of melting/fusing the ore)
percentage of carbon in the finished iron. Introduction of other metals during melting process.
- Manner of cooling from a liquid to a solid state.
- Conditions of cooling after reaching a solid state.
- Method of working, rolling, forging, reheating.

PRODUCTION OF IRON
Iron is produced in blast furnaces by the reduction of iron bearing materials with hot gas. The
large, refractory lined furnace is charged through its top with iron as ore, pellets, and/or sinter, flux
as limestone, dolomite and sinter; and coke for fuel. Iron oxides, coke and fluxes react with blast
air to form molten reduced iron, carbon monoxide (CO), and slag. The molten iron and slag
collect in the hearth at the base of the furnace. The byproduct gas is collected through off - takes
located at the top of the furnace and is recovered for use as fuel.
The production of 1 ton of iron requires 1.4 tons of ore or other iron bearing material; 0.5 – 0.65
tons of coke; 0.25 tons of limestone or dolomite; and 1.8 – 2 tons of air. By products consist of 0.2
– 0.4 tons of slag, and 2.5 – 3.5 tons of blast furnace gas containing up to 100 pounds (lb) of dust.
The molten iron and slag are removed or cast, from the furnace periodically. The casting process
begins with drilling a hole, called the tap hole into the clay filled notch at the base of the hearth.
During casting, molten iron flows into runners that lead to transport ladles. Slag also flows into the
clay filled iron notch at the base of the hearth. During casting, molten iron flows into runners that
lead to transport ladles. Slag also flows from the furnace, and is directed through separate runners
to a slag pit adjacent to the cast house, or into pots for transport to a remote slag pit. At the
conclusion of the cast, the tap hole is re - plugged with clay. The area around the base of the
furnace including all iron and slag runer, is enclosed by a cast house. The blast furnace by product
gas, which is collected from the furnace top, contains CO and particulate

FERROUS METALS (Fe, Steel)

These groups of metals are produced from iron ores in the form of iron oxide which contains some
impurities such as silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. The major ores includes:
(1) Magnetite (Fe3O4): It contains about 70-75% iron and it is the richest ore. Note that richness
measures the iron content and quality determines the purity of the ore. In terms of quality,
magnetite is second to Haematite. Magnetite colour is between red and black, strongly magnetic
and mining is done with the aid of explosives. The specific gravity is 4.9-5.2.
(2) Haematite (Fe2O3): This is second to magnetite in terms of iron content (about 65 - 69%) and
the purest ore. It’s usual colour is deep red, specific gravity 4.5 - 5.3 and has low sulphur and
phosphorus content as the impurities, it is non magnetic.
(3) Limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O): It is a hydrated form of Haematite, it contains about 60% Fe, 14.5%
chemically combined water, specific gravity 3.6 - 4.0 and colour tends towards yellow.
(4) Pyrites (iron sulphide (Fe𝑆3: Contains 45 – 47% Fe, specific gravity 4.8 - 5.1, yellow in colour
and is found almost in all parts of the world, it has high sulphur content.
(5) Siderite (FeCO3): Contains 40 % Fe, specific gravity 3.7 - 4.9, it is yellowish brown or reddish
in colour.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND CONVERSION OF THE IRON ORES
The treatment of these ores will produce:
- Pig iron
- Cast iron
- Wrought iron
- Steel

PIG IRON PRODUCTION

Method commonly used in the production process ranges from the blast furnace operations to the
sophisticated electric furnace process. The basic process involves the application of intense heat
on the ore which allows limestone to combine with the impurities to form slag which can be
separated from the basic material (iron).
Apply heat on the ore with coal as fuel and limestone as flux (the substance mixed with metal to
assist fusion) of in the blast furnace at high temperature, i.e. 1500°C.

STAGES IN PIG IRON PRODUCTION

(1) Dressing of iron ore (breaking the ore and walking)
(2) Calcinations: This is the preliminary heating period with enough air to cause a reasonable
degree of oxidation at the top layer. It's the conversion to powdery form through drying,
decomposing etc. Conversion to powder by heating to high temperature.
(3) Smelting/Roasting: This is around the boost it is the complete application of intense heat to
reduce the ore. Heating could be done by passing hot air through the TUYERS into the BOSH.
The blast furnace slag (a waste material from smelting) produced contains 45% lime, 35% silica,
12% Alumina and other impurities such as manganese dioxide calcium sulphate. The slag can be
used as DPC (in light weight concrete).
The pig iron produced contains between 93-95% iron, 4-5% carbon, the balance represent the
other impurities like S, P etc. The pig iron is either transported in liquid form for subsequent
process into wrought iron, steel or cast into ingots for storage process.
In a typical operating furnace 320 metric tons of ore plus 100 tons of coke (carbon fuel left as a
residue) plus 9 tons of limestone will produce 180 tons of pig iron.

CAST IRON
This is usually manufactured in a smaller blast furnace in diameter and up to 4-7m high; the
production is the same as pig iron except that pig iron is used as raw ore. One requires to oxidize
the pig iron. The materials are coke, pig iron, scrap iron or limestone. These are then fed into the
furnace chamber. Impurities are removed through oxidation process.
Cast iron contains 2-4% carbon and this makes it very brittle. It has very weak tensile strength and
offers a very great resistance to corrosion. Used mainly for waste pipes, sanitary appliances, water
mains, man holes covers, sewage pipes etc. It cannot be rebated or welded.

WROUGHT IRON
This is about the purest form of iron because it has very low carbon content. It is produced by
removing the impurities of cast iron. The production process is as follows:
(a) Refining of pig iron: Pig iron is melted in a furnace with a strong air for oxidation. The
oxidized mass is cast into mould and cooled suddenly to make it brittle.
(b) Puddling: Here the material is transferred to puddling furnace sections where further heating
ensures further oxidation and formation of slag. The iron content is then cast into moulds called
puddling moulds.
(c) Shingling: This is the last stage which is the removal of slag from the bosh. The bosh is later
transferred to blooming mill. Wrought iron contains about 0.05-0.15% carbon, 0.15-0.2% silicon,
0.12-0.16% phosphorus, 0.02-0.03% sulphur, 0.03-0.1% manganese, 2% slag, and thus slag comes
in the form of five needles like string. Wrought iron is ductile, malleable, tough and moderately
2 2
elastic. Its ultimate crushing strength is 200N/𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ultimate tensile strength is 40 N/𝑚𝑚
.Wrought iron is resistant to rot and corrosion and it is used mainly for roof coverings, rivets,
chains, ornamental iron works such as gates, etc.

STEEL
Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due to a wide range
and combination of physical and mechanical properties that steel can have. By suitably controlling
the carbon content, alloying elements and heat treatment, a desired combination of hardness,
ductility and strength can be obtained in steel. In terms of carbon content, steel is an intermediate
lying between cast and wrought iron.

Manufacturing Methods
The prominent steel making processes are:
1. Bessemer process
2. Cementation process
3. Crucible process
4. Open Hearth process
5. Electric Smelting process
6. Duplex process
7. Lintz and Donawitz (L.D) process

The production process of steel comprises chiefly of oxidation and removal of impurity such as
sulphur and phosphorus from pig iron. After which the molten product is made to combine with
some elements to obtain some desirable properties and transferred with the aid of ladle to a
teaming mould (moulds of various sizes ranging from 450kg - 110000kg per units).
From the teaming mould the material gets to the blooming mill where it is fabricated to useful
construction materials etc. The blooming mill is just an arrangement of moulds which compresses
the molten matter to the required shape and sizes production can be done either in electrical Arch
or blast furnace. Major materials used as limestone, cast iron and molten pig iron with temperature
1500°C.

USES OF STEEL
Steel is used for structural purpose e.g
(1) Universal beam
(2) Universal column
(3) Joints/I beam
(4) Channel
(5) Angles
(6) Built up sections using steel sheets, steel plates
(7) Reinforcement bars

NON FERROUS METALS (Al, Cu, Pb, Zn)

Aluminum: Extracted from Bauxite as the major raw materials (e.g. high Alumina cement
component). This is then treated with caustic soda to form soluble compound sodium aluminates.
When water is added aluminum hydroxide is obtained as precipitate. This is then refined through
electrolytic splitting into pure aluminum with cryolite as the electrolyte. About 17,000k of
electricity will be required to provide metric ton of Al forms alloy with materials Mn, Sl, Cu, Mg.
Pure Although may be rolled to 0.009cm thick P of 2700kg/m3. It is silvery white in colour. Has a
high reflective value hence suitable for roof coverings, has low melting point 660°C, a good
insulator with high coefficient of expansion, about 24x10-6°C. Good conductor of electricity, can
be attacked by alkalis such as Portland cement, develops a white film (oxide) when exposed to
moisture. It is used in making doors and window frames, railings, post panels and balustrades in
construction industry. It is also used in powder form in painting.

MAJOR PROPERTIES
Aluminum is silver white in colour with a brittle metallic luster on freshly broken surface. It is
malleable, less ductile than copper but excels Zinc, Tin, and Lead. Aluminum is harder than tin.
𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑡, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦. 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑
conductor of electricity. Aluminum can be riveted and welded but cannot be soldered. It can be
0 0 2
tempered at 350 C. The melting point is 657 C, tensile strength is 117.2N/𝑚𝑚 in the cast form
2
and 241.3 N/𝑚𝑚 when drawn into wires. Aluminum is found to be resistant to the attack of nitric
acid, dissolves slowly in concentrated sulphuic acid and is soluble in hydrochloric acid. At normal
temperature it is not affected by sulphur, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, vinegar, sea water, etc.,
but is rapidly corroded by caustic alkalis.

USES
Pure aluminum is very soft and is unsuitable for structural purposes. Satisfactory properties are
derived by alloying copper, manganese, zinc, silicon, nickel with aluminum. It is most suitable for
making door and window frames, railings of shops and corrugated sheets for roofing system.
Aluminum powder is used for making paint. Aluminum is extensively used in making parts of
internal combustion engine airplanes, utensils and packing for medicines, chocolates, etc.

ZINC (It forms important alloy like bronze and German silver)
This is obtained from zinc sulphate called BLENDE or zinc carbonates. The first stage of
production is the reductions of the ore to the oxide forms. Thus, the smelting of the ore to produce
pure Zn which is liberated as vapour which could be condense to a blush white metallic substance
with silver lustre. This is then poured in moulds or ingots to solidify to what is called SPELTER.
The spelter can be rolled into sheet or drawn into wires between a temperature of 100 - 150°C it
burns in air with a greenish white flame, density is about 7160kg/m3 with a low melting point of
about 409°C.
When new it has a bright appearance but when exposed Zn carbonates covers the surface which as
a green coating it is attacked by sulphates.

USES
In construction industry zinc is commonly used as a protective covering for metals or as a base for
paints. It is also being used extensively as roofing sheets.

COPPER
The major ore includes copper pyrite or copper sulphide. Manufacturing processes are in 5 stages:
(a) First stage is the grading and sorting of the ore.
(b) Second stage is the roasting of the ore into sulphite and its oxides.
(c) Smelting of the oxide with the addition of limestone to eliminate the slag.
(d) The reduction of the oxide or the sulphide to metallic copper in a BESSEMER CONVERTER
and in the chamber enough air is introduced.
The produce is called BLISTER COPPER when is allowed to cool. The blister copper is then
refined through electrolytic action, there the copper bars will serve as the cathode and the anode,
an impure copper rod. Electrolyte contains 15% Sulphate solution, 5% HSO. Copper is usually
produced in 3 grades:
(a) DE-OXIDIZED COPPER: This is in the form of tube with diameter 15-600mm. They are used
as water pipes.
(b) FIRE PERFORMED COPPER: This is oxidized copper which offers more resistance, comes
out in plates, 305mm wide and 10mm thick of sheets with 400mm wide and 1.18-10mm thick or
as copper find with a thickness of 0.25mm.
(c) ELECTROLYTIC TOUGH COPPER: This comes in the form of wire with diameter between
0.025 - 5mm and up to rod which could be of any diameter.

PROPERTIES
Copper is a bright shining metal of reddish colour which turns greenish on exposure to weather.
Copper is malleable and ductile and can be worked in hot and cold conditions. It is not weldable,
except on red heat. It is soft and good conductor of heat and electricity.

USES
Copper is extensively used for electrical purposes (electrical cables), tubes for condensers and for
other conductors which must withstand corrosion (hot water supply pipes). Other applications in
buildings are roofing sheets, ceilings.

LEAD
Mainly used in its pure form, lead is the densest, softest and the weakest metal. The major ore is
lead sulphide (PbS) which is called GALENA. It contains approximately 86% lead. First process
is roasting or smelting to remove the major impurities called XEROXPHYII. (Major impurity is
sulphur, others impurities to be removed are silver and antimony. It is the softest and most ductile
metal with grayish colour, high coefficient of expansion, low melting point 327°C, low strength, it
creeps and sag on a long narrow support from carbonates when exposed, resistance to corrosion
and electrolytic actions, density 11360kg/m3 and relative density is 11.34.
USES
It is used as a base in paints, lead pipes and lead joints in sanitary fittings, are widely used in lead
batteries, cables, covering making bullet shot, and lining in chemical and metallurgical industries.
TIN
Tin is extracted from black oxide of tin, casseterite (Sn𝑂2, 78.6% tin). It is extracted from the ore
𝑜
by crushing, roasting and melting to a temperature of about 1000 C in a way similar to that of
coppers.
Tin is a silvery white, lustrous, and extremely malleable metal. It is so soft that it can be cut by a
𝑜
knife. Its specific gravity is 7.3 and melts at 232 C. It is harder, more ductile and stronger than
lead. Tin is as ductile as soft steel. It is highly resistant to corrosion and has low tensile strength.

Sheets coated with tin are used to make cans, utensils and furnace pipes. Sheets coated with lead -
tin alloy are used for roofing. Babbitt is an alloy of tin and lead

ALLOYS (BRONZE, BRASS AND SOLDER)

BRONZE: This is an alloy of copper and tin (90:10) which is produced from reverberating
furnace. It has dull yellow colour and requires little or maintenance. Mainly used in balustrade,
ornamental casting and plumbing works.
BRASS: This is an alloy of copper and zincs (60:40), treated in a reverberating furnace and run
into ingots later rolled into sheets or cast into specific shapes. It is goldenly yellowish in colour
used for taps, ball valve and so on. It is chromium plated to protect it from palving.
SOLDER: Alloy of lead, tin and antimony. Sometimes only lead and tin are used. It has very low
melting point between 180 - 230°C, for electrical works tin 60-65%, lead solder for copper Smith
work= 60% copper, 47% lead, 15% antimony. Blow pipe solder- 40% tin, 58% lead, 2% antimony.
METALS

Introduction
Metals can be defined as been elements which readily form positive ions and which are
characterized by opacity and high thermal and electrical conductivity. The lightest metal in
common use, aluminum, has about 2640 kg/m3, the densest lead weighs about 11400kg/m3. In the
pure form, metals are often very soft, e.g lead, aluminum and iron. Most metals used in buildings
are alloys containing controlled proportion of different metals. Their properties are not directly
related to those of the parent metals.

Selection of Metals
The following are required properties that could aid the selection of metals for construction
purposes:
- High strength
- Toughness at low temperature
- Corrosion resistance
- Properties such as ductility (ability of metal to be drawn into thin wire).
Metals generally are classified into four types according to use:
(a) Structural use: for columns, beams, trusses and lattice beams (in roof construction).
(b) Non-structural use: iron bars, railings, fences, doors, staircases, balustrade, iron monger and
handrails.
(c) Weathering use: used as roof cladding, to keep the sun out and to provide comfortable
condition in the room.
(d) Mechanical services: use of metals in pipes, aluminum pipes for hot air, used for
environmental services, plumbing, drainage and gutters.

CLASSIFICATION
Metals are described based on two headings namely ferrous and non-ferrous metal.
Ferrous metals and alloys
Ferrous metals are produced from iron ore (ore is a solid rock or mineral from which metal is
obtained), e.g cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
IRON
- Ductile
- Malleable -ability of metal to be hammered or pressed into shape or easy to be influenced.
The properties of iron are governed by the following:
- Characteristics and composition of iron ore used in smelting (process of melting/fusing the ore)
percentage of carbon in the finished iron. Introduction of other metals during melting process.
- Manner of cooling from a liquid to a solid state.
- Conditions of cooling after reaching a solid state.
- Method of working, rolling, forging, reheating.

Production of Iron
Iron is produced in blast furnaces by the reduction of iron bearing materials with hot gas. The
large, refractory lined furnace is charged through its top with iron as ore, pellets, and/or sinter, flux
as limestone, dolomite and sinter; and coke for fuel. Iron oxides, coke and fluxes react with blast
air to form molten reduced iron, carbon monoxide (CO), and slag. The molten iron and slag
collect in the hearth at the base of the furnace. The byproduct gas is collected through off - takes
located at the top of the furnace and is recovered for use as fuel.
The production of 1 ton of iron requires 1.4 tons of ore or other iron bearing material; 0.5 – 0.65
tons of coke; 0.25 tons of limestone or dolomite; and 1.8 – 2 tons of air. By products consist of 0.2
– 0.4 tons of slag, and 2.5 – 3.5 tons of blast furnace gas containing up to 100 pounds (lb) of dust.
The molten iron and slag are removed or cast, from the furnace periodically. The casting process
begins with drilling a hole, called the tap hole into the clay filled notch at the base of the hearth.
During casting, molten iron flows into runners that lead to transport ladles. Slag also flows into the
clay filled iron notch at the base of the hearth. During casting, molten iron flows into runners that
lead to transport ladles. Slag also flows from the furnace, and is directed through separate runners
to a slag pit adjacent to the cast house, or into pots for transport to a remote slag pit. At the
conclusion of the cast, the tap hole is re - plugged with clay. The area around the base of the
furnace including all iron and slag runer, is enclosed by a cast house. The blast furnace by product
gas, which is collected from the furnace top, contains CO and particulate

FERROUS METALS (Fe, Steel)

These groups of metals are produced from iron ores in the form of iron oxide which contains some
impurities such as silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. The major ores includes:
(1) Magnetite (Fe3O4): It contains about 70-75% iron and it is the richest ore. Note that richness
measures the iron content and quality determines the purity of the ore. In terms of quality,
magnetite is second to Haematite. Magnetite colour is between red and black, strongly magnetic
and mining is done with the aid of explosives. The specific gravity is 4.9-5.2.
(2) Haematite (Fe2O3): This is second to magnetite in terms of iron content (about 65 - 69%) and
the purest ore. It’s usual colour is deep red, specific gravity 4.5 - 5.3 and has low sulphur and
phosphorus content as the impurities, it is non magnetic.
(3) Limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O): It is a hydrated form of Haematite, it contains about 60% Fe, 14.5%
chemically combined water, specific gravity 3.6 - 4.0 and colour tends towards yellow.
(4) Pyrites (iron sulphide (Fe: Contains 4.5 - 4.9 Fe, specific gravity 4.8 - 5.1, yellow in colour and
is found almost in all parts of the world, it has high sulphur content.
(5) Siderite (FeCO3): Contains 40 - 48% Fe, specific gravity 3.7 - 4.9, it is yellowish brown or
reddish in colour.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND CONVERSION OF THE IRON ORES
The treatment of these ores will produce:
- Pig iron
- Cast iron
- Wrought iron
- Steel

Pig Iron Production

Method commonly used in the production process ranges from the blast furnace operations to the
sophisticated electric furnace process. The basic process involves the application of intense heat
on the ore which allows limestone to combine with the impurities to form Slag which can be
separated from the basic material (iron).
Apply heat on the ore with coal as fuel and limestone as flux (the substance mixed with metal to
assist fusion) of in the blast furnace at high temperature, i.e. 1500°C.

STAGES IN PIG IRON PRODUCTION

(1) Dressing of iron ore (breaking the ore and walking)
(2) Calcinations: This is the preliminary heating period with enough air to cause a reasonable
degree of oxidation at the top layer. It's the conversion to powdery form through drying,
decomposing etc. Conversion to powder by heating to high temperature.
(3) Smelting/Roasting: This is around the boost it is the complete application of intense heat to
reduce the ore. Heating could be done by passing hot air through the TUYERS into the BOSH.
The blast furnace slag (a waste material from smelting) produced contains 45% lime, 35% silica,
12% Alumina and other impurities such as manganese dioxide calcium sulphate. The slag can be
used as DPC (in light weight concrete).
The pig iron produced contains between 93-95% iron, 4-5% carbon, the balance represent the
other impurities like S, P etc. The pig iron is either transported in liquid form for subsequent
process into wrought iron, steel or cast into ingots for storage process.
In a typical operating furnace 320 metric tons of ore plus 100 tons of coke (carbon fuel left as a
residue) plus 9 tons of limestone will produce 180 tons of pig iron.

CAST IRON
This is usually manufactured in a smaller blast furnace in diameter and up to 4-7m high; the
production is the same as pig iron except that pig iron is used as raw ore. One requires to oxidize
the pig iron. The materials are coke, pig iron, scrap iron or limestone. These are then fed into the
furnace chamber. Impurities are removed through oxidation process.
Cast iron contains 2-4% carbon and this makes it very brittle. It has very weak tensile strength and
offers a very great resistance to corrosion. Used mainly for waste pipes, sanitary appliances, water
mains, man holes covers, sewage pipes etc. It cannot be rebated or welded.

WROUGHT IRON
This is about the purest form of iron because it has very low carbon content. The production
process is as follows:
(a) Refining of pig iron: pig iron is melted in a furnace with a strong air for oxidation. The
oxidized mass is cast into mould and cooled suddenly to make it brittle.
(b) Puddling: Here the material is transferred to puddling furnace sections where further heating
ensures further oxidation and formation of slag. The iron content is then cast into bosh called
puddling bosh.
(c) Chingling: This is the last stage which is the removal of slag from the bosh. The bosh is later
transferred to blooming mill. Wrought iron contains about 0.05-0.15% carbon, 0.15-0.2% silica,
0.15-0.16% phosphorus, 0.02-0.03% sulphur, 0.02-0.1% manganese, 2% slag, and thus slag comes
in the form of five needles like string. Wrought iron is resistant to rot and corrosion and it is used
mainly for finishing works or decorations.

Steel
In terms of carbon content, steel is an intermediate lying between cast and wrought iron. The
production process of steel comprises chiefly of oxidation and removal of impurity such as
sulphur and phosphorus from pig iron. After which the molten product is made to combine with
some elements to obtain some desirable properties and transferred with the aid of ladle to a
teaming mould (moulds of various sizes ranging from 450kg - 110000kg per units).
From the teaming mould the material gets to the blooming mill where it will be fabricated to what
is used in the construction of building etc. The blooming mill is just an arrangement of moulds
which compresses the molten matter to the required shape and sizes production can be done either
in electrical Arch or blast furnace. Major materials used as limestone, cast iron and molten pig
iron with temperature 1500°C.

USES OF STEEL
Steel is used for structural purpose e.g
(1) Universal beam
(2) Universal column
(3) Joints/I beam
(4) Channel
(5) Angles
(6) Built up sections

Non ferrous metals (Al, CA, Pb, Zn)

Aluminum: Extracted from Bauxite as the major raw materials (e.g. high Alumina cement
component). This is then treated with caustic soda to form soluble compound sodium aluminates.
When water is added aluminum hydroxide is obtained as precipitate. This is then refined through
electrolytic splitting into pure aluminum with cryolite as the electrolyte. About 17,000k of
electricity will be required to provide metric ton of Al forms alloy with materials Mn, Sl, Cu, Mg.
Pure Although may be rolled to 0.009cm thick P of 2700kg/m3. It is silvery white in colour. Has a
high reflective value hence suitable for roof coverings, has low melting point 660°C, a good
insulator with high coefficient of expansion, about 24x10-6°C. Good conductor of electricity, can
be attached by alkalis such as Portland cement, develops a white film (oxide) when exposed to
moisture. It is used in making doors and window frames, railings, post panels and balustrades in
construction industry. It is also used in powder form in painting.

MAJOR PROPERTIES
The colour is usually salmon red, it is resistance to corrosion, but can be attached by strong
mineral acids, also withstand mechanical damages, can be cut, bend, rolled, fudged or extended.
Has a density of 890kg/m and melting P of 10830 and acquire a green film called PATINA when
exposed to atmospheric conditions due to the formation of CuSO, CaCl, etc.
ZINC (It forms important alloy like bronze and German silver)
This is obtained from zinc sulphate called BLENDE or zinc carbonates. The first stage of
production is the reductions of the ore to the oxide forms. Thus, the smelting of the ore to produce
pure Zn which is liberated as vapour which could be condense to a blush white metallic substance
with silver listre. This is then poured in moulds or ingots to solidify to what is called SPALTER.
The spalter can be rolled into sheet or drawn into wires between a temperature of 100 - 150°C it
burns in air with a greenish white flame, density is about 7160kg/m3 with a low melting point of
about 409°C.
When new it has a bright appearance but when exposed Zn carbonates covers the surface which as
a green coating it is attacked by sulphates.
USES
In construction industry zinc is commonly used as a protective covering for metals or as a base for
paints. It is also being used extensively as roofing sheets.

COPPER
The major ore includes copper pyrite or copper sulphide. Manufacturing processes are in 5 stages:
(a) First stage is the grading and sorting of the ore.
(b) Second stage is the roasting of the ore into sulphite and its oxides.
(c) Smelting of the oxide with the addition of limestone to eliminate the slag.
(d) The reduction of the oxide or the sulphide to metallic copper in a BESSEMER CONVERTER
and in the chamber enough air is introduced.
The produce is called BLISTER COPPER when is allowed to cool. The blister copper is then
refined through electrolytic action, there the copper bars will serve as the cathode and the anode,
an impure copper rod. Electrolyte contains 15% Sulphate solution, 5% HSO. Copper is usually
produced in 3 grades:
(a) DE-OXIDIZED COPPER: This is in the form of tube with diameter 15-600mm. They are used
as water pipes.
(b) FIRE PERFORMED COPPER: This is oxidized copper which offers more resistance, comes
out in plates, 305mm wide and 10mm thick of sheets with 400mm wide and 1.18-10mm thick or
as copper find with a thickness of 0.25mm.
(c) ELECTROLYTIC TOUGH COPPER: This comes in the form of wire with diameter between
0.025 - 5mm and up to rod which could be of any diameter.

LEAD
The major ore is lead sulphide which is called GALENA. It contains approximately 86% lead.
First process is roasting or smelting to remove the major impurities called XEROXPHYII. (Major
impurity is sulphur, others impurities to be removed are silver and antimony. It is the softest and
most ductile metal with grayish colour, high coefficient of expansion, low melting point 327°C,
low strength, it creeps and sag on a long narrow support from carbonates when exposed, resistance
to corrosion and electrolytic actions, density 11360kg/m3
USES
It is used as a base in paints, lead pipes and lead joints in sanitary fittings, are widely used in lead
batteries, cables, covering making bullet shot, and lining in chemical and metallurgical industries.
Babbit is an alloy of tin and lead

ALLOYS ( BRONZE, BRASS AND SOLDER)

BRONZE: This is an alloy of copper and tin (90:10) which is produced from reverberating
furnace. It has dull yellow colour and requires little or maintenance. Mainly used in balustrade,
ornamental casting and plumbing works.
BRASS: This is an alloy of copper and zincs (60:40), treated in a reverberating furnace and run
into ingots later rolled into sheets or cast into specific shapes. It is goldenly yellowish in colour
used for taps, ball valve and so on. It is chromium plated to protect it from palving.
SOLDER: Alloy of lead, tin and antimony. Sometimes only lead and tin are used. It has very low
melting point between 180 - 230°C, for electrical works tin 60-65%, lead solder for copper Smith
work= 60% copper, 47% lead, 15% antimony. Blow pipe solder- 40% tin, 58% lead, 2% antimony.
PLASTICS
Manufacture
The raw materials used in the manufacture of plastics can be divided into three main
classes:
Animal or vegetable product: This includes those obtained from cow's milk and the
cellulose obtained principally from cotton fibre (which are too short for spinning and
also for wood pulp).
Coal by-product: Obtained during the distillation of coal to obtain gas.
Petroleum by-products: Obtained during the refining and cracking of crude oil.

TYPES OF PLASTICS
a) Thermoplastic materials: these are substances which losses their rigidity
whenever they are heated, so that they can be moulded repeatedly.
b) Thermosetting materials: these undergo a definite change during the
moulding process causing them to become permanently rigid and
incapable of being soften again.
c) Cold setting materials: which become permanently hard due to a chemical
reaction which occurs at ordinary temperature.

THERMOPLASTIC MATERIAL

They vary from land and rigid to soft and pliable and have wide ranges of other
properties when they are modified by additives. Apart from the natural polymer
cellulose, nearly all thermoplastics are prefix "poly", the following being the
thermoplastics commonly used in buildings
1) Polythene (PE)
2) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
3) Polyvinyl acetate (PVAC)
4) Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF)
5) Polypropylene (PP)
6) Polystyrene (PS)
7) Cellulose nitrate (CN)
8) Cellulose acetate (CA)
9) Nylon (PA- Polymides)
10) Polyacetal ( POM)
11) Polycarbonates (PC).

1) Polythene (PE)

It is made in high and low density forms. Both forms are extremely resistant to many
chemicals at room temperature and are good electrical insulators. They have high
impermeability to water and to water vapour. The low density polythene (has a
specific gravity of 0.91-0.93) is resilient and very tough at low temperatures. It
softens at about 800-1050C. The high density Polythene (S.G - 0.94-0.97) is less
resilient and tough and softens at high temperatures.

Uses
Cold water cisterns and floats, Water pipes, Bath, wash hand basin and sink wastes,
Damp proof courses and membranes, Temporary glazing and protection, Curing of
concretes

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Polyvinyl chloride either the natural rigid form or made flexible by the addition of
plasticizers, is very versatile. PVC has very good weathering properties and is
unaffected by dilute or concentrated acids and alkaline. It begins to soften at about
70°c, so ordinary PVC is unsuitable for hot water pipes.
Uses:
It is used as ventilation duct, soil and waste systems, rainwater gutter pipe, water
mains (main water pipes), transparent and translucent sheets which can be flat or
corrugated. The corrugated sheets can be used for garage roofs and the flat types can
be used for safety glazing. Used as electrical conduct and accessories, floor coverings
(plasticized flexible FVC), It can also be used as vinyl sheet and tile floor covering. In
addition, it is used as joint seals (in water pipes) and electrical cable insulation.

Polyvinyl Acetate ( PVAC)

The use of PVAC is limited by it's low softening point.
Uses:
1) Adhesive for joinery
2) Emulsion paints
3) Plaster bonding agent
4) Screed bonding agent
5) In-situ floor covering.

Polypropylene (PP)

Polypropylene has higher softening point than most thermoplastics. The uses include:
1) Fillings for pitch fibre pipes
2) Traps to waste fittings
3) Waste pipes
4) WC cisterns, siphons and WC seats.

Polystyrene (PS)
Uses of Polystyrene are:
1) For walls and ceiling
2) Lighting fittings
3) It can also be used in the manufacture of paints.
Cellulose Nitrate (CW)
It is mainly used in the manufacture of paints.

Cellulose Acetate (CA)

Used only to a limited extent for:
1) Binder for emulsion paints
2) Used for lighting fittings.

Nylon
This is also referred to as polyamides. Nylons are outstanding among
thermoplastics for their resistance to organic solvents, oils and fuels and resistance to
alkalis. Up to 20% concentration is good at room temperature. Nylons are very tough,
have high strength, excellent air resistance and low coefficient of frictions. They are
good electrical insulators at normal room temperature.
Apart from its use as fiber, it is also used for knots and bolts, for curtain rails and
sliding door fittings and sliding door fittings, and also for ball-valve assembly in WC
cisterns.

Polyacetal or Polyoxymethylene (POM Plastic)

These have a dense crystalline structure and resemble metals in many respects. They
are heavy with a specific gravity of 1.42, strong and rigid but they are resistant while
having very little creep under continuous stress. They have high resistance to heat,
abrasion and organic chemicals and dimensional stability in good.
POM produces high precision parts for applications such as automotive, electrical and
electronic, industrial and drug delivery. The polymer serves as an alternative to
metals. This is due to its low friction, wear, and excellent balance of mechanical and
chemical properties. Their use in buildings include plumbing components such as
taps, valves, couplings in irrigation, water filters, shower heads, sprinklers, water
meter and pumps.

Poly carbonates
They are dense, hard, tough and have high tensile strength and ductility rather like a
metal. They are transparent and can be used when a combination of strength and
transparency is required.

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

Thermosetting plastics are generally rigid and hard and resist scratching to varying
degrees. They cannot be appreciably softened under the influence of heat, which is in
many cases an advantage and essential for structural adhere. Compared with
thermoplastics, creep is very small. The main uses of thermosetting plastics in
building are:
Impregnant for paper and fabric, Used as adhesives, Binders for glass fibre, reinforced
plastics and binders in paints.

Types of thermosetting plastics

1) Phenol-formaldehyde or Bakelite
First produced commercially in 1910 is the cheapest thermosetting resist. Products
are tough and heat resisting and are usually black or brown in colour. Uses include:
a) Moulding e.g electrical accessories, door, furniture, WC seats
b) Impregnant paper and fabric laminates
c) Paints
d) Adhesives
e) Cellular or foamed products.

2) Urea- Formaldehyde
These are clear thermosetting resins which gives white or brightly coloured products.
Uses include:
a) Moulding e.g. electrical accessories
b) W.C. seats
c) Paints
d) Paper and textile treatments
e) Adhesives
f) Cellular product.

3) Melamine Formaldehyde
Melamine resins are clear but can be made in a wide range of light-fast colours. They
resist hot and cold water better than urea-formaldehyde and are very durable when
exposed to weather. Uses includes:
a) Moulding e.g. door handles
b) Surfaces to hard board and plywood
c) Adhesives.

4) Polyesters
Polyesters resins harden without heat or pressure and are used mainly with glass fibre
reinforcement. One type of polyester is used as a film, with aluminium deposited on
it, stretched over a frame to provide a mirror. Other uses include:
a) Paints
b) Clear finishes
c) In-situ floor coverings with aggregates.

COLD SETTING PLASTICS

Too commonly used, cold setting plastics are:
 1) Polyester
2) Epoxi resin
They set hard when mixed with catalyst. These resins reinforced with glass fibre are
used to make moulding for boat, car bodies etc.
 PAINTS
Used commonly as a finishing material. This gives a decorative and protective effect
on a building or parts thereof
Oil paint = water + alkyl
Water paint = water + emulsion (P.V.A.)
Stir to colloidal solution; no chain reaction. Therefore is said to be suspended of solid
in liquid. Titanium oxide gives it whole colour.

Types of paints
1) oil paints
2) others
(i) Emulsion
(ii) Varnishes - resin
- driver
- solvent
(iii) Distempers ( white wash) base, carrier, pigment, size (glue)

- Aluminium paint
- Ash paint
- Bituminous paint
- Bronze paint
- Casein paint
- Cement paint
- Enamel paint
- Luminous paint
- Silicate paint
- Rubber paint

Characteristics of paints
1) Consistency - Too thick will drag
- Too thin will tear
2) Spreading power - ability to spread over a given surface area to give a uniform
thickness. Generally spreading power is on metal than plaster wood
3) Drying rate - so that dust or dirt will not stick to it after 9 hours and totally dry
about 24 hours to receive another coat.
4) Durability - disintegration is caused by oxidation of vehicle ( dry poll, drier
solvent). Though oxidation is essential to drying, it continues even after drying to
form elastic resinous film which becomes hard and brittle and finally disintegrates.

Oil paints
Composition: The six basic ingredients that make up an oil paint are:
(a) Base - The bulk of the paint: creates an opaque film/ covering on the surface
applied. Common materials used includes: red lead, ZnO, iron oxide, antimony white,
aluminium powder etc.
(b) Extender or filler - This increases the bulk thereby reducing the cost of base
materials. Also reduces the weight of paint and renders it more durable. Common
inert extenders includes : kaolin, barium sulphate, silica, charcoal, gypsum, lithopone
(ZnS = barisites).
(c) Vehicle(s) or carrier(s) - this forms the medium in which the solid substances
mentioned above and others are suspended. Improves spreading power of paints.
Usually refined linseed oil (from flax) or nut oil is most commonly used - almost
colourless.
(d) Drier - Accelerators in form of mtallic compounds to reduce drying time through
oxidation. Common examples includes: MgO2, pbacetate, MgSO4 terebene (turpentine
+ conc. H2SO4).
(e) Solvent/Thinner - Thins the mix and evaporate after the paint has been applied.
Turpentine is a common example.
(f) Pigment - Colouring matter, frequently inorganic salt or oxide, appears as fine
insoluble particles of T1O2 (white), Spanish red oxide (Red), organic and metallic
pigment e.g. bronze or Al2

Manufacture
(1) Preparation of paste - base (white lead)
- drier
- colour
(2) Mixture; agitation of pastes. Stabilization consistency controlled by thinking.
(3) Screening of mix after the 3rd stage, paint is ready for use.

Common defects
(1) Fading - loss of colour due to radiation
(2) Flaking - peeling due to poor adhesion
(3) Grinning - insufficient opacity - visible background
(4) Wrinkling - particularly on thickly painted surface
(5) Chalking - destruction of oil by physical
(6) Crocodiling - soft undercoat; hair cracks
(7) Washing off - water soluble pigment
INTRODUCTION

A building primary function is to provide shelter to valuables such as man and

personal effects. With rapid economic development, other secondary functions such as

prestige, beauty, comfort e.t.c. have turned out to dictate the forms and methods of

building construction so much that any object may be deemed a building material.

Known construction materials increased from about 3,000 during the 2nd world war

to about 40,000 today. However, the performance of a material vis-a-vis the building,

the geographical environment and the user determines the acceptability. In this respect

few materials have become prominent and very popular in the construction industry.

These materials include concrete, timber, stones, bricks, plastics, glass, paints and

bitumen.

In this treatise, the materials listed above are discussed with specific reference to the

way they are manufactured or procured, their characteristics and utilization for

construction purposes. The materials selected also represent those commonly used in

the tropical environment and a thorough understanding of these tested materials

would enhance further research into their improvement or substitution with other

materials for the academician and improved construction techniques for the practical

builder.

Finally, in dealing with any building material it must be borne in mind that the

functional requirements of buildings include basically,

-structural stability

-dimensional stability

-freedom from damp/ weather

-adequate ventilation, lighting, thermal comfort

-convenient internal arrangement

-suitable waste disposal system

-provision of portable water

-adequate cooking facilities

These parameters, coupled with the need for privacy, economy and beauty, govern the

selection of materials for construction works.

CHAPTER ONE

CONCRETE

Concrete may be defined as an artificial material resulting from a mixture of

aggregates, a binding material, and water. Aggregates are obtained from the Earth's

crust and are well covered under 'Rocks' in chapter 3. The binder may be lime or

cement in which case lime concrete or cement concrete will be produced.

The materials for cement concrete are therefore cement (any type), aggregates and

water. The product (concrete) is a solid mass strong in compression but very weak in
tension (1/10th the compressive strength). To compensate for this weakness in

tension, steel bars are often buried in the paste which gets bonded into a single mass

called reinforced concrete.

The composite materials listed above are hereunder discussed in details.

1.1 CEMENT

Cement is a bonding agent and can be described as a powdered material that

chemically reacts with water; it hardens on drying and is used with a suitable

aggregate to form concrete. The cement most commonly used is ordinary Portland

cement (OPC) but there are a number of others, of which some have only limited or

special use.

The main groups of cement are: Portland cements (formed from burning a mixture of

clay and lime), high Alumina cement (manufactured from a mixture of lime and

bauxite), slag cements (granulated blast furnace slag forms one of the main

ingredient), natural or pozzolanic cements (formed fro naturally occurring materials,

usually of volcanic origin, which will react with lime to form cementitious materials)

and special cements (usually manufactured from one or more of the above groups and

have a special but limited use).

1.1.1 Ordinary Portland cement

This brand of cement which may be taken as the widely used cement may be traced to

the work of an English mason (Joseph Adpin) in 1824. His product which looked

more like the rock of Portland in English was given the name Portland cement.

1.1.2 Manufacturing Process

Cement can be manufactured either through the wet or dry process. The major stages

of the two processes are highlighted below;

1. The formation of homogeneous mix of essential materials

2. The burning of the mix into clinker

3. The grinding of the clinker with little gypsum into cement.

Manufacturing Process Flow Chart

Wet Process
Dry process

Clay Limestone Water

Clay Limestone Iron

Crusher Crusher Crusher

Crusher

Wash 3D R6
Grinder Raw Mills
Mill Wet Mill

Collection Basin
Storage
Silos

PRE HEATING
CHAMBER

Rotary Kiln (1500◦c 1700◦c)

Clinker cooler

Cement Mill
Cement pkg. Plant
(+gypsum)
While undergoing the first stage, it is important to ensure that all materials are in

appropriate proportions. The dry process usually has the materials intimately mixed

and transported under pressure to the preheating chambers.

In the case of the wet process slurry is formed with approximately 35-45% water

content. At the collection basin, adjustment of the materials to the limits set below is

done.

Table 1: Chemical Composition of OPC

Material % Function

Alumina 3.8 Controls setting excess

causes weakness
Silica Si02 17.25 Gives strength (hard
calcium silicates)

Lime 60.67 Gives strength (too much

CaO causes dis-integration
Iron Oxide 0.5 - 6 Colour; strength

Mg0 0.1 - 4 Strength

S03 0.1 – 2.75

Alkali 0.5 - 1

During the burning stage the material is constantly agitated by the action of the rotary

kiln with a temp of about 1500-1700°C operating to a slope of 1-30. The constituents

combine to produce four Bogue compounds given in Table 2.

Table 2

Usual Compound O.P.C % Range and Order Compound

abbreviation
C3S 3Ca0. Si02 45 25-50 SLRO (3CaO S102)
C2S 2Ca02 Si02 30 21-45 LSOR 3Ca0 S1O2)
C3A C3A (3Ca0 10 5-11 ROLS (3Ca0 Al203)
A1203
C4AF C4AF 10 9-14 LORS (4Ca0. Al203Fe203
C4Ca
A103Fe203
Others 5

Upon cooling the clinker is ground with 3-5%gypsum to powder and may be packed

in 50kg bags.

1.1.3 OTHER PORTLAND CEMENT TYPES

Apart from ordinary Portland cement other types of cement may be obtained by
merely altering the composition of the slurry hence bogue compounds. The common

ones given in Table 3

OPC RHPC LHPC SRPC

Lime 63 65 60 64

Silica 21 21 23 25

Alumina 6 5 5 4

Iron Oxide 4 3 5 3

Water and Batching

Water for concreting should be pure, although this is rarely observed on sites. Sea

water for instance contains salts which does not only cause efflorescence but also has

some cement and also lubricates cement and aggregates into place. It is estimated that

approximately 0.3:1 water/cement ratio is sufficient for complete hydration. However

extra quantity is required to compensate for loss through evaporation due to heat of

hydration.

Too much water will allow for voids on final setting or bleeding during setting and

also a low strength. Too little reduces workability. Workability has been defined by

Duff Abrams as the property inherent in concrete, which determines the amount of

work required for full compaction. It does not therefore only depend on water but also

on the fine aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio; texture of aggregate (rounded or angular

- rounded improves workability but reduces bonding properties, cement content,

e.t.c.)

In summary, concerning water, the lower the water/cement ratio, the stronger the

concrete. As a contrary, the higher the w/c ratio, the higher the dry shrinkage and

permeability rate, the lower the resistance to abrassion ; the lower the tensile strength
and the modulus of rupture of the concrete.

Batching may be done solely on the experience of the builder - by adopting the

conventional 1:2:4, 1:3:6, volume - weight mix ratios. Other method includes the

minimum void technique, the finesse modules technique, the maximum density

technique and the water/cement model.

Minimum Void Technique

With the minimum voids method, fine aggregates are used liberally to make up for the

expected voids for the fine aggregate/coarse aggregate (F.A./C.A.) mix. A reduction

in voids ensures improved density, hence, strength.

Finess Modules Techniques

The finesse modules techniques specifies the percentage proportion of F.A. to be

added to 100 parts of C.A. put as a model

W=F2-F/F-F1x100

F=desired F.M of mix

F1/F2=F.M. of F.A. and C.A. respectively.

The F.M. of an aggregate is an index measuring it's finesse or coarseness and is

computed as a ratio of the cumulative percentage weight of residue retained on a set

of sieves relating to the aggregate type (fine or coarse) to 100. Taking F.A. as an

example, the F.M. may be evaluated from the hypothetical figures given below.

Sieve size Wt. Retained Cumulative wt. Cumulative Wt %

1000 (i.e. 10mm) 0 0 0

480 20 20 20

240 100 120 12

120 100 220 22

60 (600 micron) 190 410 41

30 350 760 76

15 240 1000 100

Total 1000 253

F.M.=253/100= 2.53.

Ideally the F.M. value should lie between 2.5 and 3.00. The lower the F.M. value, the

greater the F.A. content.

MAXIMUM DENSITY

The maximum density method was initially similar to the minimum voids technique

in that varying F.A./C.A. proportions had to be fixed in several boxes and that with

the highest weight was regarded as the optimum signifying the highest density.

In recent times this cumbersome process has always been reduced to merely

evaluating the relation

M=100[d/D]^1/2

Where d,D= Max. sizes of F.A. and C.A. respectively.

M=%wt of material finer than d

Also in the case of Abrams water/cement law

S28=984/4X

Where S28= cylindrical crushing strength of concrete after 28 days (kg/m2)

X=w/c by volume

It is important to note that the quantity of sand and water used for concreting should

make allowance for bulking and initial moisture content of aggregates. Finer sand

exhibit greater bulking than coarse.

1.1.4 SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS

O.P.C=28 days working strength, evolves heat of hydration, undergoes dry shrinkage
and offers minimum resistance to cracks.

O.H.P.C= Finer powder, high temp. Far clinkering, more lime content, 3 and 7 days

strength = 7 and 28 days O.P.C strength.

L.H.P.C ( low heat Portland cement) = High C2S, low C3A, C3S, low heat of

hydration.

B F.P.C.= 40-70% OPC + Slag.

S.R.P.C. (Sulphate resistance Portland cement) =low G3A to reduce SO4 attack.

W.P.C. = little or no Fe, mainly China clay and White.

1.1.5 High Alumina Cement

Obtained by heating limestone and Bauxite (hydrated aluminium oxide with 32%

alumina) to melting point, casting into pigs and crushed on cooling to chocolate

coloured cement, highly resistant to sugar, oils and fats, vinegar, sulphates, dilute

acids. Susceptible to caustic alkali attack e.g. Na or K hydroxide. 80% of ultimate

strength developed in 24 hours.

1.1.6 Sulphated Cement

This is a blend of BFS with sulphate and a little activator such as O.P.C. clinker in the

ratio of 8.5-9:1-1.5. 0.1-5% out offers reasonable resistance to acids and caustic

alkalis.

1.2 Aggregates

Aggregates may be classified as rocks ranging from fine (150 MIC-4.75mm) through

coarse ( 4.75mm-75mm), cyclopean (75mm) to plums which are very large stone

fragments. Ideally, aggregates should be freed of deleterious materials and for

interlocking, should be rough, irregular, and angular. If all aggregates are of the same

size, a lot of "voids" will result.

Grading describes the particle size distribution for any mix design. It also determines
the workability of the mix and hence affects segregation, bleeding, w/c ratio,

handling, placing, e.t.c. of concrete.

Grading may be done for 80, 40, 20, 10 and 5mm sieves for coarse aggregates and

4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600, 300 and 250 micron for fine aggregate. For any

aggregate size specified in design, 95% of the sample supplied or used should pass

through an equivalent sized sieve. Also, as a general rule, the largest aggregate size

should be equal to or less than the least dimension of the member used for and or at

least 6mm smaller than the least spacing of reinforcement bars. Some byelaws for the

later case specify 10mm where bars are closely spaced.

Fine aggregate may be obtained from a quarry pit, a river bed, sea bed or from

crushed rock. Good sand should be inert, sharp, strong and angular. It should contain

no salt as this retard setting of cement and also cause efflorescence. Other deleterious

materials such as clay and silt should not exceed 4% by volume.

ADMIXTURES

Apart from the basic constituents discussed above, it may be desirable to introduce

certain additives to concrete to achieve specific objectives. These groups of materials

are discussed below:

a. Accelerator : this enhance the attainment of early strength by concrete and also

allows for concreting to progress at temperature below ambient (as for cold climates).

The commonest example is calcium chloride, which should not exceed 2% by weight

of cement. Since chlorine attacks reinforcement bars, the present trend is towards the

production of chloride free accelerators. It should be noted that rhpc concrete or HAC

concrete will achieve this objective.

Where H.A.C is to be mixed with PC, caution is necessary and a ratio of 70-80 PC to

30-20 H.A is recommended. A light H.A content H.A will lead to "Flash (rapid) set"
with no strength due to the presence of sufficient free lime which permits the

formation of hydrated tetra calcium aluminate (4CaOAl2O3) known to be very

unstable.

b. Retarders: Unlike accelerators, these group retard the setting time and are therefore

very useful when placing requires more time, examples include sugar and other forms

of carbohydrates, hydroxycarboxylic acids, etc. When used in excessive proportion

setting may be inhibited completely.

c. Work ability aids/ air entraining agents: These play the major role of improving the

flow characteristics of wet concrete while on the other hand reducing the w/c ratio

hence increasing the strength of concrete. Workability is enhance through the

generation of air bubbles. Eg. are P.F.A, lignosulphuric acid, and Vinson resin

derivatives.

d. Water proofing agents: conventional water proofing agents are salts, fatty acids

(static or palmitic) and silicone. These provide a water repellent film around concrete.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO DENSITY

Apart from describing concrete according to cement type, for structural and quantities

purposes it is preferred that concrete be described according to its density. This

depends primarily on the aggregates used.

a. The Normal Dense Concrete

This is made from natural gravel or crushed rock (granite) and has 28 days strength of

between 10-60 (N/mm2). The strength for OPCC continues to increase over the first

12 months. The density is in the neighborhood of 2150-2500 kg/m4 and typical design

details allows for a cement aggregate ratio between 1:25 - 1:12 for structural purposes

and a wider range of between 1:1.5 - 1:20 for non-structural. The water cement ratio
however should be kept between 0.3 - 0.7.

b. High Density Concrete

This may be desirable for special purposes such as high sound insulation and

protection against radioactive radiation (gamma rays). The shielding effect is

proportional to the density of the material - increasing from 15% over dense concrete

for high density crushed rock through 200% for steel to 300% for lead shorts.

c. Light weight concrete

This have a density less than 1920 kg/m3 with its low density it becomes, easy to cut

or nail through or into. It is highly permeable but offers low thermal conductivity. It

also have high fire resistance value and may be made from

- natural Stone e.g pumic

- industrial bye products e.g foamed BFS, crushed bricks etc. Or specially processed

materials e.g expanded vermiculite or slate (micaceous material which exfoliates).

The lightest forms are usually in the range of 320-800 kg/mm2

d. OTHERS

1. Cellular concrete (Also aerated concrete): This form of lightweight concrete may

be produced by intentionally creating voids (air spaces/ bubbles) throughout the

concrete mass. This may be achieved by:

- adding finely powdered aluminium: this reacts with cement to produce H2 bubbles

- using excess mixing water which evaporates and leaves voids.

- using foaming agent e.g. aphrosol F.C. the density is usually in the range of

320-1440 kg/m3 with strength between 0.7 and 3.5 N/mm2

2. Fibrous concrete

This is obtained when fibres e.g. Asbestos or glass are introduced as admixtures.

Products such as Asbestos cement, GRC etc. result and are very suitable for cladding
or formwork purposes. They are generally of non-combustible nature with a high

strength. Thin sectional character (strength between 14-275 N/mm2).

3. No fines concrete: This as the name implies is merely a mixture of cement and

coarse aggregates with uniformly distributed voids. They produce load bearing

members with a mix ratio of between 1:6 (0.6 water) and 1:10 (0.45 water) where the

aggregates sizes range between 10-19mm.

THE SLUMP TEST

One important test usually carried out to determine the suitability of concrete for

constructional purposes is the slump test. Briefly a cone measuring 200mm at the top,

100 at the base and 300mm high is filled with wet concrete, tamped and inverted. The

difference between the original concrete height (300mm) and the new height gives the

slump.

Where too much water is used, a collapse, shear or semi-collapse slump will be

obtained. The true slumps for various construction works are given below:

Heavy mass construction. 25-50mm

Pavements. 25-50mm

Footings, plain fan, walls. 25-75mm

RCC slabs/beams/walls. 50-125mm

RCC foundation walls. 50-100mm

Columns. 75-125mm

Vibrated concrete. 12mm-25mm

PLACING, COMPACTING AND CURING

During placing, excessive height should be avoided. A maximum dropping height of

1.5m is often recommended to avoid segregation. Placing is aided by forms. To ensure

full compaction vibrators may be used (the poker or immersion vibrator, the External

(formwork) vibrator or the surface vibrator.

Curing refers to the art of maintaining concrete in moist condition till complete

hardening. This may be done by preventing evaporation e.g. spreading of tarpaulin or

by continuously getting the surface. Curing reduces dry shrinkage.

FINISH

Concrete may be finished in any of the ways listed below:

1. Special formwork lining

2. Stiff brushing; burst hammering, point tooling, chiseling, grinding or polishing.

3. Aggregate transfer

4. Rendering/ painting
END OF COURSE TEST

COURSE CODE: BLD 301

COURSE TITLE: BUILDING CONSTRUCRION AND MATERIALS III

1 Describe the various stages involved in the production of bricks.

2. Illustrate the performance of timber when subject to tensile, compressive, shear and bending forces
/stresses in relation to the method of loading: parallel or perpendicular to the grain direction.

3. Produce a typical section through a suspended hollow clay pot floor slab

4. With the aid of sketches, describe three methods of reducing these logs to smaller units.

5. Produce four sketches of the following wood work joining techniques – (a)Tongue and groove, (b)
Mortise and tenon

6. List five desirable properties of preservation materials for timber

7. What do you understand by special cements?

7b. Write short notes on the following special cement and state clearly where they can be used in
building construction. (a) Rapid setting Portland cement (b) Cement with special colors (c) expansive
cements (d) Hydrophobic cements

8. Advance a reason why PVC pipe is not suitable for hot water supply

8b. List 10 uses of PVC in the building industry

9. What do you understand by cement hydration?

9b. Discuss briefly the five phases of cement hydration.

10. Discuss the relevance of following terms in concreting;

(a) Slump test (b) workability (c) concrete placing (d) compacting (d) Curing (Compacting