STP 221 Theory
STP 221 Theory
STP 221 Theory
A TECHNICAL & VOCATIONNAL
EDUCAATION REVITTALISATION P
PROJECT‐PHA
ASE II
NATTIONALL DIPLO
OMA IN
SCIENCE LA
ABORA
ATORY TTECHNO
OLOGY
M
MAINTE NANCEE OF SC
CIENCEE AND EELECTR
RONIC EQUIP
PMENTT
COURSE C
CODE: STP 221
YEAR II‐‐ SEMESTTER II
TH
HEORY
Version 1:: Decembe
er 2008
1
List of Content
WEEK1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………………………..3
WEEK 2 PLANNED MAINTENANCE SCHEME…………………………………………………………….7
WEEK 3 MULTIMETER …………………………………………………………………………………………….10
WEEK 4 Resistors AND INDUCTORS………………………………………………………………………..14
WEEK 5 DIODES………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
WEEK 6 RESISTORS…………………………………………………………………………………………………24
WEEK 7 COMPONENTS TESTING USING A MULTIMETER…………………………………………26
WEEK 8 SOLDERING TECHNIQUE…………………………………………………………………………….30
WEEK 9 THE BASIC DE‐SOLDERING GUIDE ……………………………………………………………..32
WEEK 10 CIRCUIT BOARDS……………………………………………………………………………………….36
WEEK 11 FAULT FINDING ON ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS …………….43
WEEK 12 MECHANICAL STIRRERS……………………………………………………………………………..50
WEEK 13 FLAME PHOTOMETRY………………………………………………………………………………..59
WEEK 14 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SPECTROPHOTOMETERS……………………………………………65
WEEK 15 PROPER USE AND CALIBRATION OF UV‐VISIBLE SPECTROPHOTOMETER….76
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WEEK 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Any electronic instrument or piece of equipment can be considered as a system.
A system can be defined as “anything formed of component parts connected together to
make a regular and complete whole”.
An instrument or piece of equipment can have sub‐systems made in blocks to perform
specific functions. These sub‐systems are made‐up of electronic circuits, which are forms of
electronic/electrical or electromechanical component parts.
The failure of a component in an equipment may lead to the failure of the system. Failure is
said to be the inability of a system to perform its required function. The need for
continuous performance of an equipment requires that it is given regular maintenance. It
is, therefore imperative that the meaning of maintenance is well understood.
1.1 MAINTENANCE
This is all the activities carried out on an equipment in terms of proper installation, good
servicing, routine checks, repairs and replacement of faulty parts in order for such
equipment to give off its best throughout its useful life.
Every item has its own operational characteristics which it must posses or exhibit in the
course of its use. A termination in the characteristics under working condition is considered
as fault and this may be due to lack of proper maintenance.
An equipment or instrument is considered to have failed under any of these conditions:
a. when it becomes completely inoperative
b. when it is still in operation but unable to perform the required function any longer
c. When it becomes unsafe for its continued use.
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1.1.1 Classification of Maintenance
There are two major categories of maintenance and these are: preventive maintenance and
corrective maintenance.
1.1.2 Preventive Maintenance
This is the practice or arrangement whereby a piece of equipment or instrument are regularly
checked, oiled, greased or cleaned according to manufacturers specification for effective
performance.
This maintenance method is normally carried out at a specified time of a year and in that case
the entire working system is shut down. Fund is normally provided to ensure that spare parts
and some other materials meant for such maintenance are provided.
The essence of this form of maintenance is to ensure that the equipment does not break down
and thus performs to specification.
1.1.3 Corrective Maintenance
This method is applied to an equipment that has failed and thus broken down due to either
improper operations or a defective part. It is concerned with the detection, location and
repairs of faults as they occur. This requires a good understanding of system fault location
methods in addition to an understanding of overall system and circuit operation.
1.2 Maintenance Strategy
This is a plan or scheme put in place by a person responsible for maintenance to ensure that
the exercise is effectively carried out and does not result in the total breakdown of activities in
an organization.
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If carefully constructed it will help in applying maintenance practices which will most effectively
care for the equipment. This will prolong the working life of the equipment and reduce the
need for spare parts.
1.3 Types Of Maintenance
The maintenance style adopted in an organization depends on the equipment, nature of work
within the organization, availability of fund and spares and the presence of the required
technical personnel.
There are five different types of maintenance and these are as follows:
1. Fixed Time Maintenance
This is servicing of an equipment periodically at regular intervals. The particular maintenance
requirements will probably vary with the level of service. For example the requirements for 12
monthly service will be different for those for 3 monthly.
2. Condition Based Maintenance
This type of maintenance requires the use of human senses to know when it is needed.
In the cause of operating an equipment one may see signs of smoking, electrical sparks, feel for
excessive heated, smells for signs of burning and some others. The condition at which the
equipment is will necessitate that it should be opened up immediately for maintenance. This
act will assist in preventing further damage.
Some more complex systems have sensing devices built in to them, and alarm systems to
detect variation from the norm.
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3. Opportunity Based Maintenance
This is carried out when an equipment is opened up for repairs and this opportunity is used to
do any other maintenance tasks which are due in the near future, such as routine servicing and
the replacement of any parts which are at the end of their useful life. Also, the opportunity can
be used to replace a broken part which had occurred before opening the equipment but had no
effect in its operation.
4. Design‐Out Maintenance
This maintenance type is used on an equipment which has a part that is failing regularly due to
an apparent design weakness. It may be possible to upgrade the weak part and effectively
change the design for the better.
If a particular part is not available one may be able to change the design to allow a more
common part to be used. In spectrophotometry, for example, it may be possible to modify a
simple car headlamp bulb to enable it to function as a tungsten source.
5. Operate To Failure Maintenance
These are cases whereby an equipment is not given general routine care but it is allowed to fail
before any other maintenance is attempted. This is widely used on electronic equipment which
normally are not just taken to a mechanic for servicing while still functional. They are only
opened up when they have broken down. This means that an equipment is operated to failure
before it is opened up for maintenance.
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WEEK 2
2.1 PLANNED MAINTENANCE SCHEME
This is a strategy that is put in place to ensure that all equipment receive the most appropriate
type of maintenance at the right time.
It can be defined as “work carried out with forethought control and records”.
The planned maintenance policy for any organization must be carefully considered and planned
in advance. It must include records which are complied and maintained to measure the result of
maintenance and to serve as a guide to the future planning.
1. Take inventory of all items to be maintained. Reference each item with a letter to
A simple exercise book may be used with each item having its own page in the book, or a
card system may be employed with each item having its own card. The entry should
2. Describe the maintenance tasks which are to be performed. This may be achieved by
listing the tasks to be completed at each scheduled maintenance point. This is normally
what has been done must be kept. This may be a form of job report specifying date, fault
detected, cause.
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2.3 Equipment Failure
Environmental stresses on equipment may be due to effect of factors which are external to the
equipment such as the weather (atmospheric pressure, wind temperature, humidity, e.t.c), sea
water and so on.
Any equipment which operates outdoors cannot escape the full effects of the weather in its
locality.
2.4.1 Remedy
Most of the effects that are due to environmental conditions can be remedied by providing
adequate ventilation or through forced air-cooling.
These effects may be due to the operating conditions to which an equipment is exposed. Some of
the operating conditions that can cause damages to equipment are voltage surges, current surges
and frequency changes. These problems can be minimized by the use of protective devices in the
equipment.
This is the inability of a person in charge of an equipment to operate it correctly so as to give the
required performance.
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This failure can be due to the person having an inadequate knowledge of the procedures for
operating such equipment. The incorrect operation of an equipment can lead to its total
breakdown.
2.7 Malfunction
Whenever this occurs a skilled person should consulted for advice and possible remedy.
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WEEK 3
3.1 Multimeter
There are two main types of multimeter, analogue and digital multimeter, both devices are able
to measure the Resistance in ohm (Ω) , electric current in Ampere (A) and electric voltages in
volt (V).
3.1.1 Analogue Multimeters
Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their pointer. They
/V or they may upset the circuit under test and must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k give
an incorrect reading.
Batteries inside the meter provide power for the resistance ranges, they will last several years
but you should avoid leaving the meter set to a resistance range in case the leads touch
accidentally and run the battery flat.
Typical ranges for analogue multimeters like the one illustrated:
(The voltage and current values given are the maximum reading
on each range)
• DC Voltage: 0.5V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
• AC Voltage: 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
• DC Current: 50μA, 2.5mA, 25mA, 250mA.
A high current range is often missing from this type of meter.
• AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
• Resistance: 20 , 200 , 2k , 20k , 200k .
These resistance values are in the middle of the scale for each
range.
•
It is a good idea to leave an analogue multimeter set to a DC Analogue Multimeter 1
voltage range such as 10V when not in use. It is less likely to be
damaged by careless use on this range, and there is a good chance
that it will be the range you need to use next anyway!
3.1.2 Digital Multimeters
All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use
virtually no power from the circuit under test. This means that on
their DC voltage ranges they have a very high resistance (usually
called input impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10M , and they are
very unlikely to affect the circuit under test.
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Digital Multimeter
Typical ranges for digital multimeters like the one illustrated: (the values given are the
maximum reading on each range)
• DC Voltage: 200mV, 2000mV, 20V, 200V, 600V.
• AC Voltage: 200V, 600V.
• DC Current: 200μA, 2000μA, 20mA, 200mA, 10A*.
*The 10A range is usually unfused and connected via a special socket.
• AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
• Resistance: 200 , 2000 , 20k , 200k , 2000k , Diode
Test.
Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges cannot be used
to test diodes and other semiconductors.
3.1.3 The Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is basically a graph‐displaying device ‐ it draws a graph of an electrical signal. In
most applications the graph shows how signals change over time: the vertical (Y) axis
represents voltage and the horizontal (X) axis represents time. The intensity or brightness of the
display is sometimes called the Z axis.
This simple graph can tell you many things about a signal. Here are a few:
• You can determine the time and
voltage values of a signal.
• You can calculate the frequency of an
oscillating signal.
• You can see the "moving parts" of a
circuit represented by the signal.
• You can tell if a malfunctioning
component is distorting the signal.
• You can find out how much of a signal
is direct current (DC) or alternating Osciloscope 1
current (AC).
• You can tell how much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is changing with
time.
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3.3 Wire Cutters, Clippers, Nippers
These wire cutters are small and accurate. Great for cutting clipping, and
nipping, small diameter wires and component leads.
These precision flush cutting nippers wire cutters / clippers help you clip
leads as close to the board surface as you want or need to.
3.4 SOLDERING TOOLS
Many types of soldering tools are in use today. Some of the more
common types are the soldering iron, soldering gun, resistance soldering
set, and pencil iron. The following discussion will provide you with a working knowledge of
these tools.
3.4.1 Soldering Irons
Some common types of hand soldering irons are shown in figure 2‐28. All high‐quality soldering
irons operate in the temperature range of 500 to 600°F.
Eve n the 25‐watt midget irons produce this temperature.
The important difference in iron sizes is not temperature,
but thermal inertia. Thermal inertia is the capacity of the
iron to generate and maintain a satisfactory soldering
temperature while giving up heat to the joint to be
soldered. Although it is not practical to solder large
conductors with the 25‐watt iron, this iron is quite suitable
for replacing a half‐watt resistor in an electronic circuit or soldering a miniature connector. One
advantage of using a small iron for small work is that it is light and easy to handle and has a
small tip that is easily used in close places. Even though its temperature is high enough, a
midget iron does not have the thermal inertia to solder large conductors.
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3.4.2 Screw Drivers
A screw driver is used to tighten or remove screws from electrical and household components.
There are two major types of screw drivers: Flat head screw driver
and Star screw drivers. There are other types of screw drivers for
different types of screws.
3.4.3 Spanner
A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide a mechanical advantage in applying torque to
turn bolts, nuts or other hard‐to‐turn items. The first wrench was patented in
1835 by Solymon Merrick.
A spanner refers to a specialized wrench with a series of pins or tabs around
the circumference. The most common shapes are called open‐end
wrench and box‐end wrench.
3.4.4 Allen Keys
The Allen key is an everyday tool that goes by many names.
Commonly known as a hex key, Allen wrench, zeta key, or hex head,
the Allen key is a six‐sided tool used as a driver for screws, bolts, and
other fasteners designed to fit the tool. The name "Allen wrench"
came from the Allen Company, a Hartford, Connecticut based
manufacturer who produced the tool. Since then, the tool has gone by
many names as numerous manufacturers have produced variations of the wrench.
The Allen key comes in several different shapes and sizes, but the most typical shape for
an Allen key is an L‐shape. This allows the user to take advantage of the wrench’s reach –‐ while
using the longer arm of the L‐shape.
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WEEK 4:
4. Resistors
4.1 Resistivity
While resistance is an electrical quantity, resistivity is a physical property of materials, which is
used to produce resistance.
R
Resistor Symbol
4.2 Inductor
Definition
An inductor is a passive electrical device that stores energy in a magnetic field, typically by
combining the effects of many loops of electric current.
The electrical symbol for an inductor is
Inductor Color Code
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4.3 Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes
time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as
a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC
(changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
4.3.1 Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so
prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, μ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
• μ means 10‐6 (millionth), so 1000000μF = 1F
• n means 10‐9 (thousand‐millionth), so 1000nF = 1μF
• p means 10‐12 (million‐millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and
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unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
4.3.2 Polarised capacitors (large values, 1μF +)
These types of capacitors must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads
will be marked + or ‐.
+ ‐
4.3.3 Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1μF)
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not
damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high
voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these
small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling systems!
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to
use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!
For example 0.1 means 0.1μF = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
• the 1st number is the 1st digit,
• the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
• the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
• Ignore any letters ‐ they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)
For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
4.3.4 Capacitor Colour Code
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of
course there are many still around. The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top
three colour bands giving the value in pF.
Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating).
For example:
brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01μF.
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Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a
wide band.
For example:
wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22μF.
Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed without units.
Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so
you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the
capacitor and the joint.
Colour Code
Colour Code
Colour Number
0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they
are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small
capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500Pf (100pF =
0.0001μF). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments ‐ see
below) as well as the main variable capacitor.
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not
suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and
rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is
available before ordering a variable capacitor.
Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because Variable Capacitor Symbol
their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited.
Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the
time period.
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Trimmer capacitors
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors.
They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and
adjusted only when the circuit is built.
A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The Trimmer Capacitor
process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your
hand and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the Trimmer Capacitor Symbol
region of the trimmer!
What do capacitors look like?
In figure 4 we have a photo of a
selection of fixed and variable
capacitors. The upper capacitor is a
variable capacitor. Down the left hand
side we have a number of electrolytic
capacitors.
The red capacitor in the lower left is a
tag tantalum type of greater tolerance
and high stability. The yellow is a
metallised polypropylene film type
while the green ones at the right are
the popular polyester types
"Greencaps".
In the middle are silver mica
capacitors which I personally think are Figure 4 ‐ a selection of fixed and variable capacitors
somewhat over rated although these
were 1% tolerance types. At the upper right is a 25 pF beehive trimmer.
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WEEK 5
DIODES
5.1 Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow
of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can
flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes
were actually called valves.
Silicon diodes are the most common and cheapest, and have a
forward voltage drop of about 0.7 volts. Germanium diodes have a forward voltage drop of
about 0.2 volt. Germanium diodes, though, are typically much more expensive than silicon
diodes; luckily, they're salvageable from lots of circuit boards.
5.2 Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing
through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting
diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are
made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current
passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current voltage graph).
Current I
0.7 V Voltage V
5.3 Reverse Voltage
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When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a
very tiny current of a few μA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very
much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a
maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and
pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of
100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are LEDs
(which have their own page) and Zener diodes
5.4 Zener diodes
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a
reliable and non‐destruc tive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed
current.
Forward
k
a
a = anode, k = cathode
Reverse
zener diode characteristics
5.5 Photodiodes
All P‐N junctions are light sensitive; photodiodes are just P‐N junctions that are designed to
optimize this effect. Photodiodes can be used two ways ‐‐ in a photovoltaic (here it becomes a
current source when illuminated ‐‐ see solar cell), or photoconductive role.
a k
20
To use a photodiode in its photoconductive mode, the photodiode is reverse‐biased; the
photodiode will then allow a current to flow when it is illuminated.
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5.6 Light‐Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
All diodes emit some light when forward‐biased. LEDs are made from a special semiconductor
(like gallium arsenide phosphide) which optimizes this light output. Unlike light bulbs, LEDs
rarely burn out unless their current limit is passed.
a k
LED Symbol
LED 1
When current is flowing through an LED the voltage on the positive leg is about 1.4 volts higher
than the voltage on the negative side (this varies with LED type ‐‐ infrared LEDs have a lower
forward voltage requirement, others may need up to 1.8 V). Remember that there is very little
resistance to limit the current, so a resistor must be used in series with the LED to avoid
destroying it (note, though, that some panel‐mount LEDs come from the factory with a current‐
limiting resistor soldered to them).
Also note that LEDs can be used as photodiodes (tho' their sensitivity is relatively low, so
they're only useable this way in very bright conditions).
5.7 Transistor
The transistor is a solid state semiconductor device
which can be used for amplification, switching, voltage
stabilization, signal modulation and many other
functions. It acts as a variable valve which, based on its
input current (BJT) or input voltage (FET), allows a
precise amount of current to flow through it from the circuit's voltage supply.
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5.7.1 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor, an amplifying or switching device
constructed of doped semiconductors that employs both
types of charge carriers: electrons and holes. The BJT is a
three layer sandwich of differently doped sections, either
Ntype| P‐type|N‐type (NPN transistors) or P‐type|N‐type|P‐
type (PNP transistors). The center layer is called the base of
the transistor and is made from lightly doped, high resistivity
material. By varying the current into the base terminal, the
current allowed to flow between the emitter and a third
terminal known as the collector(which are both heavily
doped and hence low resistivity regions) can be varied. This
effect can be used to amplify the input current. BJTs can be
thought of as current‐controlled current sources and are
usually characterized as current amplifiers. Early transistors
were made from germanium but most modern BJTs are made
from silicon.
5.7.2 Junction Transistors
A junction transistor consists of a thin piece of one type of semiconductor material between
two thicker layers of the opposite type. For example, if the middle layer is p‐type, the outside
layers must be n‐type. Such a transistor is an NPN transistor. One of the outside layers is called
the emitter, and the other is known as the collector. The middle layer is the base. The places
where the emitter joins the base and the base joins the collector are called junctions.
Collector Emitter Collector Emitter
P n P n P nP
6.0 RESISTORS
6.1 The Color Code
In former times all resistors were labeled with figures indicating their values. These figures were
substituted by color rings which indicate the value and the tolerance. The reasons were:
• Cheaper application of the labeling
• increasing miniaturization left no room for figures
• Figures cannot be read when on the bottom side of the element.
Colour Value Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 100=1
Brown 1 101 = 10
Red 2 102 = 100
Orange 3 103 = 1K
Yellow 4 104 = 10K
Green 5 105 = 100K
Blue 6 106 = 1M
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
Gold 10‐1 = 0.1 5%
Silver 10‐2 = 0.01 10%
None 20%
The international color code defines the corresponding values of each color.
Values with a tolerance between 20% and 5% can be specified by 2 significant numbers.
Therefore such resistors will have
• two color rings for the value
• one color ring for the multiplier
• one color ring for the tolerance (none for 20%).
5% and 10% tolerance resistors have 4 color rings.
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The last ring is gold o
or silver.
with smaller ttolerances (2
Values w 2% and 1%) require threee significantt numbers. TTherefore su
uch
resistor w
will have
• three ccolor rings fo
or the value
• one collor ring for the multiplieer
• one collor ring for the tolerancee.
1% and 2
2% tolerance
e resistors h
have 5 colou
ur rings. The last ring is b
brown or red
d.
4 colou
ur rings for 5
5% and 10% 5 colour ringss for 1% and
d 2%
Toleran
nce resistorss To
olerance ressistors
25
WEEK 7
7.0 COMPONENTS TESTING USING A MULTIMETER
7.1 Measuring Resistance Value
• To measure resistance you must connect the test leads to the
sockets labelled 'COM' and 'Ω'.
• Adjust the function selector switch to measure Resistance Ohms
(Ω).
• Without anything connected between the test leads the display
will give an out of range indication (1 or OL) to show that the
resistance is too large to measure or open circuit. probes are not
connected to circuit)
• To check the meter is working touch the leads together and the
display should read 0.0 Ω. It may read slightly higher, e.g. 0.3 Ω.
This is the resistance of the test leads themselves.
• Connect the probes of the multimeter across a resistor and measure the resistance as
shown below.
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7.2 Measurement of Diode Resistance
• Pick a diode among the components provided
• Set the multimeter to the highest resistance range and adjust for zero by touching
the two leads together and turning the zero adjuster.
• Connect the P‐side of the diode to the positive terminal and the
• N‐side to the negative terminal.
• What is your observation?
• Reverse the connections to the diode and again record the resistance
• State your observation and whether or not this is expected.
You should find that:
• A higher voltage is needed to make a silicon diode conduct; and
• A higher current is passed by the silicon diode than by the germanium diode.
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Note: The reverse current is obtained when the diode is reversed biased and is usually very
much smaller than the forward current. For silicon diodes, this is in the region of micro‐
amperes and for germanium diodes, nano‐amperes. If the reverse voltage becomes too high,
then the diode will break down and there will be a sudden dramatic increase in the reverse
current. It is observed that the graphs for diodes are curves, which means that they do not
obey ohm’s law and are therefore non‐ohmic in behavior.
7.3 Measurement of Transistor Resistance
• Connect the red terminal of the multimeter to base and black to collector and record
the resistance value.
• With the red terminal on the base, connect the black terminal to the emitter and
note your result.
• Change the black terminal to base and then the red terminal to collector. Note your
reading.
• Now connect the red terminal to collector and black terminal to emitter and
record the resistance
• Reverse your connection to bring to the black terminal. Note your reading.
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You should find that:
• The base‐emitter and the base collector junctions give a high resistance reading for the
n‐p‐n transistor and a low resistance reading for the p‐n‐p transistor when the base is
negative and the collector/emitter is positive. In the case of the npn transistor, the two
junctions are reversed biased and for the pnp transistor, the two junctions are forward
biased.
• When the multimeter is connected to the collector and the emitter of both transistors, a
high resistance is obtained whatever the polarity of the leads. This is because the two
np junctions making up the transistor are arranged so that a voltage between the
collector and the emitter causes one of the junctions to be forward biased and the other
to be reversed biased, the reverse biased junction resulting in the high resistance
reading between the collector and emitter.
• This method can be used to test the conditions of all transistors.
29
WEEK 8
8.0 SOLDERING TECHNIQUE
8.1 The Basic Soldering Guide
Soldering is a delicate manual skill which only comes with practice. Remember that your
ability to solder effectively will determine directly how well the prototype or product
functions during its lifespan. Poor soldering can be an expensive business ‐ causing
product failure and downtime, engineer's maintenance time and customer dissatisfaction.
At hobbyist level, bad soldering technique can be a cause of major disappointment which
damages your confidence. It needn't be like that: soldering is really easy to learn, and like
learning to ride a bike, once mastered is never forgotten!
These photos illustrate the basic steps in making a perfect solder joint on a p.c.b. If you're
a beginner, our advice is that it's best to practice your soldering technique using some
clean, new parts with perhaps some new stripboard (protoboard). Be sure to avoid using
old, dirty parts; these can be difficult if not impossible to solder. The new Basic
Desoldering Guide is a photo sequence illustrating the use of solder pumps and braid, and
a few genuine examples (honest) of bad soldering.
1. Boards must be clean to begin with, especially if they're
not previously "tinned" with solder. Clean the copper
tracks using e.g. an abrasive rubber block
2. Clean the iron "bit" (tip) using a damp sponge.
3. A useful product is Multicore's Tip Tinner Cleaner (TTC) – a
15 gramme tin of special paste which cleans and "tins" the
iron, in one go.
30
4. Insert components and splay the leads so that the part is held in
place.
5. It's usually best to snip the wires to length prior to soldering. This
helps prevent transmitting mechanical shocks to the copper foil.
6. Apply a clean iron tip to the copper and the lead, in order to heat both
items at the same time.
7. Continue heating and apply a few millimeters of solder. Remove the
iron and allow the solder joint to cool naturally.
8. It only takes a second or two, to make the perfect joint, which should
be nice and shiny. Check the Guide for troubleshooting help.
9. An example of a "dry" joint ‐ the solder failed to flow, and instead
beaded to form globules around the wire.
31
WEEK 9
9.0 THE BASIC DE‐SOLDERING GUIDE
De‐soldering is required when electronic components need to be removed from a circuit,
usually because they are faulty. It may sometimes be necessary during testing or assembly,
if a wrong part has been fitted or a modification has to be made. In the field, it's not
uncommon for faulty components to be swapped out, or poor joints (perhaps "dry" joints)
to need remaking properly, months or years after manufacture. Experienced engineers can
often diagnose a particular faulty joint immediately, because they may have seen the same
problem on similar equipment before, especially if it has a "reputation". A proper
desoldering technique can soon be acquired with practice ‐ all you need to do is buy some
scrap boards to have a go with, and desolder to your heart's content!
The next photo sequence illustrates the basic steps for desoldering a printed circuit board,
in order to remove a faulty part. Both a desoldering pump as well as desolder braid are
illustrated.
1‐ The two solder joints to be desoldered, to enable a faulty
component to be removed.
2‐ If using a desoldering pump, apply the iron first to melt the
solder (1‐2 seconds). Ensure the pump is 'primed' and ready
to go...
32
3. The nozzle of the desoldering pump is applied to the molten
solder and the spring‐loaded plunger is then released,
drawing the solder up into the pump. Repeat if needed.
4. The first joint, now desoldered. The second joint will be
desoldered using braid...
5. Select a suitable width of braid, and press it down onto
the COLD joint using the hot tip of the iron.
6. Molten solder is drawn up by capillary action into the
braid. Care not to overheat, or 'drag whiskers' of solder
over the board, nor let the braid solidify on the joint!
7. The component dropped out of the board after
desoldering. Sometimes, it may need persuading with
pliers....
8. Close‐up shot of both joints, now desoldered and ready
for the replacement part to be fitted.
33
9.1 Bad Soldering
These are all genuine examples which have not been
retouched or reworked in any way.
1‐ Tenfold excess of solder, and (extreme left) incomplete joint
with poor coverage. There is no need to add more solder "for
luck".
2‐ One example of several dry joints found within a commercial
PSU adaptor for a computer peripheral.
3. This joint looks somewhat suspect as well...
4. A close‐up reveals the terrible standard of soldering (and
quality control), with a fracture visible on this ground/ earth
joint.
34
5. How not to make a mains voltage soldered joint. This went "dry" and starting arcing,
nearly zapping the equipment. It is also a fire hazard.
6. The same mains connection, the wire merely being 'tacked on'
with a blob of solder.
35
WEEK10
CIRCUIT BOARDS
Matrix Boards
Since components are laid out in the same way as the
circuit diagram it is a simple matter to trace components
and alterations can be easily made.
Method of Construction
36
Strip Boards
These are used in the design and development of circuits. This
method allows design alterations to be incorporated readily.
Method of construction
• Letter each horizontal link.
• Note: Sometimes it is possible to letter two horizontal
links by the same letter.
• Shade alternate rows on lined paper to represent the
number of horizontal links already determined.
• Draw onto the paper the components in the
approximate positions they will take up on the finished
strip board.
• Mark any necessary breaks in copper tracks.
• Insert components into strip board working to the
prepared drawing.
37
Printed Circuit Boards
When a circuit has been finally proved it may be converted into a printed circuit which can be
manufactured in quantity.
Method of construction
• From the circuit diagram, draw the copper pattern on a sheet of paper. The paper
should be the same size as the copper‐clad board.
• Clean the surface of the copper clad‐board with household cleaning powder. Wash
thoroughly and dry.
• Trace the outline of the copper pattern onto the copper‐clad board using carbon
paper.
• Using a small paint brush, paint in the outline on the copper clad board with acid
resist ink. Etch resist pens are also available for this purpose.
• Allow acid resist ink to dry
• When the resisted image is thoroughly dry, etch away the unwanted copper using
copper etchant. The etchant used is ferric chloride or cupric chloride diluted in water
and warmed to an approximate temperature of 270C (800F). It is important that air
comes into contact with the copper surface to enable a better etching action to take
place. This can be done by gently agitating the etching container. When etching is
complete, wash the board thoroughly in running water to remove all traces of the
acid.
• Dry the board
• Remove the acid resist ink using a resist ink solvent by swabbing the surface.
• Wash and dry the board.
• Preserve the copper pattern by brushing on a preservative flux. Allow to dry.
• Drill appropriate holes in the circuit.
• Assemble components to board and solder
38
• Inspect for excess solder and other faults.
Preparation of a printed circuit board
39
Breadboard
experimenting, it also enables components to be reused almost
because the leadout wires will need to be reformed slightly to
fit into new layouts, and the leadout wires eventually suffer
from metal fatigue and break off (usually close to the body of
the component so that it becomes useless). This can be
for a limited period of time, and then using them in finished projects and getting a new stock of
breadboarding components.
Although the term “breadboard” may seem inexplicable; it is probably derived from the early
days of electronics when valued circuits were normally prototyped on a large wooden board
40
(like a breadboard) into which nails were hammered. Components were then connected to the
nails and additional wires were sued to connect the components in the desired fashion. Some
finished equipment actually used this method of construction. A variation on this type of board
was to use screw terminals that no soldering was necessary; the original solderless
breadboards, in fact!
Modern breadboards are much simpler and easier to use, and apart from being useful to
experienced electronic engineers working on prototype designs, they also have attractions for
beginners. One is simply that they are very easy to use, and anyone can plug in and remove
components from a solderless breadboard; no previous experience of electronics construction
being necessary. When the inevitable mistakes in the component layout do occur, it is an easy
matter to check through the layout and remedy the errors since no awkward desoldering is
necessary. It is also easy to quickly build and experiment with a number of projects at low cost
with everything involved being reusable, including the breadboard.
Numbers are used to identify the horizontal rows of holes and letters are employed to identify
the vertical rows of holes. In order to make it easier to copy component layouts, the
identification letters and some of the numbers are marked on the layout diagrams and on the
verobloc itself.
In figure 1 lines are used between holes to show how they are internally interconnected and,
for example, all the holes in row “A” are connected together. The rows of holes around the
periphery of the board are mainly used to carry the two supply lines. The spacing of the holes is
41
such that most integrated circuits can be plugged straight into the board without the need for
any special adaptors.
Controls and some other components do not plug straight into the board, but are mounted off‐
board on a mounting bracket of some kind, and connected to the board via single core
insulated leads. Multistrand wire is normally used interconnecting wires of this type, but
multistrand wire can be difficult to connect to a solderless breadboard as the strands tend to
splay as the wire is pushed into the board. If you have soldering equipment this can be
overcome by tinning the end of multistrand leads with solder, but it is otherwise better to use
single strand wire. Any PVC‐covered type that is not unusually thick or thin should be suitable
(i.e. about 22 SWG).
42
WEEK 11
FAULT FINDING ON ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS
The previous sections dealt with component failures and simple component testing, and the
following chapters are concerned with actual component faults in one portion of a complete
instrument, in other words for example in the power supply or the oscillator section of an
instrument. However, when a complete instrument is returned for repair, the service engineer
must first locate which block of the instrument is faulty before he can locate the actual
component that has failed. There are various methods used to narrow down the fault to one
block, but before these are discussed, it is useful to consider some fairly obvious but often
overlooked points:
(1) The service engineer must have a MAINTENANCE MANUAL with up‐to‐date circuit
diagrams. This manual should also give the figures of the performance specification.
(2) The engineer must have all the necessary TEST EQUIPMENT. Usually a list of
instruments and any special instructions are in the maintenance manual.
The engineer then has to DEFINE THE FAULT ACCURATELY. This point is most important.
It is no good trying to locate a fault that is vaguely defined. The symptoms must be
accurately noted and this means that a functional test must ‘be made on the
instrument.
For example consider that a signal generator has been returned for repair with a suspect power
supply failure. Before taking off the cover and checking power supply lines, the service engineer
would
(a) check the mains fuses and if not blown
43
(b) check for sine wave output on all ranges,
(c) then make notes of the fault symptoms. The complete circuit of most electronic
instruments can be broken down into a series of functional blocks; for example in a
general purpose sine wave generator these would be power supply, variable sine wave
oscillator, buffer amplifier, and output attenuator. By treating the instrument in blocks,
rather than as a whole, it is possible to narrow down the search for a faulty component
first of all to one block, then by measurements within that block to locate the actual
faulty component. The methods used to decide which block is faulty are
(a) Input to output (or beginning to end).
(b) Output to input
(c) Random
(d) Half‐split
All of these have their particular advantages and uses. The RANDOM METHOD, which implies a
totally non‐systematic approach, is rarely used. A stth9d based on the reliability of components
can also a used when there is a wealth of service knowledge and experience concerning a
particular instrument. For service engineer might make the reasonable n that, because a
particular electrolytic capacitor has been at fault in 60% of the instruments recently returned, it
is a strong possibility that the next instrument also has a faulty electrolytic capacitor. He would
naturally check this first, and in most cases save valuable service time. It must be stressed,
however, that this method depends upon the availability of a large amount of data on the ,
reliability of the various components within an Instrument. Most service engineers would use a
logical systematic approach to system fault location.
The INPUT TO OUTPUT and OUTPUT TO INPUT methods are examples of this systematic
approach. The method is fairly obvious. A suitable input signal (if required) is injected into the
input block and then measurements are made sequentially at the output of each block in turn,
working either from the input towards the output or from the output back to the input, until
44
the faulty block is located. This logical method is the one most service engineers use on
equipment containing a limited number of blocks.
The HALF‐SPLIT method is very powerful in locating faults in instruments made up of a large
number of blocks in series. Take for example a superhet radio receiver shown in block diagram
form In Fig. Since there are eight blocks it is possible to divide the circuit in half, test that half,
decide which half is working correctly, then split the nonfunctioning section into half again to
locate the fault. An example is the best way of really understanding the method. Assume that a
fault exists in the demodulator of the receiver, the sequence of tests would be as follows:
(a) Split in half, inject signal into the input of (1) (the aerial circuit), and check output at
(4)(IF). Output correct. Therefore the fault is somewhere in blocks (5) to (8).
(b) Split blocks (5) to (8) in half by checking output of (6). Input signal can be left at (1). No
output.
(c) Leaving signal at (1), check output from (5). Output should be correct, indicating that
the faulty block is (6), the demodulator.
You can try this method for yourself by assuming that the fault is in block (3) for example, and
you will find that the number of checks necessary to locate the fault is still three. On average,
four tests would be required by using the input to output technique. The half‐split method is
most useful when the number of components or blocks in series is very large, for example
where several series plug and socket connections are used, or for heater chains in valve
equipment. There are, however, several assumptions made for the half‐split: (a) that all
components are equally reliable; (b) that it is possible and practical to make measurements at
the desired point; and (c) that all checks are similar and take the same amount of time. These
assumptions will not always be valid and it is up to the service engineer to then decide the best
method of approach.
The half‐split method can also be easily complicated by
45
(a) An odd number of series units.
(b) Divergence: outputs from one block feeding two or more units.
(c) Convergence: two or more inputs being necessary for the correct operation of one unit.
(d) Feedback: which may be used to modify the characteristics of the unit or in fact be a
sustaining network for an oscillator.
When using any of the methods as described, try and use the method, or a combination of
them, that will locate the faulty block in a system in the shortest possible time.
Centrifuge
Centrifugation is one of the methods used for separation of liquid mixtures of substances e.g.
colloidal substances or any liquid suspension. Centrifuge is the mechanical device that employs
concept of centrifugation.
A centrifuge is made up of the following mechanical parts.
1. A big chamber housing a rotor with a rotor head firmly fixed to its top.
2. A set of centrifuge tubes/cups arranged in a specific order on the rotor head.
3. A massive lid to close the chamber when the instrument is being used.
4. Some centrifuges have devices for measuring the speed of the moving rotor
(Tacometer).
5. A Speed control device.
6. A timer.
46
Operational Guidelines
1. With the instrument unplugged from the mains socket.
(a) Return speed control knob and the timer to zero setting
(b) Select the appropriate rotor head to use and fix it firmly on the rotor.
(c) Weigh the centrifuge cups/tubes and balance them up to give equal weights
(Always use the recommended tubes that the manufacturers sent along with the
instrument)
(d) Measure out equal volumes of test samples into the tubes using a calibrated
pipette.
(e) Arrange the cups/tubes on the rotor head such that equal numbers are made to
face each other to balance the weight.
(f) Close the lid tightly.
(g) Plug the instrument to the mains and switch on the power.
(h) Turn on timer to desired time.
(i) Starting from low speed gradually increase the speed to desired limit.
(j) At the end of centrifugation when the instrument switches off by itself, allow the
speed meter to return to zero.
(k) Unplug the instrument, open the lid and bring out centrifuge tubes and decant
supernatant solution.
(l) The solid residue at the bottom of the cups can also be removed.
(m) Clean the cups properly and arrange them neatly to dry in their containers.
(n) Clean the centrifuge inner chamber first with wet duster and then with dry one.
47
Maintenance
1. The centrifuge inner chamber must be properly cleaned after every use. The chamber
must not be allowed to rust hence it should be painted about once or twice a year.
2. The centrifuge tubes must be properly balanced before use and the liquid suspension to
be centrifuged must be properly shaken to make them homogenous before equal
volumes of test solutions are pipetted into the tubes. Where this is not done unbearable
vibration results which can lead to damage of the rotor shaft.
3. The tubes must be arranged such that equal numbers are made to face each other.
4. The tubes must be properly washed and mopped dry using a clean duster before
storage.
5. The centrifuge should not be moved about while it is spinning.
6. From time to time the circuitry parts should be reached and cleaned of dusts and spider
webs.
7. A centrifuge should not be put in a hot environment since this can adversely affect its
electronic components – it should be put in an air conditioned room.
8. Centrifuge always should be covered with a dust cover made from white cloth and not
polythene material.
9. Electrical fuse of correct rating should always be used on the electrical plug to prevent
damage to the instrument.
10. The uninterrupted power supply (UPS) should always be used on the electrical plug to
prevent damage to the instrument.
11. Centrifuge tubes should not be filled to the brim with test samples to prevent spillage on
the inner chamber of the instrument.
12. Centrifuge tubes should be handled with care to prevent them from being knocked
against hard objects that can inflict dents on them.
48
13. Rotor head should always be securely screwed tight to the rotor. Failure of which may
lead to fatal accident and untold damage to the instrument caused by its unexpected
detachment from the rotor while spinning.
14. Centrifuge should not be placed on the same work‐bench with other sensitive
instruments to prevent transmission of vibration from it to them.
15. The instrument lid should be shut before the instrument is connected to the mains and
the lid should not be opened while instrument is still spinning.
Trouble Shooting
PROBLEMS REMEDY
1. Instrument does not work when 1. Check line voltage.
connected to the line voltage. 2. Check plug fuse.
3. Test continuity of the power line to the
instrument
4. Check contact brushes
2. Instrument shows no speed increase 1. Faulty speed rotary potentiometer
even when speed control is moved to
maximum.
3. Unsmooth speed movement of 1. Weight imbalance of the tubes –
instrument with unusual sound. Rearrange the tubes and make sure that
equal volumes of the samples are
measured into them.
49
WEEK 12
(MECHANICAL STIRRERS)
A stirrer is a simple mechanical device used to homogenize solutions. It can also be used to
speed up the detachment of ions of elements which are loosely attached to some solid
substances when such substances are put in solution e.g. Exchangeable captions can go into
solution faster when a soil sample in a solution of IN neutral Ammonium Acetate is stirred with
a mechanical stirrer.
A SINGLE‐STIRRER MOTOR
This type of stirrer consists of a rotor shaft passing through a strong magnetic field that causes
the rotor to rotate. At the end of the rotor shaft there is a stirrer blade which does the stirring
as the rotor rotates. The motor is comprises a magnet and a conductor wound round a magnet
with several loops.
When a current is passed through the conductor in this arrangement a rotating effect is
produced which moves the rotor that does the stirring. The more the current passed the more
the rotating effect on the rotor. The motor‐rotor assembly is called a mechanical stirrer and it is
mounted on a heavy iron stand having a small hook at the centre to hold a stirrer cup in place.
A MULTI‐STIRRER
This device has a single motor but many stirrer rods. Each rod is fixed to a plastic disc with
separated edges arranged to contact each other through the edges. Thus when a stirrer shaft
moves other shaft also move together with it. A multi stirrer also has a timer and a washer
attachment. The whole machine is mounted on Aluminum gadget with a simple device to move
sample cups already arranged in sets of eleven in special containers up and down the level of
stirrer blades. The machine can stir thirty three samples at a time.
50
OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES
1. Set timer of the instrument to zero and motor at off.
2. Weigh 5gm sample into each of the cups arranged on aluminum tray.
3. Add 25ml of extracting solution e.g. IN neutral Ammonium Acetate to each of the cups
with a dispenser.
4. Place sample tray below the stirrer blades with the aid of a metal handle at the right
hand side of the aluminum gadget. There is a click sound when right position is reached.
5. Move sample tray up to meet the stirrer blades with the aid of a metal handle at the
right side of the aluminum gadget. There is a click sound when right position is reached.
6. Through a 240V – 115V step‐down transformer, connect the instrument to the mains
power supply.
7. Set timer to 15 minutes and switch on the motor.
8. At the expiration of 15 minutes, the instrument switches off automatically.
9. Lower the sample cups and filter samples into clean containers.
10. Rinse off soil particles from the stirrer blades properly with distilled water.
11. Switch off the motor and disconnect instrument from the power supply.
51
MAINTENANCE
(i) As water is a good conductor of electricity, no liquid substance should be allowed to get
into the electric motor. Water causes short circuiting which can lead to the damage of
the motor. It can also cause electrocution of the user.
(ii) In the case of a multi‐stirrer, the stirrer blades are made of plastic material and
therefore fragile. It should always be gently treated.
(iii) It should always be covered by dust cover made of white cloth.
(iv) The instrument should be cleaned before and after use.
(v) No other cups should be used as a substitute for the recommended ones for a particular
stirrer.
(vi) Do not spin without a stirrer cup lest an innocent somebody passing by, perhaps holding
a duster or cloth gets hooked by the moving blades thereby inflicting injuries on him and
damage to the instrument.
(vii) The electric motor should be occasionally opened to be cleaned of dust and spider webs
that can cause break in electrical contacts.
(viii) Where Boris is used, occasional greasing or oiling is necessary.
(ix) Mechanical stirrers should not be operated near a hot object or environment as the
magnet inside the motor get destroyed under such condition.
(x) Instrument should be kept in an air‐conditioned instrument room properly fortified to
prevent burglary or theft.
52
TROUBLE SHOOTING
PROBLEMS REMEDY
1. Instrument does not work when 1. Check the power line for any fault.
connected to the mains. 2. Test fuse in the plug for open circuit.
3. Check continuity of the connecting leads
to the instrument for any break.
4. Check the carbon brushes for loose
contacts.
2. Stirrer blades move slowly. 1. Stiff Boris. Apply grease or oil or change
the Boris.
2. Check Voltage across the mains power
line for low voltage.
3. Check the speed control for any faults.
Change if necessary.
3. User experiences electrical shocks on 1. There is electrical leakage. Do
the body of the instrument when been resistances test between positive and
used. negative leads and also between positive
lead and the body of the instrument.
Change the motor.
53
SHAKERS
Shakers are equipments used in soil and plant laboratory to either mix or separate solutions.
The kind to use depends on what is to be done.
Examples are:
(a) TEST TUBE SHAKERS
These are shakers used mainly to separate solutions on test tubes. Example includes
orbital shakers or those with circular or horizontal motions. Whatever the direction
of rotation, the work done is the same.
(b) MAGNETIC STIRRERS
Usually magnetic stirrers come with heating mantle or plate but there are some
stirrers that don’t come with heaters. Testator has a sample in the market.
(c) HOMOGENIZER
These are single stirrers used in mixing soil samples in solutions. They usually come
with a stand and clamp (see attached diagram).
(d) MIXERS
Mixers are commonly used in biochemistry and food laboratories.
COMPONENTS
Most shakers usually have the following components:
• Time control or Timer.
• Temperature control.
• Stirring‐speed control.
54
OPERATION
Shakers should be placed on a level and smooth surface so that it stands firm. This is very
important to prevent spilling during operation at high shaking frequencies.
For Orbital Shakers, when working with Petri dishes or object slides, the clamping strips should
be removed. Always adjust the speed control to minimum shaking frequency before putting the
device into operation by actuating the mains switch. When this is done, the drive is treated
gently and possible spilling of liquid from sudden motion is prevented. The speed control can
then be adjusted to desired speed. Having completed the shaking process, the speed control is
then turned back to minimum frequency and the mains switch (ON ‐ OFF Switch) turned off.
NOTE
• Most shakers have overload protection. They usually come from in‐form of fuses
with very low amperage.
• Shakers should be protected against water spillage or splashing. This is because of
the motor it incorporates.
FAULT FINDING
There are a few potential areas where fault can occur. Such areas include
• The power supply
• Temperature control
• Stirring Speed control
SYMPTONS
The shaker does not work check.
• The power supply from the main socket fuses
• The connection wire.
• The ON/OFF switch
• The Time control – TIMER
55
• The temperature control.
SYMPTONS
The shaker speed is incorrect check;
• The established speed
• The motor
• The stirrer in the solution
SYMPTONS
The temperature is incorrect check;
• The established temperature.
• The temperature sensor.
MAINTENANCE
All shakers should be placed in a dusty free area on a solid table. When they are not in use, they
should have a dust cover sheet (don’t use plastic dust cover). Where shakers are placed should
be vibration free and should be cleaned up regularly.
56
SHAKERS
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SHAKERS
• Shakers for Test tubes .
Shakers with horizontal motion (below)
57
58
WEEK 13
FLAME PHOTOMETRY
The basic principles of flame emission are well known.
1. A sample in liquid form is presented to a nebuliser which delivers a quantity of the
sample as a fine aerosol into a mixing chamber where it is combined and mixed with
a fuel.
2. The mixture of aerosol and fuel is directed to a burner where it is ignited and
allowed to burn.
3. The flame is positioned in a simple optical chamber where the emission from the
flame is collected and directed through an optical filter system and onto a light
direction device.
4. The intensity of the light falling on the detector is measured and displayed on a
meter.
5. Br selection of a suitable filter and calibration of the FES with known standard
solutions the instrument is calibrated and set up to read unknown samples.
In it’s simplest form the layout of our FES is shown on the next page.
Measurement of Detection Limit
The measurement of the detection limit involves the preparation of standards of the required
element to first determine the limit of linearity of that element with the FES set up in the most
sensitive mode.
One standard is then taken within the linear portion of the curve near the baseline and a series
of readings taken for that standard (10 or more) and recorded.
The standard deviation (SD) is then calculated for these readings from which the detection limit
is calculated by:‐
1st column reading (in concentration)
2nd column difference of readings from mean result
59
3rd column squares of differences (plus or minus)
Sum the squares, divide by the number of readings minus 1 (n‐1)
Calculated the square root – this is the SD
Detection limit + SD × 2
SETTING UP AND RUNNING FES
The setting up and running of FES instruments is quite straight forward and the suppliers or
manufacturers of the instrument will often include a comprehensive set of instructions.
But in order to ensure that the FES is operating correctly and accurately for the particular type
of analysis being done it is advisable to make a check list of setting up and shutting down
60
instructions which can be referred to each time the FES is used. This check will also ensure that
the equipment is used correctly, safely and with suitable regard for the care of the instrument.
The check list should also include instructions for routine maintenance (e.g. nebuliser cleaning)
which is carried out on a regular basis.
Detection limits
The determination of detection limits and the limit of linearity for a particular element are
useful exercises. They will show how well the instrument is performing and if it has been set up
correctly for use.
Factors affecting the detection limit and hence the sensitivity will include the degree of skill
exercised by the operator as well as the particular element being determined.
In the flame individual atoms absorb energy and depending on the amount of energy available
and the element in question a degree of ionization occurs. The hotter the flame the more
ionization will take place.
Some elements are more easily ionized than others and if we consider potassium and
magnesium is much more easily ionized than magnesium and is more sensitive in FES.
As you might expect in AAS the reverse is true; magnesium is about 5 times more sensitive than
potassium in the absorption mode because potassium is more easily ionized and has fewer
atoms in the ground state at any given flame temperature.
Necessary services
There are a number of requirements necessary to operates a FES
1. Fuel. This can be anything from Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) to Acetylene depending on
the type of instrument and the burner used. More common is bottled Butane or Propane.
2. Oxidant. Usually air, either bottled or more commonly supplied by a compressor.
3. Electricity. A steady mains supply is ideal but a portable generator can be used when the
mains is unreliable.
4. Ventilation. This is a very important requirement. Products of combustion from the flame
are usually toxic and an efficient ventilation (forced air) system is necessary.
61
The potentials danger of a gas explosion is always present and great care must always be
exercised when using instruments of this type.
As with all instruments which have an integral electronic system it is worth mentioning that it is
wise to keep humidity in the room where the FES is used down to a minimum. The installation
of a de‐humidifier is good investment if long term, trouble free operation of the FES is to be
expected.
The air compressor will need routine maintenance and the manufacturers will often supply a
timetable for regular attention.
If the compressor is an oil‐free type the only work needed is to regularly drain the reservoir so
that condensed water does not build up. This is usually a weekly job in all but the areas of high
humility.
The air input filter should also be regularly inspected and cleaned or replaced.
If the compressor does use oil this must be changed at the stipulated intervals if long term
trouble free running is to be expected.
The electronic areas do not require regular maintenance and the only way to protect
components in any system is by correct usage and control of the environment to minimize dust,
heat, humidity and vibration.
LIMITATIONS
In all emission techniques the sample is somehow excited by giving it enough energy to raise
the atom of the element we are interested in to a higher energy level. As the sample passes
through the flame the energy gained is released from the atom in the form of radiation of
specific wavelength for that element.
Although the techniques has much in it’s favour because of the simplicity of the equipment,
and the relative cost there are drawbacks which cannot be ignored.
Firstly, in a complex sample, as most soil or plant extracts are, the radiation released by the
sample can also contain radiation from other elements which may interfere with the element
which we are interested in.
It is possible to reduce or sometimes eliminate this unwanted radiation altogether by selection
of a suitable interference filter, but it is often a source of error in FES.
62
In more sophisticated FES instruments the radiation of interest is selected using a
monochromator and this helps to minimize spectral interference.
But it is not possible to eliminate the problem altogether and in some cases it maybe necessary
to perform chemical separation on the samples before an accurate determination can be done.
Secondly, the number of elements which can easily be determined by this technique is limited
and most laboratories limit their determinations to sodium, potassium and calcium.
Preparation of Standard Solutions
As in all analytical work the preparation of accurate standard solutions are of primary
importance. All results depend on correctly prepared standards no matter how sophisticated
the FES is. If the standards are correctly prepared the unknown extracts will be incorrectly
determined.
The range of the element of interest to be determined using FES will depend on the type and
temperature of the flame used. A typical working curve for FES will initially describes a straight
line; that is the concentration of the element in solution will be directly proportional to the
emission from the flame and the output of the detector as read on the readout meter.
Beyond the limit of linearity the curve will begin to bend and the emission output as seen on
the meter will become progressively less linear. This effect is known as self absorption.
More sophisticated FES, particularly those with computer generated curve correction programs,
will be able to handle a certain amount of curvature but for practical reasons t is easier to set
up the FES to measure in the linear portion of the curve.
This generally means that there will be a good deal of preparative work in the laboratory
diluting the samples etc. before measurements can be made.
Unlike AAS it is not usually possible to change the conditions in any way to minimize this
problem and the working range of any element is not very flexible.
The generation of a “fresh” working curve, or straight line, is necessary each day. Various
conditions will change the slope of the curve as small differences in working conditions also
change from day to day.
63
Routine Maintenance
The level of routine maintenance required by the FES is quite limited and is largely confined to
the combustion chamber area and the capital system.
As a daily exercise after analysis has been completed the practice of aspirating a good quantity
of distilled or demineralised water after use, with the flame still alight, will reduce the need for
frequent complete dismantling of the nebuliser and mixing chamber for cleaning.
Nevertheless, it is a good plan to establish a regular timetable for this work and ideally keep a
record of the work done and the date.
This will help to ensure trouble free running of the FES for long periods. There is no doubt that
one of the main causes of trouble with FES and AAS centres around the combustion chamber
and more often than not is the nebuliser.
The optical system should cause far less trouble in the short term but an annual or twice annual
cleaning programme is recommended.
Great care must be taken when the optical system is cleaned and only mild solutions and non‐
abrasive materials can be used for all lenses and mirrors.
It is better if the optical system can be cleaned in situ; any removal of lenses or mirrors from
the instrument should only be done if it is absolutely impossible to clean them where they are.
Re‐alignment of even the simplest of optical systems is quite difficult and should be avoided if
at all possible.
The burner should be cleaned regularly to remove crystalline material and sooty deposits from
the head, and again the use of abrasive materials for this task is not recommended even if the
deposits are difficult remove.
It is usually sufficient to soak the burner overnight in a mild detergent for all but the most
persistent deposits to be removed.
Another area where cleaning may be necessary is the point at which the fuel line enters the
mixing chamber. Qualities of fuels vary and sometimes substantial deposits build up and will
partially restrict the flow of fuel into the mixing chamber.
64
WEEK 14
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SPECTROPHOTOMETERS
1. THE NATURE OF LIGHT
Colours are one means by which we identify materials around us. “White” light, like
sunlight is made up of a mixture of colours. One way of finding out the different colours that
make up white light is by passing a beam of the light through a glass prism. The light is
immediately dispersed into the seven colours of the rainbow – red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet.
The phenomeanon of colour is the result of selective absorption of different portions of
the white light. So the hibiscus flower is seen to be red because it absorbs all other colours of
light but reflects the red portion of light.
Light that consists of more than one colour (e.g. sunlight) is referred to as a
polychromatic light. Light that consists of only one colour is called a monochromatic light.
Light can also be viewed from the electromagnetic point of view. Here, light is
considered to be a wavelike flow of electromagnetic energy, looking more like the waves of the
sea. Each wave has a characteristic length i.e. the distance from one crest to the next. The
wavelength is usually represented by the symbol λ (lambda). The wavelength of visible light
ranges from 360 – 700 nanometers (nm). One nanometer is 1 x 10 ‐9m. U.V. light has
wazvelength between 200 – 360nm.
65
The frequency ( ﬠ ) of any wave is the number of waves that pass a fixed per second, and
the velocity (c) is the distance a wave travels per second.
λ
All electromagnetic waves travel at constant velocity which is the speed of light (3 x
3
10 m/sec in vacuum). There is a mathematical relationship between the frequency ( ﬠ ), the
velocity (c) and the wavelength ( λ ) of any wave.
C = λ ﬠ
Light can also be considered as small particles of energy called photons. Each photon carries a
definite amount of energy. This energy (E) is directly proportional to the frequency ( ﬠ ) . E ‐ 2
hﬠ where h = planks constant. The intensity of the light is proportional to the number of
photons crossing a unit area per second.
Before any atom or molecule can absorb a photon of light, that photon must have the
exact amount of energy required for electron transition in the atom/molecule. If the energy of
the photon is not sufficient, the photon will rebound.
With this basic understanding of the behaviour of light, we will now try to see the
principles of spectrophotometry.
2. SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
The term spectrophotometry is used to describe the measurement of the amount of
visible or U.V. light absorbed by a sample at a specified wavelength. It is very essential to state
the wavelength because samples absorb lights of different wavelengths differently. The
selection of appropriate wavelength of light to use is a very important step in colorimetric
analysis. During the practical sessions, we shall see how to determine the appropriate
wavelength at which any colorimetric analysis can be done.
66
The units used in the measurement of light in spectrophotometry are transmittance (T)
or absorbance (A). When a monochromatic light is passed through the sample compartment in
the absence of a sample, all the light goes through the compartment. In other words, 100% of
the light (theoretically speaking) is transmitted through the sample compartment.
3
The term absorbance (A) is defined as the logarithm of I/Io
WE can see the relationship between % transmission and absorbance.
A = 2 ‐ log (% T)
The Beer‐Lambert Law helps us to relate the absorbance of a sample to the molar
concentration of the sample. The law states that absorbance is directly proportional to the
sample concentration (mol/l) and the path length of light through the sample (b)
A = abc
Where
A = Absorbance
a = a constant = molar absorptivity
b = length of light path intercepted by sample
c = concentration of absorbing species
67
The linear relationship between ‘A’ and concentration of absorbing species (c) make
absorbance the more useful measure than transmittance.
3. SPECTROPHOTOMETER
(a) Basic Components
Essentially, all spectrophotometers consist of four basic components. These are
i. The light source
ii. The monochromator
iii. The sample cell
iv. The detector and readout device.
The Light Source:
Usually a strong source of polychromatic light is used. The most common source of light
in the visible spectrum is the tungsten filament lamp. This lamp is able to produce light within
the spectrum 350 – 650nm. For U.V. spectrophotometers, the deuterium lamp or hydrogen
lamp is used.
The light beams are usually directed with the aid of optical mirrors to the
monochromator.
The Monochromator:
The monochromator is usually an assembly of some lenses and a light dispersing
surface. In very old instruments, the light dispersion is done with glass prism. Newer
instruments use diffraction gratings. The diffraction grating is a reflective surface containing
very many precision cut groves.
68
The light from the source enters the monochromator through an entrance slit. The light
is then focused on the grating. By adjusting the grating only light of selected wavelength comes
out of through a narrow exit slit. The wavelength control knob is usually connected to the
grating.
The Sample Cell:
This usually consist of a hallow compartment made to contain the sample tube or
cuvette. There are two common shapes of cuvettes. The test‐tube type and the rectangular
type.
Also in the sample cell, there may be devices for ensuring that light does not pass
through the detector except when a cuvette is placed inside. Selection of cuvettees is very
important. Cuvettes made of optical glass are good for use in the visible region but not for U.V.
light as the glass absorvbs light in the U.V. region. Quartz cuvettes are recommended for use in
the U.V. region. Avoid scratching the optical surfaces of the cuvette. Always wipe them clean
with soft tissues. Be sure to position them correctly always in the sample cell. Some sample
cells have slots for up to 4 cuvettes at a time and another slot for the blank. These are made to
increase speed of determinations.
The Detector and Readout device:
The light from the sample cell is usually directed to a photo sensitive device called the
phototube. The phototube generates electrical signals which is proportional to the intensity of
light falling on it. The electrical signal thus generated caused deflection of the needle in the
electronic readout device or moves the pen of your chart recorder. Usually there is some
amplification of the electric signal between the phototube and the final readout device.
(b) Operation of Spectrophotometers
The best procedure for operating any instrument, spectrophotometers inclusive, is to
follow the manufacturers instructions. Attempts will only be made here to highlight some
critical steps and necessary precautionary measures to ensure accurate, repeatable readings.
The full procedure will be demonstrated during the practical sessions on spectrophotometers.
The procedure for operation can be summarized as follows:
69
5
Preambles::
Ensure you have prepared your standard solutions of known concentration. The voltage
requirement and settings should be checked.
Step 1. Switch on the power supply and allow the instrument to warm up for at least
20minutes.
Step 2. If the wavelength for the procedure is already established, rotate the
wavelength selector to the appropriate position.
Step 3. With the sample cell empty and closed, adjust the amplifier control knob so that
the needle in the meter reads zero %T.
Step 4. Insert the cuvette containing the blank or reference solution (usually distilled
Water in the sample cell. Close the sample cell and adjust the transmittance to
read 100%T. Ensure that you retain one cuvette for the blank readings
only. Ensure that this setting is redone every time you change the
wavelength.
Step 5. Now we are ready to read the % transmittance of our standard solutions. The
standard solutions are put in the sample cuvette and inserted into the sample
cell. The sample cell is covered to avoid stray light during all readings. The %T of
the standards can then be read off from the readout. Most readouts are
graduated in both absorbance and %T scales so that the absorbance can be read
straight way.
Step 6. Plot a calibration curve of absorbance Vs concentration
70
The absorbance readings from the unknown samples can be matched with their corresponding
concentration from the calibration curves.
Finally, be sure to clean up the instrument and switch it off at the end of your analysis.
The cuvettes should be thoroughly rinsed with appropriate solution, preferably water. Never
use sodium hydroxide or chromic acid to clean the cuvettes as these will etch the optical
surfaces.
4. ATOMIC ABSORPTION/EMISSION SPECTROPHOTOMETERS
This class will not be complete without mention of other spectrophotometric analysis. 6
AAS’s are simply analytical devices which utilize the basic principles of atomic spectroscopy for
qualitative determination of elements of interest. To have a good knowledge of how these
devices work, we need to understand some of the basic concepts of the atom.
The atom is made up of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. The electrons are normally in orbital positions in an orderly and predictable way.
These orbitals may be seen as specific energy levels.
If sufficient external energy is applied to the atom, the energy could be absorbed
by the atom causing an outer electron to be promoted to a less stable configuration. This is
called the “excited state” of the atom. In order to maintain its stability, the electron is forced to
return to its original state (ground state) by emitting some radiant energy equivalent in
magnitude to the amount absorbed during excitation. The wavelength ( λ ) of the emitted
radiant energy has direct relationship with the electronic transition that occurred. As every
element has its own peculiar electronic configuration, the wavelength of light emitted is unique
for each particular element.
71
For large complex atoms, several electronic transitions are possible when the atom is
excited. As the atom returns to its ground star two or more different emissions may occur
depending on the electronic transition that takes place. The principles of atomic emission is
what is utilized in flame photometry.
Excited States λ
~ λ
Atom atom
When light of the appropriate wavelength is made to impinge on a ground state atom,
the atom may absorb the light and become excited. This process is called atomic absorption
and is utilized in atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). The relationship between flame
photometry and atomic absorption spectrophotometry is evident. In flame photometry the
light energy emitted in the decay process is measured, where as in AAS, it is the light energy
absorbed in the excitation process that is measured.
4a. FLAME PHOTOMETRY
In flame photometry, the sample, which must be in solution, is sprayed into a flame.
This spraying is achieved with the help of a nebuliser. The flame must be hot enough to
vaporize, atomize and excited the atoms in sample. The excited atoms of our element of
interest then emit their characteristic light. This light of specific wavelength is separated from
all other emitted light with the help of a monochromator or optical filter. The separated light
now falls on the detector. The detector is usually a photomultiplier tube that converts light
energy to electrical signals. The electrical signals thus generated are directed to a readout
device. The measurements can be directly related to the concentration of the element of
interest by comparing with measured intensities of a series of standard solutions of that
element. The figure below shows a simple illustration of the basic components of the flame
photometer.
72
In soil and plant analytical laboratories the flame emission technique is commonly used
for the determination of NA, K and Ca.
4b. ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETRY (AAS)
The AAS has three functional units. These are (1) the light source (2) the sample cell
and (3) the detection and measuring unit. We shall now consider these in greater detail.
The Light Sources:
A light source which emits sharp atomic lines of the element to be determined is
required. The hollow cathode lamp is the most commonly used. The figure below shows how
the lamp is constructed. The cathode of the lamp is a hollowed‐out cylinder of the metal whose
spectrum is to be produced. The anode and the cathode are sealed in a glass cylinder filled
with an inert gas like neon or argon. A window transparent to the radiation is fused to the end
of the cylinder. When electric current is applied to the lamp, the fill gas atoms are ionized
positively. These ions accelerate through the electrical field and collide with the negatively
charge cathode. This collision caused atoms to the metal ion to be dislodged from the cathode.
This process is referred to as “sputtering”. The dislodged metal atoms are excited to emission
through impact with the full gas ions. As the cathode of the hollow cathode lamp is made of
high purity metal, the emission spectrum produced are also usually pure. Sometimes, the
cathode is made of metal alloys, resulting in multielement lamp. Each lamp has an optimum
operating current which is usually indicated on the lamp. 8
The light source for absorption is usually modulated in order to achieve selective
amplification of the lamp emission signal. The modulation is achieved either mechanically by a
rotating chapter or by electronic pulsation.
Apart from the hollow cathode lamp, the electrode‐less discharged lamp (EDL) may be
used.
73
The Sample Cell
In the AAS, the sample call consists essentially of the premix burner system. The sample
cell is supposed to produce ground state atoms in the optical path of the instrument. Apart
from the premix burner, the graphite furnace, sampling boats and hydride generation are other
sampling systems.
The diagram below illustrates the common premix burner system. The sample solution
is aspirated through the nebulizer and sprayed fuel gas and oxidant are introduced through the
appropriate inlets. Large sample droplets which are unable to flow around the spoiler fall to
the bottom of the champer from where they flow our through the drain. The nebulizer is
usually adjustable to allow for various sample solution systems. The burner heads are made of
titanium which is extremely resistant to head and corrosion. Different types and sizes of burner
heads exists to meet flame requirements.
Detection and Measurement Unit
This unit consists of the monochromator, the detector, some electronic components
and the readout.
The monochromator is used to disperse the various wavelights of light which are
emitted from the source so as to isolate the spectral line of interest. In the monochromator
you normally have one inlet for the radiation and an exit for the selected spectral line.
Dispersion of the source light is done with the help of a diffraction grating. The diffraction
grating is a reflective surface with many fine parallel lines ruled very close together. It deflects
different wavelengths of light at different angles. With the help of high quality optical mirrors,
the spectral line of interest is directed through the exit slit to the detector or photomultiplier
tube. (See illustration).
MONOCHROMATOR
74
The function of the photomultiplier tube and the readout device are as treated in
section 3a.
The details of the operations and troubleshooting of FF & AAS will be handled in the
practical sessions.
75
WEEK 15
PROPER USE AND CALIBRATION OF UV‐VISIBLE
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
I see “proper use of a spectrophotometer ” as deriving maximum benefits in using a
spectrophotometer. This you cannot achieve without meeting obvious conditions: I am
therefore going to address the topic from two or three angles:
1. The nature of equipment
2. Materials and method and
3. Operational tactics with a summary of maintenance checks.
1. THE SPECTROPHOTOMETER:
Chief uses: An Spectrophotometer: An analytical instrument commonly used in physico‐
chemical labs to make quantitative and quantitative analysis of specimen materials in the UV,
visible spectral range, finds much scope for its service in such fields as medicine, clinical exams,
conditions:
1. Should be installed in a dry room with the temp. kept between 5oC and 35oC and
relative humidity under 85%.
2. While in use, instrument should be placed on a solid, smooth working table, free from
shocks or vibrations
3. Strong illumination and direct exposure to sunlight should be avoided.
76
4. Keep far away from any high intensity magnetic field, electric field or electric equipment
that produces high‐frequency waves
5. No airflow, e.g., produced by an electric fan should be directed straight towards the
instrument.
6. Do not use the instrument in a place where there is H2S, fluorine sulphite or other
corrosive gases.
2. SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
The term spectrophotometry is used to describe the measurement of the amount of
visible or U.V. light absorbed by a sample at a specified wavelength. It is very essential to state
the wavelength because samples absorb lights of different wavelengths differently. The
selection of appropriate wavelength of light to use is a very important step in colorimetric
analysis. During the practical sessions, we shall see how to determine the appropriate
wavelength at which any colorimetric analysis can be done.
The units used in the measurement of light in spectrophotometry are transmittance (T)
or absorbance (A). When a monochromatic light is passed through the sample compartment in
the absence of a sample, all the light goes through the compartment. In other words, 100% of
the light (theoretically speaking) is transmitted through the sample compartment.
I o I
Monochromatic
77
light
Colourless solution (e.g. H2O)
Initial intensity Io = final intensity I
However, when there is a coloured sample in the sample compartment, some of the light is
absorbed by the sample. This means that the intensity of the light after it has passed through
the sample is reduced. If we call the initial intensity of the light Io, and the final intensity after
passing through the sample I, then:
Transmittance (T) = 1
Io
% T = 1 X 100O
Io
I o I < Io
Monochromatic
light
Coloured sample
78
The term absorbance (A) is defined as the logarithm of I/ Io
The Beer – Lambert Law helps us to relate the absorbance of a sample to the molar
concentration of the sample. The law states that absorbance is directly proportional to the
sample concentration (mol/I) and the path length of light through the sample (b).
A = abc
Where
A = Absorbance
a = a constant = molar absorptivity
b = length of light path intercepted by sample
c = concentration of absorbing species
The linear relationship between Absorbance ‘A’ and concentration of absorbing species
(c) makes absorbance the more useful measure than transmittance.
2. THE SPECTROPHOTOMETER
a. Basic Components
Essentially, all spectrophotometers consist of four basic components. These are
i. The light source
ii. The monochromator
79
iii. The sample Cell
iv. The detector and readout device.
Light source monochromator sample cell detector & Readout
PARTS OF THE SPECTROPHOTOMETER
The spectrophotometer can always be subdivided into two major sections:
• The optical
• The electronic part
OPTICAL PART
White light from the source bulb is concentrated:
The concentrated light beam is diffracted:
80
White
Red
Green
Violet
The intensity of the monochromatic light is adjusted
The light beam passes through the sample and its intensity is measured by the phototube:
81
THE ELECTRONIC PART
The spectronic 20 has
• Two power supplies
• The light source
• The photodetector
• The signal amplifier
• The meter readout
POWER POWER
SUPPLY SUPPLY
SINGLE‐BEAM VERSUS DOUBLE‐BEAM OPERATION
(SEE DIAGRAM BELOW)
Two basic instrument designs are employed in commercial spectrophotometers. One design
uses only a single beam, whereas the other provides a double beam.
82
Single‐Beam Operation. A beam of radiation from the source enters the monochromator
where it is dispersed by a prism or a grating. As the dispersing element is rotated, the various
resolved bands of radiation re focused at the exit slit. The radiation then passes through the cell
and on to a detector. The instrument is calibrated (0% and 100%T) and used by the methods
just described.
The single‐beam method requires stable, high quality components in the source,
detector, and amplifier for high precision measurements. The instrumental parameters cannot
fluctuate between the time of 100% T calibration with the “blank” and the determination of the
transmittance of the sample. Direct‐reading instruments using meters give immediate readout
with an accuracy of +1 to 3% in transmittance. The null‐point readout design is considerably
more accurate (+0.2% in transmittance), but more expensive. Unless high accuracy is required,
the meter readout instruments are quite satisfactory. Single‐beam instruments are recording
because of the necessity of calibration at each wavelength.
Double‐Beam Operation. Double‐ beam instruments employ some type of beam splitter prior
to the sample cells. One beam is directed through the “blank” cell (or reference cell) and the
other beam through the sample cell. The two beams are then compared either continuously or
alternately many times a second. Thus, in the double‐beam design, fluctuations in the source
intensity, the detector response and amplifier gain are compensated for by observing the ratio
signal between “blank” and sample. As might be expected, double‐beam instruments are more
sophisticated electronically and mechanically than the single‐beam designs and consequently
are more expensive.
83
In ultraviolet‐visible double‐beam spectrophotometers, the beam splitting occurs after
the monochromator; front surface mirrors and, more commonly, rotating sector mirrors are
used. The rotating sector mirror alternately passes and reflects the beam several times a
second and thus splits the beam and also chops it. This chopped radiation is used as the input
source for a‐c amplifiers, which provide amplification stability. An electronic null‐readout
system is employed in this type of instrument. One of these designs is shown schematically in
Figure 10‐12. The reference and sample beams alternately reach the detector at intervals which
depend on the rotational frequencies of the choppers. The instrument records the ratio of the
reference and sample signal. If the radiant powers of both of the beams are the same, the a‐c
amplifier generates no output signal. If the radiant powers of the two beams are different, the
imbalance signal activates a servomotor which drives a potentiometric recorder such that the
imbalance signal is “electronically nulled” by the recorder. The electrical bridge of the
potentiometric recorder is calibrated in terms of percent transmittance of the sample and thus
the position of the bridge balance point is used to determine percent transmittance.
Blank
Mirror mirror
Sample
Lamp Chopper1 Chopper 2
THE LIGHT SOURCE:
Usually a strong source of polychromatic light is used. The most common source of light
in the visible spectrum is the tungsten filament lamp. This lamp is able to produce light within
the spectrum 350 – 650 nm. For U.V. spectrophotometers, the deuterium lamp or hydrogen
lamp is used.
The light beams are usually directed with the aid of optical mirrors to the
monochromator.
THE MONOCHROMATOR:
The monochromator is usually an assembly of some lenses and a light‐dispersing
surface. In very old instruments, the light dispersion is done with glass prism. Newer
instruments use diffraction gratings. The diffraction grating is a reflective surface containing
very many precision cut groves.
The light from the source enters the monochromator through an entrance slit. The light
is then focused on the grating. By adjusting the grating only light of selected wavelength comes
out through a narrow exit slit. The wavelength control knob is usually connected to the grating.
85
(see Diagram on page 5)
The Sample Cell:
This usually consists of a hollow compartment made to contain the sample tube or
cuvette. There are two common shapes of cuvettes. The test‐tube type and the rectangular
type.
Also in the sample cell, there may be devices for ensuring that light does not pass
through to the detector except when a cuvette is placed inside. Selection of cuvettes is very
important. Cuvettes made of optical glass are good for use in the visible region but not for U.V.
light as the glass absorbs light in the U.V. region. Quartz cuvettes are recommended for use in
the U.V. region. Avoid scratching the optical surfaces of the cuvette. Always wipe them clean
with soft tissues. Be sure to wipe them clean with soft tissues. Be sure to position them
correctly always in the sample cell. Some sample cells have slots for up to 4 cuvettes at a time
and another slot for the blank. These are made to increase speed of determinations.
The Detector and Readout Device:
The light from the sample cell is usually directed to a photo sensitive device called the
phototube. The phototube generates electrical signals, which is proportional to the intensity of
light falling on it. The electrical signal thus generated causes deflection of the needle in the
electronic readout device or moves the pen of your chart recorder. Usually there is some
amplification of the electric signal between the phototube and the final readout device.
86
2. Operation of Spectrophotometers
The best procedure for operating any instrument, spectrophotometers inclusive, is to
follow the manufacturers instructions. Attempts will only be made here to highlight some
critical steps and necessary precautionary measures to ensure accurate, repeatable readings.
The full procedure will be demonstrated during the practical sessions on spectrophotometers.
The procedure for operation can be summarized as follows:
Preambles:
Ensure you have prepared your standard solutions of known concentration. The voltage
requirement and settings should be checked.
Step 1. Switch on the power supply and allow the instrument to warm up for at least 20
minutes.
Step 2. If the wavelength for the procedure is already established, rotate the
wavelength selector to the appropriate position.
Step 3. With the sample cell emptied and closed, adjust the amplifier control knob so
that the needle in the meter reads zero % T
Step 4. Insert the cuvette containing the blank or reference solution (usually extraction
solution) in the sample cell. Close the sample cell ad adjust the transmittance to
read 100% T. Ensure that you retain one cuvette for the blank readings only.
Ensure that this setting is redone every time you change the wavelength.
87
Step 5. Now we are ready to read the % transmittance of our standard solutions. The
standard solutions are put in the same cuvette and inserted into the stray light
during all readings. The % T of the standards can then be read off from the
readout. Most readouts are graduated in both absorbance can be read straight
way.
Step 6. Plot a calibration curve of absorbance Vs concentration
Abs
1.0‐ x
. 3 ‐ x
. 6 ‐ x
. 4 ‐ x
. 2 ‐ x
. 0 – CONC.
2 4 6 8 10
88
The absorbance readings from the unknown samples can be matched with their corresponding
concentration from the calibration curves.
Finally, be sure to clean up the instrument and switch it off at the end of your analysis.
The cuvettes should be thoroughly rinsed with appropriate solution, preferably water. Never
use sodium hydroxide or chromic acid to clean the cuvettes as these will etch the optical
surfaces.
DESIRABLE AND UNDESIRABLE COLORIMETRIC PROPERTIES.
Many instances arise in which the substance being analyzed does not possess
properties, which are conducive to accurate optical measurement. Such a substance must be
converted, by reaction with some suitable chromogenic reagent, into a new species having
desirable properties before a direct analysis can be made. The colour producing reaction may
be illustrated by the equation: sample + chromogenic reagent product
Whether the sample is colored itself or requires addition of a color‐forming reagent, the
solution intended for colorimetric measurement should ideally posses these five properties:
1. Stability for sufficient time to permit accurate measurement. Instability, which usually
results in fading, is sometimes the result of air oxidation, photochemical decomposition,
effects of acidity, temperature, solvents, or other conditions. Sometimes, by modifying
the conditions, greater stability can be obtained.
2. Intense color (large extinction coefficient). This can be controlled by altering the solvent,
in many cases, and by selecting a reagent of suitable sensitivity.
3. Freedom from effects of minor variations in pH, temperature, or other conditions.
4. Solubility of the colored product.
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When a color‐ forming reagent is needed, the reagent selected should possess as many of the
following properties as possible:
1. Stability in solution. Reagents which deteriorate in few hours, ferment, or develop mold
on storage usually have to be prepared frequently and a new calibration curve must be
obtained for each new batch of reagent.
2. Rapid color development.
3. Stoichiometric reaction with the desired constituent. If the reaction goes to completion,
the exact amount of reagent added, if colorless, is not critical, and an excess may be
used to allow for a wide range of concentrations and possible interference by side
reactions which consume the reagent. The colored product itself obeys Beer’s Law.
Sometimes, when unfavorable equilibrium conditions exist, a large excess of reagent
may be added to shift the equilibrium to the desired direction.
4. Transparency (an extinction coefficient of zero) in the spectral region involved in the
measurement.
5. Selectivity or specificity, so that the color is a measure of the desired constituent only.
6. Freedom from interference by other constituents which might convert the reagents or
desired constituent to an unreactive form or complex leading to incomplete color
development.
7. Capacity to function in the all‐round best solvent. The choice of solvent in which to
make a color measurement is sometimes an important consideration
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CALIBRATION OF A SPECTROPHOTOMETER
Essentially there are two types of calibration in vogue
Definition 1: ‐ Calibration is determining the value of the deviations of an instrument from an
applicable standard. This calibration is to be distinguished from the calibration of an instrument
for each measurement. For this type the relevant calibration recess are:
- Pre‐set values and tolerated deviations
- Frequency of calibration
- What calibration standards are used
- Relation to national or international standards
- Environmental conditions during calibration
- Measures to minimize shifts in adjustment.
This type of calibration becomes necessary (a) when a new instrument ins installed (b) after
months of operation and after a long time of use (c) after it is moved from previous installation
or (d) after it has undergone repairs, ‐ as its performance index may have changed. The
instrument should be shacked for its wavelength accuracy. Each brand of instrument may have
its modality for calibration of wavelength accuracy. For instance, spectrophotometer 752N is
checked for its wavelength by a point‐to‐point method against the two characteristic
absorption peaks of a didymium filter‐529nm and 808nm. In case the point‐to‐point
measurement shows a wavelength different from the peak wavelength of the didymium filter
(maximum permissible error is + 2nm), remove the wavelength knob, loosen the three
positioning screws on the wavelength dial, adjust the dial pointer, to the characteristic
absorption peak wavelength value, and tighten the screws.
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DEFINITION 2
The other type of calibration usually is an operation to make instrument sufficiently
accurate for the measurement it is intended for (this operation is also called standardization). It
is carried out batchwise using serial dilution of stock standard solution of parameter to be
determined as specified in the various analytical methods. The essence of instrument
calibration is to assure that reliable and repeated readings are obtained. Relevant calibration
items are:
- A series of standards of known concentration, in say, mg/litre or 100 cm3
- A good graph sheet with which to plot a calibration curve. Suitable quantities of the
constituent are taken and treated in the same way as the sample solution for the
development of colour. Percentage transmission (or optical density) of the colored
solution is measured at the optimum wavelength
The optical density (logIo/I1) is plotted against the concentration; a straight live plot is
obtained if Beer’s law is obeyed. The curve may then be used for future determinations of the
constituent under the same experimental conditions. When the optical density is directly
proportional to the concentration, only a few points are required to establish the live: when the
relation is not linear, a greater member of points will generally be necessary. The standard
curve should be checked at intervals. While a fresh one is prepared whenever a new stock
standard solution is prepared.
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abs
1.o x
0.8 x
0.6 x
0.4 x
0.2 x
o CONC. Mg/L
SPECTROPHOTOMETER SPECTRONIC 20
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Source lamp lights. Source lamp does not * Check wiring to the lamp
light. and to the circuit board.
* Check voltage across the
lamp
* Replace the source light.
Remove eventual The meter can be The meter cannot be * Check free movement of
sample and set the set to zero. set to zero. the occluder.
meter to zero. * Check the DC‐voltage
supply circuit.
* Check the zero set
potentiometer.
* Check leaks of light
* Check the phototube.
0% transmittance is * Check the dc voltage
0% transmittance not stable supply circuit.
is stable * Check power supply to
the phototube.
* Check stability without
the phototube.
* Check the phototube.
Set wavelength to 100%T can be set. 100%T cannot be set. * Check power supply
circuit.
340nm, set meter to * Check phototube.
* Check lamp voltage.
100%T * Check cleanliness of
optical parts.
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Check wavelength Wavelength Wavelength calibration Adjust the wavelength
accuracy. accuracy is within error is not constant cam screw until the error
the specifications. over the whole range. is constant.
Wavelength calibration Adjust the wavelength dial
error is constant over with respect to the
the whole range. wavelength cam.
Construction and Testing of a Single Stage Amplifier.
MATERIALS: Circuit board, 12V dc Power Supply, Oscilloscope, Signal Generator, Digital meter
and Components.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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METHOD:
1. Construct the circuit shown in figure 9 on a board.
2. Apply 12V dc to the circuit with the switch ,positions as shown in figure 9
3. Measure the dc voltages at the collector, base and emitter of the transistor TR1
4. Record these voltages in your table of results.
5. Calculate the expected values at the collector, base and emitter of TR1.
6. Compare these calculated values with the experimental results.
7. Apply a 10KHZ 30mV peak – peak signal to the input of the amplifier.
8. Measure the output voltage (Vout) and calculate the voltage gain (Av)
9. Adjust the signal frequency to obtain the lower and upper cut‐off frequencies (F1
and F2).
10. Calculate the bandwidth and record it in your table of results.
11. Switch in the 10KΏ resistor in place of R3 and comment on the results obtained
12. Switch in the 180KΏ resistor in place of R1 and comment on the results obtained
13. Switch C2 out of the circuit and measure the output voltage and gain of the
amplifier.
14. Switch back to the original values of R1 and R3 (82KΏ and 3.3 KΏ) and measure the
output voltage and gain.
15. Comment on the results obtained in steps 13 and 14
16. Connect the oscilloscope to the TR1 emitter and observe the wave form with C2 in
and out of circuit. Comment on the results obtained.
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