UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS (I)

COURSE CODE: EEC 239

YEAR II- SEMESTER III THEORY

Version 1: December 2008

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Week 1: 1.1 1.2 1.3 Mathematical form of representing A.C signals Conversion of a.c signal in polar form to the j-notation form Subtraction, addition, multiplication and division of phasor using j operator 1.4 Week 2: 1.5
1.6

Solved simple problems using j-notation

Phasor diagram for a.c circuits drawn to scale

Derivations with the aid of waveforms diagrams that the current in a capacitive circuit leads voltage and the current in the inductive circuit lags the voltage

1.7 1.8

Inductive and capacitive reactances Voltage and current waveforms on same axis showing lagging and leading angles

Week 3: 1.9 Phasor diagrams for series and parallel a.c circuits

1.10 Voltage, current, power and power factor calculations in series and parallel circuits 1.11 Series and parallel resonance 1.12 Conditions for series and parallel resonance

Week 4: 1.13 Derivations of Q-factor, dynamic impedance and bandwidth at resonance frequency 1.14 Sketch of I and Z against F for series and parallel circuits 1.15 Calculation of Q-factor for a coil and loss factor for a capacitor

1.16 Bandwidth 1.17 Problems involving bandwidth and circuits Q-factor Week 5: 2.1 WEEK 6: 2.2 2.3 Week 7: 2.4 2.5 Week 8: 3.1 3.2 Week 9: 3.3 Derivation of formulae for the transformation of a delta to a star network and vice versa 3.4 Week 10: 3.5 3.6 Duality principles Duality between resistance, conductance, inductance, capacitance, voltage and current Week 11: 3.7 3.8 Week 12: 4.1 4.2 Thevenins theorem Basic principles of Thevenins theorem Duality of a network Solved network problems using duality principles solved problems on delta/star transformation Reduction of a complex network to it series or parallel equivalent Identification of star and delta networks Basic principles of nodal analysis solved problems on nodal analysis Basic principles of mesh circuit analysis Solved problems on mesh circuit analysis Terms used in electric networks

4.3 4.4

Solved problems on simple network using Thevenins theorem Solved problems involving repeated used of Thevenins theorem

Week 13: 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Week 14: 4.9 Millmans theorem 4.10 Basic principles of Millmans theorem 4.11 Solved network problems using Millmans theorem Week 15: 4.12 Reciprocity Theorem 4.13 Basic principles of Reciprocity theorem 4.14 Solved problems using Reciprocity theorems Nortons theorem Basic principles of Nortons theorem Comparison of Nortons theorem with Thevenins theorem Solved problems using Nortons theorem

A.C THEORY
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: State different mathematical forms of representing a.c signals Convert a.c signal in polar form to the j-notation Subtract, add, multiply and divide phasor using j-operator Solve simple problems using j-notation

Week 1

1.1

MATHEMATICAL FORMS OF REPRESENTING A.C SIGNALS

Generally, A.C signal may be represented in the following mathematical form; a) Trigonometric form, Z = r (Cos + sin ) b) Polar form, Z = r c) J notation form, Z = x+jy (1.1) (1.2) (1.3)

1.2

CONVERSION OF A.C SIGNAL IN POLAR FORM TO THE j NOTATION FORM

Example 1.1: Express 18-56.3 in j notation form Solution: Step I: Make a sketch as shown on fig 1.1 to measure = -56.30 with respect to the real axis and r = OA = 18 Step II: Find x using trigonometric ratio, Cos = x/18 i.e x = 18 cos = 18 Cos (-56.30) x 10 Step III: Find y using trigonometric ratio Sin = Y/18 i.e y = 18 sin = sin (-56.3 ) y -15 Step IV: finally obtain the required result as x + jy = 10 j15 Example 1.2: Express 553.1o in j notation form Solution: Step I: Make a sketch as shown on fig 1.2 to measure = 53.10 with respect to the real axis and r = OA = 5 Step II: Find x using trigonometric ratio 1
Fig 1.1
O

B
0

= -56.3
y 18 N

Re

A.C THEORY
Cos = x/5 i.e x = 5 cos = 5 Cos (53.10) x3 Step III: Find y using trigonometric ratio Sin = Y/5 i.e y = 5 sin = sin (53.1O) y4 Step IV: finally obtain the required result as x + jy = 3 j4
B Fig 1.2 y N x A

Week 1

S
= 53.10 Re

1.3

SUBTRACTION, ADDITION, MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF PHASOR USING j- OPERATOR.

1.3.1 Addition/Subtraction of Phasor

The most convenient way to add or subtract phasor is to first convert them to j notation form, if they are in polar form. Once the phasor are in j notation form, the real (x) components and the imaginary (y) components can be algebraically added or subtracted, as may be required. The answer (the sum or difference) can be left in j notation form or it can be converted back to polar form if desired.

If two phasor are Z1 and a +jb and Z2 = c+jd, then addition of phasor gives: Z1 + Z2 = (a+jb) + (c+jd) = (a+c) + j(b+d) Subtraction of phasor gives: Z1 Z2 = (a-c) + j(b-d) Example 1.3: If V1 = -10 + j20 and V2 = 20 +j30 , find the sum of V1 and V2, express the result in polar form. Solution V1 = -10+j20 V2 = 20 + j30 V3 = V1 + V2 = -10+ 20+j20 + j30 = 10 +j50 Finally, V3 = 102+502 Tan-1 (50/10) = 5178.70

A.C THEORY
Example 1.4 Subtract I1 = 3-56.30 from I2 = 5.8300 Solution Step I: Convert first to j notation form to get (using the trigonometric form) I1 = 3 {cos(-56.30) + j sin (-56.30)} = 3{0.5548 + j(-0.8320)} = 1.66 j2.50 similarly, I2 = 5.8 (cos 300 + j sin 300) 5.02 + j2.90

Week 1

Step II: I2 = 5.02+j2.90 I1 = 1.66-j2.50 Subtracting I1 from I2, we get I3 = I2 - I1 = 3.36 + j5.40

1.3.2 Multiplication/Division of Phasors

The most convenient way to multiply or divide phasors is to first convert them to polar form, if they are in j notation form. Once the phasor are in polar form, to multiply polar phasor, just multiply the magnitude and algebraically add the phase angle. To divide phasor, the magnitudes are divided and the angles are algebraically subtracted. If Z1 = r1 1 and Z2 = r2 2, then multiplying Z1 by Z2 we get Z1 Z2 = r1 r2 (1+2) If Z1 = r1 1 and Z2 = r2 2, then dividing Z1 by Z2 we get Z1/Z2 = r1/r2 (1-2)

1.4

SOLVED SIMPLE PROBLEMS USING J-NOTATION

Example 1.5: Given the following two vectors A = 20600 and B = 5300 perform the following indicated operation (i) A x B (ii) A/B Solution: i. ii. A x B = 20600 x 5300 = 20 x5600 + 300 = 100900 A/B = 20600/5300 = 4600-300 = 4300

A.C THEORY

Week 1

Example 1.6: perform the following operation and the final result may be given in polar for; (8 +j6)x(-10-j7.5)

Solution (8+j6)x(-10-j7.5)= -80-j60-j60-j245=-80+45-j120 = -35-j120 = (-35)2+ (-120)2 tan-1(120/35) = 12573.70

A.C THEORY
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Draw to scale phasor diagram for a.c circuits

Week 2

Show with the aid of waveforms diagrams that the current in a capacitor circuit leads voltage

and the current in the inductive circuit lags the voltage. Distinguish between inductive and capacitive reactances. Draw voltage and current waveforms on same axis to show lagging and leading angles.

1.5 PHASOR DIAGRAMS FOR A.C CIRCUITS DRAWN TO SCALE

For a pure inductive circuit, the voltage across the inductor (VL) leads the currents (I) flowing through it by 900. Taking a scale of 1cm:2V, and 1cm:3A, the Phasor diagram is drawn to scale as shown in figure1.3 (b)

I
VL

V 6 (a)
I

V,I

4 6

2 90
0

3 90 I 3 (b) 6 2 (c) 4
0

VC

Fig 1.3 Phasor diagram for A.C circuit drawn to scale: (a) Resistive circuit (b) Inductive circuit (c) Capacitive circuit For a pure capacitive circuit, the current (I) flowing through the capacitor leads the voltage across it (Vc) by 900. Taking a scale of 1cm:3A, and 1cm:2V, the phasor diagram is drawn to scale as shown in fig 1.3 (c) For a pure resistive circuit, the voltage across the resistor (V) is in phase with the current (I) flowing through it. Taking a scale of 1cm:3A, and 1cm:2V, the Phasor diagram is drawn to scale as shown in figure 1.3 (a) 5

A.C THEORY
1.6

Week 2

DERIVATIONS WITH THE AID OF WAVEFORMS DIAGRAMS THAT THE CURRENT IN A CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT LEADS VOLTAGE AND THE CURRENT IN THE INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT LAGS THE VOLTAGE

1.6.1 Current And Voltage In An Inductive Circuit

Suppose the instantaneous value of the current through a coil having inductance L henrys and negligible resistance to be represented by i = Imsint = Imsin2ft (1.4)

where t is the time, in seconds, after the current has passed through zero from negative to positive values, as shown in fig 1.4. Suppose the current to increase by di ampere in dt seconds, then instantaneous value of induced e.m.f is e = L di dt = LIm d (sin2ft) dt = 2fL Imcos2ft = Vmcos2ft, where Vm = 2fLIm e = Vmsin(2fL +/2) v,i Applied voltage (1.5)

Current di i

Im t

t dt

(900)

/2

Fig 1.4: voltage and current waveforms for a purely inductive circuit

The induced e.m.f is represented by the curve in fig 1.4, leading the current by a quarter of a cycle. 6

A.C THEORY
equal to the induced e.m.f, therefore instantaneous value of applied voltage is V=e V = Vmsin(2ft + /2) (1.6)

Week 2

Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the whole of the applied voltage is

Comparism of expressions (1.4) and (1.6) shows that the applied voltage leads the current by a quarter of a cycle.

1.6.2 Current and voltage in a capacitive circuit

v,i Current

Applied voltage dv v

Vm t

t dt

Fig 1.5: voltage and current waveforms for a purely capacitive circuit

Suppose that the instantaneous value of the voltage applied to a capacitor having capacitance C farad is represented by V = Vmsint = Vmsin2ft ` (1.7)

If the applied voltage increases by dv volts in dt seconds (fig,1.5) then, instantaneous value of current is i = C dv/dt = C d/dt(Vmsin2ft) = 2fCVmcos2ft = Vm/Xc cos2ft i = Imsin(2ft + /2) where Im = 2fCVm 7 (1.8)

A.C THEORY
a quarter of a cycle.

Week 2

Comparism of expression (1.7) and (1.8) shows that the current leads the applied voltage by

1.7

DISTINGUISH REACTANCES

BETWEEN

INDUCTIVE

AND

CAPACITIVE

1.7.1 Inductive Reactance

From the expression Vm = 2fLIm, Vm/Im = 2fL If I and V are the r.m.s values, then

inductive reactance The inductive reactance is expressed in ohms and is represented by the symbol XL. The inductive reactance is proportional to the frequency and the current produced by a given voltage is inversely proportional to the frequency, as shown in fig 1.6 x,i Current Inductive reactance

f Fig 1.6: variation of reactance and current with frequency for a purely inductive circuit

1.7.1 Capacitive reactance

From the expression Im = 2fCVm Vm/Im = 1 = capacitive reactance 2fC (1.10)

The capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms and is represented by the symbol Xc. The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency and the current produced by a given voltage is proportional to the frequency, as shown in fig 1.7 8

A.C THEORY
x,i

Week 2

Capacitive reactance Current

f Fig 1.7: variation of reactance and current with frequency for a purely capacitive circuit

1.8

VOLTAGE

AND

CURRENT

WAVEFORMS

ON

SAME

AXIS

SHOWING LAGGING AND LEADING ANGLES

The waveforms of voltage and current on same axis, showing leading and lagging angle () is shown in fig 1.8 v,i Voltage Current

Fig 1.8

A.C THEORY
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Draw phasor diagram for series and parallel a.c circuits

Week 3

Calculate voltage, current, power and power factor in series and parallel circuits Explain series and parallel resonance State conditions for series and parallel resonance

1.9

PHASOR DIAGRAMS FOR SERIES AND PARALLEL A.C CIRCIUT

VL VL Vs VR I
VL - Vc

1.9.1 Phasor diagrams for series a.c circuits:

Vs

VR (a)

Vc (b)

Vs

VR (c)

fig 1.9: Phasor diagram for series a.c circuits:

Vc (a) R-L series circuit (b) R-C series circuit (c) R-L-C series circuit Ic
Ic - IL

1.9.2 Phasor diagram for parallel a.c circuits:

IR Vs Ic I

IL I (d) (e) IR

Vs IR (f) IL

VS

Fig 1.10: Phasor diagrams for parallel a.c circuits: (d) R-L parallel circuit (e) RC parallel circuit (f) RLC parallel circuit

10

A.C THEORY
1.10 VOLTAGE,
Example 1.7

Week 3
CURRENT, POWER AND POWER FACTOR

CALCULATIONS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT

A resistance of 10 is connected in series with a pure inductance of `100mH and the circuit is connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the circuit current (b) the voltage across each element (c) the power factor of the circuit (d) the power consumed. Solution (a) circuit current, I = Vs = 100 . 2 2 Z (10 + XL )

And XL = 2fL = 2 x 50 x 100 x 10-3 = 31.42 I= (b) 100 (10 + 31.422)

2

= 3.03A

Voltage across the resistor, VR = IR = 3.03 x 10 = 30.3V Voltage across the inductor, VL = IXL = 3.03 x 31.42 = 95.2V From the phasor diagram of RL series circuit, = tan-1 (VL/VR) = tan-1 (95.2/30.3) = 72.30 Power factor = cos = cos72.30 = 0.3040 P = I2R = 3.032 x 10 = 91.81W

(c)

(d)

Example 1.8: A circuit having a resistance of 12, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitance of 100F in series, is connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the impedance (b) the current (c) the voltages across R,L and C (d) the power factor of the circuit Solution (a) Z = [R2 + (XL XC)2]
2

= (12)2 + 2x3.142x50x0.15 _ 1 2x3.142x50x100x10-6 (b) (c) I = V/Z = 100/19.4 = 5.15A Voltage across R = VR = 12 x 5.15 = 61.8V

= 19.4

Voltage across L = VL = 2 x 50 x 0.15 x 5.15 = 242.5V and voltage across C = VC = 1 x 5.15 = 164V -6 2 x 50 x 100 x 10 11

A.C THEORY
(d) power factor = cos Where = cos-1(VR/VS) = cos-1(61.8/100) = 51.80 P.f = cos51.8 = 0.6184

Week 3

Example 1.9: A circuit consists of a 115 resistor in parallel with a 41.5F capacitor and is connected to a 230V, 50Hz supply (fig 1.11). Calculate: (a) the branch currents and the supply current (b) the power factor (c) the power consumed
I IR VS 230V 50Hz 115 IC 41.5F

Ic

IR Fig 1.11: circuit and phasor diagrams for example 1.9 Solution (a) IR = VS/R = 230/115 = 2A XC = 1 = 1 = 76.7 -6 2fC 2x50x41.5x10 IC = VS/XC = 230/76.7 = 3A I = (IR2 + IL2) = (22 + 32) = 3.6A (b) P.f = cos and = cos-1(IR/I) = cos-1(2/3.6) = 56.30 P.f = cos56.30 = 0.5548 (c) P = I2R = 3.62 x 115 = 1490.4W

Vs

Example 1.10 Three branches, possessing a resistance of 50, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitance of 100F respectively, are connected in parallel across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate: (a) the current in each branch (b) the supply current (c) the phase angle between the supply current and the supply voltage (d) the power factor of the circuit.

12

A.C THEORY
Solution The circuit diagram for example 1.10 is shown in fig 1.12 Ic
I IR 50 IC IL

Week 3

100V 50Hz

IL 0.15H

IC 100F

IR
Fig 1.12: circuit diagram for example 1.10

Fig 1.13: phasor diagram for example 1.10

IL

(a)

IR = 100/50 = 2A IL = 100 = 2.12A 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.15

and IC = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 100 x 10-6 x 100 = 3.14A (b) The resultant of IC and IL is IC IL = 3.14 2.12 = 1.02A I = [IR2 + (IC IL)2] = (22 + 1.022) = 2.24A (c) From fig 1.13: cos = IR/I = 2/2.24 = 0.893 = cos-1(0.893) = 26.70 (d) P.f = cos = cos26.7 = 0.8934

1.11 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE

Generally, an ac circuit is said to be in resonance when the applied voltage V (with constant magnitude, but of varying frequency) and the resulting current I are in phase

1.11.1 Series resonance

If at some frequency of the applied voltage, XL = XC the current in the circuit is given by I = VS = VS = VS = VS Z [R2 + (XL XC)2] R2 R 13

A.C THEORY

Week 3

This condition where by XL = XC in a series R-L-C circuit is called series resonance, and the frequency at which it occurs is called resonant frequency, f0. The phasor diagram of the R-L-C series circuit at resonance is shown in fig 1.14

VL = IXL

VS = IR

VC = IXC

Fig 1.14: phasor diagram for an RLC series circuit at resonance

1.11.2 Parallel Resonance

Parallel resonance occurs when the active component of the current is in phase with the supply current. Figure 1.15 shows a parallel resonance circuit where a coil (RL) is connected in parallel with a capacitor C. This combination is connected across an ac voltage source Ic
IC C IL L ILcos=I

VS (a) Parallel circuit

ILsin

IL

(b) Phasor diagram

Fig 1.15: parallel resonance

1.12 CONDITIONS FOR SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE 1.12.1 Conditions for series resonance
(i) (ii) (iii) The applied voltage VS and the resulting current I are in phase The net reactance is zero because XL = XC The impedance Z of the circuit is minimum 14

A.C THEORY
(iv) (v) The current in the circuit is maximum The resonant frequency is given by fr = 1 . 2(LC)

Week 3

1.12.2 Condition for parallel resonance (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) The applied voltage VS and the resulting current Ir are in phase The power factor is unity The impedance of the current at resonance is maximum. The value of current at resonance is minimum. The resonance frequency is given by fr = 1 2 1 _ R2 LC L2

15

A.C THEORY
At the end of this week, the students are expected to:

Week 4

Prove the relevant formulae for Q-factor, dynamic impedance and bandwidth at resonance

frequency Sketch current and impedance against frequency for series and parallel circuits Calculate the Q-factor for a coil; loss factor for a capacitor Explain with the aid of a diagram, bandwidth Solve problems involving bandwidth and Q-factor

1.13 DERIVATIONS OF Q-FACTOR, DYNAMIC IMPEDENCE AND BANDWIDTH AT RESONANCE FREQUENCY 1.13.1 Q-Factor of a Series Resonance
Q-factor = Potential drop across the inductance at resonance Potential drop across the resistance at resonance = IXL =XL/R = 2f0L IR R Also, Q-factor = Potential drop across the capacitance at resonance Potential drop across the resistance at resonance =IXC = XC IR R = 1 2f0CR (1.11)

(1.12)

1.13.2 Q-factor of a Parallel Resonance

Q-factor = Circulating current Supply current = ILSin I = tanL =XL = 2f0L R R (see fig 1.15b) (1.13)

1.13.3 Dynamic Impedance of a Series Resonance

At series resonance, XL = XC and the impedance in the circuit is Z=VS =ZD I ZD=VS I ZD = R = where ZD is known as dynamic impedance VS = 2 2 VS / [R + (XL XC) ] VS = VS R2 2 VS / R VS =R (1.14)

A.C THEORY
1.13.4 Dynamic Impedance of a Parallel Resonance
Consider the phasor diagram of fig 1.15(b) I = I1Cos1 , where I1 = VS and Cos1 = R Z1 Z1 I = VS . R = VSR Z1 Z1 Z12 Also, IC = I1 Sin 1, where Sin 1 = XL , and IC = VS Z1 XC 2 VS = VS . XL or Z1 = XLXC where XL = L, XC = 1/C Xc Z1 Z1 Z12 = L/C Putting eqtn (1.16) in (1.15) gives I = VS RC L Z = L/RC VS = Z = L I RC = dynamic impedance (1.17) (1.16) (1.15)

Week 4

1.13.5 Bandwidth at Resonance Frequency

The quality factor Q0 (at resonance) can be expressed as the ratio of the resonant frequency to bandwidth (BW). Hence, Q0 = f0 BW = f0 . BW, Q0

1.14 SKETCH OF I AND Z AGAINST F FOR SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT 1.14.1 Sketch of Current (I) and Impedance (Z) against frequency (F) for Series Circuit
The sketch of I and Z against F for series circuit is shown in fig 1.16 I0=V/R
I Z Z=R

f0 Fig 1.16

f 2

A.C THEORY

Week 4

1.14.2 Sketch of current (I) and impedance (Z) against frequency (F) for parallel circuit
The sketch of I and Z against f for parallel circuit is shown in fig 1.17 Z

I
Fig 1.17:

f0

1.15 CALCULATION OF Q-FACTOR FOR A COIL AND LOSS FACTOR FOR A CAPACITOR
Example 1.11 Determine the Q-factor of a coil whose resistance and inductance are 10 and 20mH, respectively, if the coil is at resonance at 1.2KHz. Solution Qf = 2f0L = 2 x 1.2 103 x 20 x 10-3 = 15.1 R 10 Example 1.12 A capacitor has a capacitance of 10F and an actual phase angle of 800. It is connected across a 200V, 50Hz line; find the loss factor of the capacitor Solution The circuit and phasor diagrams are shown in fig 1.18 10F Rse IRse I

IXc 220V (a) Fig 1.18

Vs (b)

In practice, a capacitor has an equivalent resistance (Rse) either in series or in parallel with it [fig 1.18(a)] From the phasor diagram [fig 1.18(b)], 3

A.C THEORY
= actual angle = loss angle and loss factor = tan + = 900, = 900 - = 900 - 800 = 100 and tan = tan100 = 0.1763

Week 4

1.16 BANDWIDTH
When the current in a series RLC circuit is plotted as a function of (or f) we obtain the curve as shown in fig 1.19. We notice that the points where the current is 0.707 of the maximum (as indicated on the graph), the corresponding frequencies are 1 and 2.

Io

BW

1 (f1)

0 (f0) Fig 1.19

2 (f2)

(f)

The distance between these points 1 and 2 is known as bandwidth BW. We define the bandwidth, BW, of the resonant circuit to be the difference between the frequencies at which the circuit delivers half of the maximum power. The frequencies 1 and 2 are called half power frequencies.

1.17 SOLVED PROBLEMS INVOLVING BANDWIDTH AND CIRCUIT QFACTOR

Example 1.13 The bandwidth of a series resonance circuit is 130Hz and the resonance frequency is 1300Hz. Find the Q-factor of the circuit

A.C THEORY
Solution Qf = f0 = 1300 = 10 BW 130

Week 4

Example 1.14 obtain the bandwidth in example 1.13 if the Q-factor is reduced by 50% Solution BW = f0 , where Q.f = 50 x 10 = 5 Q.f 100 BW = 1300 = 260Hz 5

Method of Analysis
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Explain the following terms used in electric networks: Ideal and practical independent current and voltage sources Branch Node Loop Network

Week 5

2.1

TERMS USED IN ELECTRIC NETWORK

The following terms are used in electric network: (a) Ideal and Practical independent current and voltage sources (b) Branch (c) Node (d) Loop (e) Network

2.1.1.1

Ideal independent current and voltage sources

Those current and voltage sources, which do not depend on other quantity in the circuit, are called ideal independent current and voltage sources. An ideal independent voltage source is shown in fig. 2.1(a) whereas an ideal independent current source is shown in fig. 2.1(b).

A Is + _

A Vs

B B (a) (b) Fig 2.1: Ideal independent sources

2.1.1.2

Practical independent current and voltage sources

A practical independent current source exhibits an internal resistance in parallel with the ideal independent current source. A practical independent voltage source exhibits an internal resistance in series with the ideal independent voltage source. The schematic representation of a practical independent voltage and current source is shown in fig. 2.2 (a and b) respectively. 1

Method of Analysis
R A Vs + _ B Is R B (b) A

Week 5

(a)

Fig 2.2: practical independent sources

2.1.2 Branch
A branch is part of a network which lies between two junctions. The circuit of fig. 2.3 has three branches.

2.1.3 Node
A node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected together. The circuit of fig. 2.3 has two nodes.

2.1.4 Loop
A loop is any closed path in a circuit. For example, the circuit of fig. 2.3 has three loops: abefa, bedcb and acdfa a b node 1 c

branch 3 d node 2 branch 2

branch 1

Fig 2.3

Method of Analysis
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Explain the basic principle of mesh circuit analysis Solve problems on mesh circuit analysis

Week 6

2.1.5 Network
A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner whatsoever, is called a network. This is shown in fig. 2.3

2.1

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MESH CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Consider the network of fig. 2.4, which contains resistances and independent voltage sources and has two meshes. Let the two mesh currents be designated as I1 and I2 and all the two may be assumed to flow in the clockwise direction for obtaining symmetry in mesh equations.

R1

R2

E1

I1

R3

I2

E2

Applying KVL to mesh (i), we have E1= I1R1 + I1R3 - I2R3 Or E1= (R1 + R3) I1 - R3 I2 Similarly, from mesh (ii), we have E2= I2R2 + I2R3 I1R3 Or E2= - R3 I1 + (R2 + R3) I2

Fig 2.4

(2.1)

(2.2)

The matrix equivalent of the two equations is (R1 + R3) -R3 -R3 (R2 + R3) I1 I2 E1 = E 2

It would be seen that the first item in the first two row i.e (R1 + R3) represents the self resistance of mesh (i) which equals the sum of all resistance in mesh (i). Similarly, the second item 1

Method of Analysis
resistances common to mesh (i) and (ii).

Week 6

in the first row represents the mutual resistance between meshes (i) and (ii) i.e the sum of the The sign of the e.m.fs, while going along the current, if we pass from negative to the positive terminal of a battery, then, its e.m.f is taken positive. If it is the other way around, then battery e.m.f is taken negative. In the end, it may be pointed out that the directions of mesh currents can be selected arbitrarily.

2.2

SOLVED PROBLEMS ON MESH CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Example 2.1 Find V in figure 2.5 using mesh analysis 32 4 + V 40 _

20V Solution 20 = 4 I1 + 9(I1 I2) Or 20 = 13 I1 - 9I2

I1

I2

Fig 2.5

Using KVL for loops 1and 2, we get

(2.3)

and 0 = 9(I2 I1) + 32I2 +40I2 Or 0 = -9I1 +81I2 From equations (2.3) and (2.4), we get (2.4)

13
-9 0 =

-9 81 13

I1 I2

20 E1 0

-9
20 0

-9= = 1053-81 = 972 81

-9 81

I1 =

= 1620A 2

Method of Analysis
I2 = 13 -9 20 = 18OA 0

Week 6

I1 = I1/0 = 1620/972 = 1.67A, I2 = I2/0 = 180/972 = 0.185A V = 40I2 = 40 x 0.19 7.4V EXAMPLE 2.2 using mesh analysis 2 2 Determine the current in the 4 resistor in the circuit shown in figure 2.6

12V (2)

I2 1 24V (1) I1

12 3

I3 (3)

10V

4 Fig 2.6

Solution For mesh 1, we can write

24 = 1(I1 - I2) + 3(I1 - I3) + 4I1 Or 24 = 8I1 I2 3I3 For mesh 2, 12 = 2I1 + 12(I2 - I3) + 1(I2 I1) Or -12 = I1 15I2 + 12I3 For mesh 3, -10 = 12(I3 I2) + 2I3 + 3(I3 I1) Or 10 = 3I1 + 12I2 17I3 From eqtn. (2.5),(2.6) and (2.7), we get (2.7) (2.6) (2.5)

8 1 3

-1 -15 12

-3 12 -17

I1 I2 I3

24 = -12 10 3

Method of Analysis

Week 6

0 = 8 1 3

-1 -15 12

-3 12 -17 = 8 -15 12 12 -17 - (-1) 1 3 12 -17 -31 3 -15 12

= 888 53 171 = 664 1 = 24 -12 10

-1 -15 12

-3 12 -17 = 24 -15 12 12 -17 - (-1) -12 10 12 -17 -3 -12 -15 10 12

= 2664 + 84 18 = 2730 I1 = 1/0 = 2730/664 = 4.111A I1 = 4.111A, is the current in the 4 resistor

Method of Analysis
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Explain the basic principle of nodal analysis Solve problems on nodal analysis

Week 7

2.4

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF NODAL ANALYSIS

Consider the circuit of fig 2.7 which has three nodes. One of these i.e node 3 has been taken in as the reference node. VA represents the potential of node 1 with reference to the reference node (or zero potential node). Similarly, VB is the potential difference between node 2 and node 3. Let the current directions which have been chosen arbitrary be as shown

R1 I1 E1

Node 1 VA R4

R2 I2

Node 2 VB R5

R3 I3

I4

I5

E2

Node 3 Fig 2.7 Reference node

For node 1, the following current equation can be written with the help of KCL. I1 = I4 + I2 Now E1 = I1R1 + VA I1 = (E1 VA)/R1 Obviously I4 = VA/R4, Also VA = I2R2 + VB I2 = (VA VB)/R2 Substituting these values in eqtn (2.8) above, we get, E1 VA = VA + VA - VB R1 R4 R2 Simplifying the above, we have VA 1 + 1 + 1 _ VB = E1 R1 R2 R3 R2 R1 The current equation for node 2 is I5 = I2 + I3 (2.9) (2.10) 1 (2.8)

Method of Analysis
Or VB = VA VB + E2 - VB R5 R2 R3

Week 7

Or -VA + VB 1 + 1 + 1 = E2 (2.11) R2 R2 R3 R5 R3 The node voltages in equation (2.9) and (2.11) are the unknowns and when determined by a suitable method, result in the network solution. After finding different node voltages, various current can be calculated by using ohms law.

2.5

SOLVED PROBLEMS ON NODAL ANALYSIS

Example 2.3 obtain the node voltage and the branch current in the circuit shown in fig 2.8
5 I1 20V V1 I3 10 8V Vref 2 I2

Solution

Fig 2.8 For node 1, applying KCL gives I3=I1+I2 Or V1= 20 - V1 + 8 - V1 10 5 2 V1 + V1 + V1 = 20 + 8 = 8 10 2 5 5 2 Or V1 + 5V1 + 2V1 = 8 x 10 = 80 8V1 = 80 V1 = 80/8 =10V I1 = 20 10 = 2A, I2 = 8 10 = -1A 5 2 I3 = 10/10 = 1A

Example 2.4
using nodal analysis

Determine the voltages at nodes b and c in the network shown in figure 2.9 0.2 30A 0.3 c 0.1 20A 116V 2

120V Fig 2.9

Method of Analysis
Solution: Let the voltages at nodes b and c be Vb and Vc respectively. Using nodal analysis for node b, we get Vb 120 + Vb Vc + 30 =0 or 5Vb 2Vc = 342 0.2 0.3 Using nodal analysis for node c, we get Vc Vb + Vc 116 + 20 or Vb + 4Vc = 342 0.3 0.1 From equation (2.13), Vb = 4VC 342 From equation. (2.12) and (2.14), we get 5(4Vc 342) 2Vc = 342 or Vc = 114V Vb = 4Vc 342 = 4 x 114 342 = 114V (2.13) (2.14) (2.12)

Week 7

Network Transformation
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Reduce a complex network to its equivalent Identify star and delta networks

Week 8

3.1

REDUCTION OF A COMPLEX NETWORK TO ITS SERIES OR PARALLEL EQUIVALENT

The network of fig. 3.1 (a) and (b) can be reduced to its equivalent as shown below.

R2
e

R4
e

R1

R3

R1
q

R2

R3

(a) (b) Consider fig. 3.1(a), the equivalent Fig. 3.1 of the network is shown in fig. 3.2 resistance Req = R1+R4 + (R2// R3) R1
e

R2

R4
q

Req =

R3

Fi.g. 3.2

The equivalent resistance of fig. 3.1(b), is shown in fig. 3.3 1/Req= 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3 Req = R1R2R3 / (R1R2 + R1R3 + R2R3)
e

R1
q

R2

R3

Req Fig 3.3

Network Transformation
Also the circuit of fig 3.1(c) can be reduced to its equivalent as under
R2 R1
R3

Week 8

R6

R5 Fig 3.1(c) R4

R7

Rp1 = R2R3R4 / (R2R3 + R2R4 + R3R4) The circuit is reduced to the one shown in fig 3.1(d)
R1
RP1

R6

R5

R7

Fig 3.1(d) From fig 3.1(d), RS1 = R1 + RP1 + R6 The circuit becomes as shown in fig 3.1(e)
Rs1

R5

R7

Fig 3.1(e) RS2 = R5 + R7

The circuit becomes as shown in fig 3.1(f)

Rs1

RS2

Fig 3.1(f) 2

Network Transformation
Req = RS2 + RS1 The circuit is finally reduced as shown in fig 3.1(g) Req Fig 3.1(g)

Week 8

3.2
Delta (

IDENTIFICTION OF STAR AND DELTA NETWORKS

) and Star (Y) networks are identified for being having three terminals. Thus, they are

called three-terminal equivalent networks. Figure 3.4 shows a delta-network whereas a star-network is depicted in figure 3.5 1 1 R1

R31
3

R12

R3 2 3

R2

R23

2 Fig. 3.4 Delta-network Fig. 3.5 Star-network

Network Transformation
At the end of this week, the students are expected to:

Week 9

Derive the formula for the transformation of a delta to a star network and vice versa Solve problems on Delta to star transformation

3.3

DERIVATION OF FORMULAE FOR THE TRANSFORMATION OF A DELTA TO A STAR NETWORK AND VICE VERSA

3.3.1 Derivation of formulae for the transformation of a delta to a star network.

The circuit of fig. 3.4 and 3.5 can be redrawn as shown in figure 3.6 and 3.7 respectively. 1 1 RC 3 Ra aa Fig 3.6 4 2 Fig 3.7 Consider figure 3.6 and 3.7, the resistance between terminal 1 and 2 is R12 (Y) = R1 + R3 R12( ) = Rb // (Ra+Rc) (3.1) (3.2) R3 4 3 R1

Rb

R2

Setting R12(Y) = R12(

) gives (3.3)

R12 = R1 + R3 = Rb(Ra+Rc) Ra + Rb +Rc Similarly, R13 = R1 + R2 = Rc(Ra+Rb) Ra + Rb +Rc and R34 = R2 + R3 = Ra(Rb+Rc) Ra + Rb +Rc Subtracting eqtn. (3.5) from (3.3), we get R1 R2 = RC(Rb Ra) Ra + Rb + Rc

(3.4) (3.5)

(3.6)

Network Transformation
Adding eqtn. (3.4) and (3.6) gives R1 = RbRc Ra + Rb + Rc (3.7)

Week 9

Subtracting eqtn. (3.6) from (3.4) gives R2 = RcRa Ra+Rb+Rc Subtracting eqtn. (3.7) from eqtn. (3.3) gives R3 = RaRb Ra+Rb+Rc Eqtn. (3.7) to (3.9) is the required conversion formulae (3.9) (3.8)

3.3.2 Derivation of formulae for the transformation of a star to a delta network

Multiplying equation (3.7) and (3.8), (3.8) and (3.9), (3.7) and (3.9) and adding them together gives, R1R2+ R2R3+ R1R3 = RaRbRc (RaRbRc) (Ra+Rb+Rc)2 = RaRbRc Ra+Rb+Rc Dividing eqtn. (3.10) by each of eqtn. (3.7) to (3.9) gives Ra = R1R2+ R2R3+ R1R3 R1 Rb = R1R2+ R2R3+ R1R3 R2 Rc = R1R2+ R2R3+ R1R3 R3 Equation (3.11) to (3.13) is the required conversion formulae (3.11) (3.12) (3.13) (3.10)

3.4

SOLVED PROBLEMS ON DELTA AND STAR TRANSFORMATION

Example 3.1: Transform the network of fig. 3.8 to an equivalent star network. 1 Rb Rc Ra aa 2 2 Fig 3.8

Network Transformation
Solution R1 = RaRb = 1 X 9 = 0.75 Ra + Rb + Rc 2+9+1 = 2X1 = 2 = 1/6 2+9+1 12

Week 9

R2 = RaRc Ra + Rb + Rc R3 = RbRc = Ra + Rb + Rc

9X2 = 1.5 9+2+1

The equivalent star network is shown in fig 3.9

R1 0.75

R2 1/6

R3

1.5

Fig. 3.9 Example 3.2 Transform the network of fig 3.9 to an equivalent delta network Solution Ra = R1R2+ R2R3+ R1R3 R1 0.75 x 1/6 + 1/6 x 1.5 + 1.5 x 0.75 = 2 0.75

Rb = R1R2+ R2R3+ R1R3 R2 0.75 x 1/6 + 1/6 x 1.5 + 1.5 x 0.75

1

= 9

/6

Rc = R1R2+ R2R3+ R1R3 R3 0.75 x 1/6 + 1/6 x 1.5 + 1.5 x 0.75 1.5 = 1

Network Transformation
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Explain the meaning of duality principle

Week 10

Establish duality between resistance, conductance, inductance, capacitance, voltage and current.

3.5

DUALITY PRINCIPLE
Consider for example, the relationship between series and parallel circuits. In a series circuit, individual voltages are added and in a parallel circuit, individual currents are added. It is seen that while comparing series and parallel circuits,voltage takes the place of current and current takes the place of voltage. Such a pattern is known as duality principle.

3.6

DUALITY

BETWEEN

RESISTANCE,

CONDUCTANCE,

INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, VOLTAGE AND CURRENT.

The duality between resistance, conductance, inductance, capacitance, voltage and current is tabulated as shown in table 3.1 Table 3.1 Series Circuits (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
1

Parallel circuits V1 = V2 = V3 ---------Vn IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + ---- + In GT=G1+G2+ G3 + ---+ Gn

1

I1 = I2 = I3 ------------In VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + ---+Vn RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ---+ Rn

1

/GT=1/G1+1/G2+1/G3+--+1/Gn
1 1 1 1

/RT=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+-+ 1/Rn

LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ---+ Ln /CT= /C1+ /C2+ /C3+---+ /Cn

CT=C1+C2+C3+------+ Cn
1

/LT=1/L1+1/L2+1/L3+----+1/Ln

Network Transformation
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: Find the duality of a network Solve network problems using duality principle

Week 11

3.7

DUALITY OF A NETWORK
If two electric networks are governed by the same type of equations, these two networks are known as dual networks. Consider the circuit shown in fig. 3.12. The voltage across the two resistors is given by V=I(R1+R2 ) (3.14)

R1 I

R2

Fig 3.12

The dual of the circuit elements in eqtn. (3.14) are as follows V=I I=V R1 + R2 = G1 + G2 Therefore the dual of equation (3.14) is I = V(G1 + G2) (3.15)

Also, the dual of series circuit is parallel. Hence, the dual circuit of fig. 3.12 is redrawn as shown in fig. 3.13 I

G1

G2 1

Fig. 3.13

Network Transformation
3.8

Week 11

SOLVED NETWORK PROBLEMS USING DUALITY PRINCIPLE

Example 3.3 Draw the dual network of the one shown in fig. 3.14 5

20V

+ _

Solution Step 1: The dual of 20V voltage source is 20A current source, as shown in fig. 3.15(a)

20A

Fig. 3.15(a) Step 2: The dual of 5 resistor is 1/5 series = 1/5 resistor in parallel Step 3: Since the 20V voltage source is in series with 5 resistor, it dual counterpart is 20A current source in parallel with 1/5. This is shown in fig. 3.15(b)

20A 1/5

Fig. 3.15(b):- dual network of fig. 3.14

Example 3.4 Draw the dual network of fig 3.16 30A

2F

3H 2

Fig. 3.16

Network Transformation
Solution

Week 11

Since the current source, capacitor and inductor are all connected in parallel, their dual counterparts will be connected in series. The dual of 30A current source is 30V voltage source The dual of 2F capacitor is 2H inductor The dual of 3H inductor is 3F capacitor The dual network of Fig. 3.16 is shown in Fig. 3.17 2H

30mV

+ _

3F

Network Theorems
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: State Thevenins theorem Explain the basic principle of Thevenins theorem Solve problems on simple network using Thevenins theorem

Week 12

4.1

THEVENINS THEOREM

Thevenins theorems state that a linear two terminal network may be reduced to an equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with a single resistor as shown in figure 4.1 Rth a

Eth b Fig 4.1: Thevenins equivalent circuit

4.2
1. 2.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THEVENINS THEOREM

Remove the load from the circuit Label the resulting two terminals. We will label them as a and b, although any notation may be used

The following principles provide a technique that converts any circuit into its Thevenins equivalent:

3.

Set all sources in the circuit to zero Voltage source are set to zero by replacing them with short circuits. Current sources are set to zero by replacing them with open circuits. Determine the Thevenins equivalent resistance, Rth, by calculating the resistance seen between terminals a and b. It may be necessary to redraw the circuit to simplify this step. Replace the sources removed in (3), and determine the open circuit voltage between the terminals. The resulting open circuit voltage will be the value of the Thevenins voltage, Eth. Draw the Thevenins equivalent circuit using the resistance determined in (4) and the voltage calculated in (5). As part of the resulting circuit, include that portion of the network removed in (1)

4.

5.

6.

Network Theorems
4.3 THEOREM

Week 12

SOLVED PROBLEMS ON SIMPLE NETWORK USING THEVENINS

Example 4.1 Obtain the Thevenins equivalent circuit for the active network in fig 4.2(a). a 3 3 I 6 18V b (a) Solution With terminals ab open, the current through the 3 and 6 resistor is I = 18 = 2A 3+6 The Thevenins voltage VTh, is the voltage across terminal a-b. Hence, Vab = Vth = I X 6 = 2 X 6 = 12V The Thevenins resistance can be obtained by shorting out the 18V sources [fig 4.2(b)] and finding the equivalent resistance of this network at terminals ab: RTh = 3 + 3 x 6 = 5 3+6 The Thevenins equivalent circuit is shown in fig 4.3 Fig 4.2 (b) b 3 6 3 a

Rth

Eth b Fig 4.3: Thevenins equivalent circuit Example 4.2 Applying Thevenins theorem to find the current through the resistance R as shown in figure 4.4(a)

Network Theorems
5 3 R=10 5 3 10

Week 12

30V

10

30V

VTh

Fig 4.4(a) Solution With R disconnected [fig 4.4(b)], the current in the loop is I = 30 = 2A 5 + 10 VTh = Vab = 10 x I = 10 x 2 =20V To find RTh we short circuit the source as shown in fig 4.4(c) Rth = 3 + 5 x 10 = 19/3 5 + 10 5 3 10

Fig 4.4(b)

b Fig 4.4(c) To find the current through R, we replace the left side of ab by its Thevenins equivalent and connect the load resistance as shown in fig 4.4(d) RTh

VTh

R=10

Fig 4.4(d) I= VTh = 20 = 1.224A 19 RTh + R /3 + 10

Network Theorems
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: State Nortons theorem Explain the basic principle of Nortons theorem Compare Nortons theorem with Thevenins theorem Solve simple problems on Nortons theorem

Week 13

4.5

NORTONS THEOREM

Nortons theorem state that a linear two terminal network may be reduced to an equivalent circuit consisting of a single current source and a single shunt resistor as shown in fig 4.8 a Isc IN RN IN RN

b Fig 4.8: Nortons equivalent circuit

Fig 4.8: (a)

4.6

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF NORTONS THEOREM

As seen from fig 4.8(a), to find the Nortons current IN, we determine the short circuit current flowing from terminal a and b. It is evident that the short circuit current isc in fig 4.8(a) is IN (Nortons current). Thus IN = isc (4.1)

We find Nortons resistance (RN) in the sane way we find Thevenins resistance (RTh). Thus RN = RTh (4.2)

Finally, after obtaining IN and RN we draw the Nortons equivalent circuit as shown in fig 4.8

4.7

COMPARISM OF NORTONS THEOREM WITH THEVENINS THEOREM

Nortons theorem is related to Thevenins theorem as follows: RN = RTh as in eqtn. (4.2) 1

Network Theorems
IN = VTh/RTh Also, IN = VTh/RN

Week 13
(4.3) (4.4)

4.8

SOLVED PROBLEMS USING NORTONS THEOREM

Example 4.5 Determine the Nortons equivalent circuit of fig 4.9 2 a 2 8 a 5 b

10A

Fig 4.9 Solution

To find RN, we open circuit the 10A current source as shown in fig 4.10(a) RN = (8 + 2) x 5 = 50 = 10/3 8 + 2 + 5 15 To find IN, we short circuit terminal ab as shown in fig 4.10(b). 2 a Isc=IN 10A 8 8A Fig 4.10(c)
10

/3

IN = 10 x 8 = 8A 8+2

Fig 4.10(b) b

The Nortons equivalent circuit is shown in fig 4.10(c) Example 4.6 Determine the current IL in the circuit shown in figure 4.11(a) by using the Nortons theorem 5 12V 2 2 Fig 4.11(a) a RL 5 12V I1 5 2 2 Fig 4.11(b) a

isc

isc RN
Fig 4.11(c)

b a

Network Theorems
Solution
With RL disconnected and replaced by short circuit [fig 4.11(b)], I1 = 12 . 5 + 2 x 2 = 2A 2+2

Week 13

isc = 2 x 2 = 1A = IN 2+2 To find RN, the voltage is replaced by a short circuit, RN = 2 + 5 x 2 = 24 5+2 7 The Nortons equivalent circuit with RL connected across terminal ab is shown in fig 4.11(c). IL = isc RN = 1 x 24/7 = 0.407A 24 RN + 5 /7 + 5

Network Theorems
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: State Millmans theorem Explain the basic principle of Millmans theorem Solve network problems using Millmans theorem

Week 14

4.9

MILLIMANS THEOREM

This states that any number of parallel voltage sources E1, E2,,En having internal resistance R1, R2,.,Rn respectively can be replaced by a single equivalent source E in series with an equivalent series resistance R.

4.10 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF MILLIMANS THEOREM

In circuits of the type shown in figure 4.12, the voltage sources may be replaced with a single equivalent source as shown in figure 4.13 a a Req RL En b Fig 4.13 Fig 4.12 The values of I1, I2 In would be determined using ohms law: I1 = E1/R1, I2 = E2/R2, In = En/Rn Hence the equivalent current in the circuit is given by Ieq = I1 + I2 + .. + In via terminal ab when RL is removed is given by Req = R1//R2 // .//Rn Which may be determined as Req =
1

R1 I1 E1 I2

R2 In E2

Rn

RL Eeq b

(4.5)

The equivalent resistance Req is obtain by short circuiting the voltage sources. The resistance seen (4.6)

1 /R1 + 1/R2 + . + 1/Rn

(4.7)

The general expression for the equivalent voltage is Eeq = IeqReq = E1 + E2 + E3 + .. + En R1 R2 R3 Rn . 1 /R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ..+ 1/Rn (4.8) 1

Network Theorems

Week 14

4.11 SOLVED NETWORK PROBLEMS USING MILLIMANS THEOREM

Example 4.7 Using Millimans theorem to find the common voltage across terminals a and b in the circuit of fig 4.14 a 4 3 6V 4

12V

4V b

Fig 4.14 Solution Vab = Veq = 12 + 6 + 4 4 3 4 = 3.79v + 1/3 + 1/1 Using the Millimans theorem, determine the current through R L in the circuit

Example 4.8
shown in fig 4.15(a)

I 2 3 4 RL= 5 3V 8V 7V Req Veq 0.923 RL5 2.23V Fig 4.15(b)

Fig 4.15(a) Solution Veq = 3/2 + 8/3 7/4 = 2.23V + 1 /3 +

Network Theorems
Req = 1 = 0.923 + 1 /3 +

Week 14

The equivalent circuit is shown in fig 4.15(b) I = Veq = 2.23 = 0.3765A Req + RL 0.923 + 5

Network Theorems
At the end of this week, the students are expected to: State Reciprocity theorem Explain the basic principle of Reciprocity theorem Solve network problems using Reciprocity theorem

Week 15

4.12 RECIPROCITY THEOREM

This state that in any linear bilateral network , if a source of e.m.f E in any branch produces a current I in any other branch, then the same e.m.f E acting in the second branch would be the same current I in the first branch.

4.13 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCITY THEOREM

When applying the reciprocity theorem, the following principle must be followed: 1. 2. The voltage sources is replaced by a short circuit in the original location The polarity of the source in the new location is such that the current direction in that branch remains unchanged.

4.14 SOLVED THEOREM

NETWORK

PROBLEMS

USING

RECIPROCIUTY

Example 4.9: Consider the circuit of figure 4.16: (a) (b) Calculate the current I Remove voltage source E and place it into the branch with R3. Show that the current through the branch which formerly had E is now the same as the current I

R1 I E 22V R2 8 R3 12

Fig 4.16 Solution (a) V(12) = 8//12 4 + (8//12)

(22)

= 4.8 x 12 = 12V 8.8 1

Network Theorems
I = V(12) = 12 = 1A 12 12

Week 15

(b)

Removing the voltage sources E and placing it into the branch with R3 gives the

circuit shown in figure 4.17

R1 I 4 E R2 8 12 22V

Fig 4.17 V(4) = 4//8 12 + (4//8)

(22)

= 2.6 x 22 =4V 14.6

I = V(4) = 4 = 1A 4 4 Hence, current I is the same in both cases

Example 4.10 In the network of fig 4.18(a), find (i) ammeter current when battery is at A and ammeter at B and (ii) when battery is at B and ammeter at point A

C 2 E=36V A 4 12 B 4 D 3 1 A 12 B 2 3 1 36V

Fig 4.18(a)

Fig 4.18(b)

Network Theorems
Solution (i) Effective resistance between points C and B [fig4.18 (a)] is RCB = 12 x 4/16 = 4 Total circuit resistance = 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 Battery current = 36 /9 = 4A Ammeter current = 4 x 12/16 = 3A (ii) Effective resistance between points C and D [fig 4.18(b)] is RCD = 12 x 6/18 = 4 Total circuit resistance = 4 + 3 + 1 = 8 Battery current = 36/8 = 4.5A Ammeter current = 4.5 x 12/18 = 3A Hence, ammeter current in both cases is the same.

Week 15