Eec 234
Eec 234
Eec 234
ON
ELECTRONICS II
(EEC 234)
COURSE CONTENT:
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1.1 Introduction the gate electrode. A simple physical
Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal model of the JFET is shown in Figures
solid-state device in which current is controlled 2(a) and 2(b).
by an electric field. There are two types of FET,
namely: (a) Junction Field Effect Transistor
(JFET)
(b) Metal-oxide semiconductor FET
(MOSFET).
It is further divided into
(i) Depletion-enhancement MOSFET i.e.
DEMOSFET
(ii) Enhancement-only MOSFET i.e. e-only
MOSFET
Both of these can be either p-channel or n- Figure 2(a): Constructional features of an n-
channel devices. channel JFET
FET
Junction
MOSFET
FET(JFET)
E-only
n-channel p-channel DEMOSFET Figure 2(b): Physical model of the JFET.
MOSFET
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1.2.1 Static characteristics of a JFET Figure 6: Transfer characteristic of a JFET.
This gives the relation between ID and VDS for It is a plot of ID versus VGS for a constant value
different values of VGS. The saturated value of of VDS and is as shown in Figure 6. It is seen
drain current up in the active region for the case that when VGS=0, ID=IDSS an when ID=0, VGS=VP.
of VGS = 0 is called the drain saturation The transfer characteristic approximately
current, IDSS (the third subscript S refers to IDS follows the following equation.
under the condition of the gate shorted to the 2
source). V V
I D I DSS 1 GS I DSS 1 GS
VP V
GS ( off )
ID
VGS VGS ( off ) 1
I DSS
VGS ID 5 10 3
ID g m g mo 4000 10 6
Or g m g mo 1 g mo I DSS 20 10 3
VP I DSS
2000 10 6 2000S
Where gmo is gm when VGS = 0.
Exercise
Solution
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1.3.2 E-only MOSFET
It operates in the enhancement mode only and
works with large positive gate voltage only.
Structurally, there exists no channel between the
drain and source, hence it does not conduct
when VGS = 0. Therefore, it is called normally-
OFF MOSFET. ID flows when VGS exceeds
VGS(th).
1.3.1 DE-MOSFET
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VGS varying from +2V to VGS(off). It works in
enhancement mode when VGS is positive.
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2 K VGS VGS ( th )
dI D
gm
dVGS
Example
I D ( on ) 4 10 3
K 1.11 10 4 A / V 2
V GS VGS (th )
2
8 2 2
ID = K(VGS – VGS(th))2
1.11 10 4 6 2
2
Figure 12(e): N-channel E-only MOSFET 1.78 10 3 A 1.78mA
The minimum gate-source voltage which (iii) Long life (iv) small size (v) low noise
produces drain current is called threshold (vi)High power gain (vii) Better thermal
voltage VGS(th). When VGS< VGS(th), ID = 0. Drain stability (viii) High frequency response.
current starts only when VGS >VGS(th). For a given
1.3.6 Disadvantages of FETs
VDS, as VGS is increased, ID increases.
(i)Small gain-bandwidth product
ID = K(VGS – VGS(th))2, where K (in A/V2) is a
constant which depends on a particular (ii)Greater susceptibility to damage in handling
MOSFET. them
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1.3.7 FETs applications 2.2 Types of Amplifiers
(1)Small signal amplifiers (where amplification
Certain exclusive applications of FET are: factor is constant). Here the gain is independent
of the input signal and the property can be
(i)For mixer operation of FM and TV receivers
determined by using the small signal equivalent
(ii)Large-scale integration (LSI) and computer circuit
memories because of very small size. (2)Large signal amplifiers where the input
signal is very large and the output does not
(iii)As voltage-variable resistor (VVR) in behave in a linear fashion as the input.
operational amplifiers and tone control
2.3 Biasing Load Line and Gains of BJTS
(iv)As input amplifiers in oscilloscopes,
electronic voltmeters and other measuring and Biasing is the setting of values (e.g. current,
testing equipment because of their high input voltage etc.) to a predetermined level to
resistance which reduces loading effect to establish a threshold or operating point in an
minimum. electronic device. Although it is common to
think of bias currents and bias voltages, other
parameters (e.g., capacitance, resistance,
illumination, magnetic intensity, etc.) can serve
CHAPTER 2 as biases.
For proper working of a transistor, it is essential
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS to apply voltages of correct polarity across its
two junctions. For normal operation:
2.1 Amplifier Fundamentals
One of the most basic and command blocks (1) Emitter-base junction is always forward
biased and
used in electronics is an amplifier. An amplifier
is a circuit which raises the level of a signal in (2) Collector-base junction is always reverse
which the output is identical to the input I all biased.
respect except that it is larger in magnitude.
Large signal amplifiers are usually confined to
The different classifications of amplifiers are:
using bipolar transistors as their solid state
(1)Current amplifier (2) Voltage amplifier
devices because of the large linear region of
(3)Power amplifier (where both current and amplification required. There are three basic
voltage are amplified) (4)DC amplifier (5)AC configurations of amplifiers: common emitter
amplifier (where time-varying signal is (CE) amplifiers, common base (CB) amplifiers,
amplified). and common collection (CC) amplifiers. The
All amplifiers have some properties in common: basic configuration of each is shown in Figures
(i)They are to amplify hence; they will utilize at 13(a), (b) and (c). In an amplifier system, the
least one active device last stage of a voltage amplifier string has to be
(ii)They required a dc power supply considered as a large signal amplifier. This then
(iii)Their operation can be summarized by requires that the dc bias or dc operating point
specifying the gain, input impedance, output (quiescent point) be located near the center of
the load line in order to get the maximum output
impedance and the frequency response. voltage swing.
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Figure 13(d): Direction of currents flow and
voltage polarity for npn and pnp transistors
(when in operation)
IB = (1 – α)IE
IC
Common emitter bias: hFE or
IB
Figure 13(b): Common collector I C I B . hFE = forward transfer ratio.
I C
ac h fe ,
I B
I E I B I C I B I B 1 I B
IC IC I
From and E
IB IE IB
Also, or 1
1
Figure 13(c): Common base
Common collector bias: I E 1 I B
Figure 14: Fixed bias circuit From equation (2), IBRB = VCC – VBE
VCC 0.7
RB , But I C I B or
IB
IC
IB
VCC 0.7
RB
IC
VCC VCE
i.e. IC
RC
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Figure 18: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of
Figure 17: Potential divider circuit for amplifier
Figure 17
biasing
VT I B R B V BE
From Figure 17,
The circuit of Figure 17 generates distortions at
VCC = ICRC + VCE
the output and this is corrected with a bias
Obtaining the Thevenin equivalent circuit, the stabilization resistor RE as shown in Figure 19.
equivalent base resistance RB is
R1 R2
RB , the Thevenin’s voltage VT is,
R1 R2
R2 R R R2
VT VCC 2 1 VCC
R1 R2 R1 R2
R1 R2
R1 R2 R2 R
2
VT VCC 1 2 VCC
R1 R2 R1 Figure 19: Bias stabilization circuit
RB VCC
R1 R V IC for large IB,
VT and R2 B CC RC RE
1 VT
VCC
VCE VCC I C RC RE
Figure 18 is the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of VCC VCE
IC
the circuit in Figure17. RC RE RC RE
Example
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1.97mA. Determine the current gain and base I C I C I B I CBO or
current.
I C 1 I B I CBO
Solution I B I 0.98 100 5
IC CBO 5.15mA
1 1 1 0.98 1 0.98
ICBO = 12.5µA, IE = 2mA, IC = 1.97mA, α=?
I E I C I B 5.15 100 10 3 5.25mA
IB = ?
2.3.4 Common emitter amplifier circuit
IC = αIE + ICBO,
Since the collector current in the output circuit
I I CBO 1.97 12.5 10 3
C 0.978 can be controlled by the current of the input
IE 2
circuit, it means that a transistor can amplify a
IE = IC + IB, IB = IE – IC = 2 – 1.97 = 0.03mA small voltage applied to the input. From Figure
20, a common bias supply is used for both the
Example collector and/or the base. RL is used to drop the
extra voltage otherwise VCE would be too high
Determine β and ICEO when α = 0.98 and ICBO =
for the base bias and C1 is a bypass capacitor.
5µA
Solution
0.98
49
1 1 0.98
Example
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(iv)The collector output voltage across RL is
much greater than the input voltage.
dI C i I
c C g m the transconductance
dV BE vbe VT
Where VT ≈ 26mA
The signal output voltage, vce ic RC
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v ce i
Av c g m RC , where the negative
vbe vbe
sign implies signal inversion.
ic
The small-signal current gain Ai h fe ac
ib
vbe vbe ic h fe
Rin
ib i b ib g m
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INTERSTAGE COUPLING OF
AMPLIFIERS
3.1 Introduction
Many devices contain several stages of
amplification and therefore several amplifiers.
Stages of amplification are added when a single
stage will not provide the required amount of
amplification. For example, if a single stage
amplification will provide a maximum gain of
100 and the desired gain from the device is
1000, two stages of amplification will be
required.
3.2 RC Coupling
3.2.1 Advantages
(4)It has a vey flat frequency version gain curve It has advantage of simplicity in the circuit
i.e. it gives uniform voltage amplification over a arrangement, inexpensive, ability to amplify dc
wide range from a few Hz to a few MHz and low frequency signals. Since there are no
because resistor values are independent of coupling or by-pass capacitors, there is no drop
frequency changes. in gain at low frequency. Its shortcomings are:
3.3 Direct Coupling (i)Cannot amplify high frequency signals
This is a type of coupling between amplifiers (ii)Poor temperature stability
which does not involve any frequency sensitive
Its uses are found in the regulated circuit of
components. It makes use of an ac amplifier
power supply, pulse amplifier, computer
with very low frequency in a fraction of Hz. It is circuitry and electronic measuring instruments.
also used in amplifying change in dc voltage
and dc amplifiers. An example of such 3.4 Transformer Coupling
amplifiers utilizing this coupling is common
Interstage coupling can be achieved by means of
emitter amplifier using similar transistor as
transformer as shown in Figure 25. R1 and R2
shown in Figure 24.
form the bias for the Q2 (bias for Q1 is not
shown). C2 is the bias coupling capacitor which
prevents any leakage from developing across
bias resistor R2. The primary windings of the
transformer L1 and L3 act as load for Q1 and Q2
respectively.
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the input signal) that current flows in the output
circuit. This is a function of the operating point
of the amplifying device. The operating point of
the amplifying device is determined by the bias
applied to the device. There are four classes of
operation for an amplifier. These are A, B, AB
and C. Each class of operation has certain uses
and characteristics.
(1)More efficient
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or frequency, the signal is said to be distorted.
Distortion is any undesired change in a signal
from input to output.
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operating class AB. A simple class AB amplifier signal but both positive and negative portions of
is as shown in Figure 28. the input must be available.
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From Figure 30, the transistors Q1 and Q2 are
fed in anti-phase from a centre-tap transformer
T1 and the emitters are similarly connected to
the HT supply via a centre-tap transformer T2.
Since the transistor bases are fed in anti-phase,
the emitter currents are also in anti-phase.
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4.2.1 Direct-coupled 2-stage amplifier
CHAPTER 4 The ac equivalent circuit of two transistors Q1
and Q2 coupled directly (see Figure 24) are
MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS connected in CE mode is as shown in Figure 31.
4.1 Introduction
The voltage amplification or power gain or
frequency response obtained with a single stage
of amplification is insufficient to meet the
requirement of either a composite electronic
device or a load device. Therefore, two or more
single stages of amplification are frequently
used to achieve greater voltage or current
amplification or both. Figure 31: ac equivalent circuit of 2-stage direct
The output of one stage serves as input of the coupled amplifier
next stage. Such amplifiers may be divided into
cascaded amplifiers and compound amplifiers. Where ro1 = output resistance of stage 1
In cascaded amplifiers, the ac voltage of the first re1 = ac junction resistance of Q1
stage becomes the input of the second stage and β1 = forward transfer ratio of Q1
ro2 = output resistance of stage 2
the ac output of the second stage becomes the
re2 = ac junction resistance of Q2
input of the third stage and so on. The overall β2 = forward transfer ratio of Q2
voltage gain of the cascaded amplifiers is equal
to the product of the individual stages. The voltage gain of the 1st stage is Av1 =1
Av Av1 Av 2 Av 3 ... r
Av 2 o 2 . Overall voltage gain, AV,
Also, the overall current amplification is given re 2
by Ai Ai1 Ai 2 Ai 3 ... Av Av1 Av 2 Av 2
The overall power gain is given by The signal current gain, Ai = 1 2 2 {for
A p Av Ai
two identical transistors}
In compound amplifiers, each stage may be
Hence, power gain, Ap= Av 2
2
different from the other (one may be CE and the
other may be CC stage) and also different types
Example
of interstage coupling may be employed. For the direct-coupled amplifier shown below,
calculate (a) current gain (b)voltage gain of 1st
4.2 Voltage-gain, Current-gain and Power-
stage (c)voltage gain of 2nd stage (d)input
gain in two-stage Amplifiers
It is very essential to determine the various gain resistance and (e)overall power gain. Neglect
associated with amplifiers in multistage 50mV
VBE and use re .
amplifier as this will give an electronic circuit IE
designer an overall idea of the amplification
needed in an amplifier circuit or that can be
provided by it.
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Figure 32(a): ac equivalent circuit of 1st stage of
2-stage RC-coupled amplifier
Solution
(a) Ai 1 2 100 50 5000
(b) Av1 = 1
ro 2 50mV
(c) Av 2 , re 2 ,
I E2 I E2
VCC 12V
I B1 10 A Figure 32(b): ac equivalent circuit of 2nd stage
R1 1.2 M
of 2-stage RC-coupled amplifier
I C1 1 I B1 100 10 1000A
ri1 R1 1 re1 , ro1 R2 ri 2
In the CE mode, IC ≈ IE
I E1 I C1 1000A 1mA ri 2 R3 2 re 2 2 re 2
IB2 = IC1 =1mA, IC2 = β2IB2 = 50 x 1 = 50mA re1 and re2 are ac junction resistances of the two
transistors and are given by:
50mV 50mV 25mV 50mV
IE2 = 50mA and re 2
I E2
50mA
1 re1
I E1
or re1
I E1
Also, ro2 =R2 = 200Ω
r 200 25mV 50mV
Av 2 o 2 200 re 2 or re 2
re 2 1 I E2 I E2
ro 2 R4 R5
(d) ri R1 1 re1 , but
Voltage gain,
50mV 50mV r
re1 50 r
I E1 1mA Av1 o1 , Av 2 o 2
re1 re 2
ri 1.2 M 50 100 5k
Overall voltage gain, Av Av1 Av 2
(e) A p Av Ai 200 5000 1 10
6
Current gain, Ai 1 2
Power gain, A p Av Ai
4.2.2 RC-coupled 2-stage amplifier
The ac equivalent circuit of two transistors Q1
Example
and Q2 RC-coupled amplifier (see Figure23) is For the two-stage RC-coupled amplifier shown
as shown in Figures 32(a) and 32(b). below, compute (i) ri (ii) AV1 (iii) AV2 (iv) Av (v)
25mV
Ai and (vi) Ap. Take re
IE
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(vi)
A p Av Ai 25,600 10,000 256 10 6
4.2.3 Transformer-coupled 2-stage amplifier
The circuit diagram of a 2-stage transformer-
coupled amplifier with the biasing resistors,
emitter-stabilizing resistors and bypass
capacitors is as shown in Figure 33.
Voltage gain,
r N
Av1 o1 , ro1 k 2 ri 2 , where k 1 for T1
re1 N2
ro 2
Solution ri 2 R4 R5 2 re 2 . Also, Av 2 ,
re 2
(i) ri1 R1 1 re1
V where re 2 k 2 R7
To find re, we need IE1, I c1 I B1 , I B1 CC
R1
12V
I B1 20 A
0.6 M
I C1 100 20 2000 A 2mA
But IC ≈ IE, , hence I E1 I C1 2mA
25mV
re1 12.5
2mA
1 re1 100 12.5 1250
r i1 R1 1 re1 0.6 M 1250 1250
ro1
(ii) Av1 , ro1 R2 ri 2
re1
ri 2 R3 2 re 2 0.6 M 1250 1250
ro1 R2 ri 2 5k 1250 1000
Figure 33: Transformer-coupled 2-stage amplifier
r 1000
Av1 ro1 12.5 80 circuit diagram
e1
r
(iii) Av 2 o 2 , ro 2 R4 R5 Example
re 2
For the transformer-coupled 2-stage amplifier
ro 2 5k 20k 4k ,
shown below, calculate (i) Av1, (ii) Av2 and
I E 2 I C 2 2mA 50mV
r 4000 (iii)Av. Use re , 1 2 50 and
re 2 12.5 , Av 2 o 2 320 IE
re 2 12.5 assume transformer is ideal. For each
(iv) Av Av1 Av 2 80 320 25,600 transformer k = 5.
(v) Ai 1 2 100 100 10,000
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ro1 27,750
(i) Av1 830
re1 33.3
Solution
V R 3 1.5V
I E1 1.5mA
R3 1k
50mV 50mV
re1 33.3 . Also re1 =
I E1 1.5mA
33.3Ω
2 re 2 50 33.3 1665
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