Telephone

A telephone is a telecommunications device that permits two or more

users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be
heard directly. A telephone converts sound, typically and most
efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals that are transmitted
via cables and other communication channels to another telephone
which reproduces the sound to the receiving user. The term is derived
from Greek: τῆλε (tēle, far) and φωνή (phōnē, voice), together
meaning distant voice. A common short form of the term is phone,
which came into use almost immediately after the first patent was
issued.[1]

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United A rotary dial telephone, c. 1940s
States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication
of the human voice at a second device.[2] This instrument was further
developed by many others, and became rapidly indispensable in
business, government, and in households.

The essential elements of a telephone are a microphone (transmitter)

to speak into and an earphone (receiver) which reproduces the voice
in a distant location.[3] In addition, most telephones contain a ringer to
announce an incoming telephone call, and a dial or keypad to enter a
telephone number when initiating a call to another telephone. The
receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held
up to the ear and mouth during conversation. The dial may be located AT&T push button telephone made
either on the handset or on a base unit to which the handset is by Western Electric, model 2500
DMG black, 1980
connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical
signals which are sent through a telephone network to the receiving
telephone, which converts the signals into audible sound in the
receiver or sometimes a loudspeaker. Telephones are duplex devices, meaning they permit transmission in both
directions simultaneously.

The first telephones were directly connected to each other from one customer's office or residence to another
customer's location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were quickly replaced by
manually operated centrally located switchboards. These exchanges were soon connected together, eventually
forming an automated, worldwide public switched telephone network. For greater mobility, various radio
systems were developed for transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the mid-20th
century. Hand-held mobile phones were introduced for personal service starting in 1973. In later decades their
analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with greater capability and lower cost.

Convergence has given most modern cell phones capabilities far beyond simple voice conversation. Most are
smartphones, integrating all mobile communication and many computing needs.

Contents
Basic principles
Details of operation
History
Timeline of early development
Early commercial instruments
Digital telephones and voice over IP
Mobile telephony
Characteristic icons and symbols
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Basic principles
A traditional landline telephone system, also known as
plain old telephone service (POTS), commonly carries
both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair
(C in diagram) of insulated wires, the telephone line. The
control and signaling equipment consists of three
components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial. The
ringer, or beeper, light or other device (A7), alerts the
user to incoming calls. The hookswitch signals to the
central office that the user has picked up the handset to
either answer a call or initiate a call. A dial, if present, is Schematic of a landline telephone installation
used by the subscriber to transmit a telephone number to
the central office when initiating a call. Until the 1960s
dials used almost exclusively the rotary technology, which was replaced by dual-tone multi-frequency
signaling (DTMF) with pushbutton telephones (A4).

A major expense of wire-line telephone service is the outside wire plant. Telephones transmit both the
incoming and outgoing speech signals on a single pair of wires. A twisted pair line rejects electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and crosstalk better than a single wire or an untwisted pair. The strong outgoing speech
signal from the microphone (transmitter) does not overpower the weaker incoming speaker (receiver) signal
with sidetone because a hybrid coil (A3) and other components compensate the imbalance. The junction box
(B) arrests lightning (B2) and adjusts the line's resistance (B1) to maximize the signal power for the line length.
Telephones have similar adjustments for inside line lengths (A8). The line voltages are negative compared to
earth, to reduce galvanic corrosion. Negative voltage attracts positive metal ions toward the wires.

Details of operation
The landline telephone contains a switchhook (A4) and an alerting device, usually a ringer (A7), that remains
connected to the phone line whenever the phone is "on hook" (i.e. the switch (A4) is open), and other
components which are connected when the phone is "off hook". The off-hook components include a
transmitter (microphone, A2), a receiver (speaker, A1), and other circuits for dialing, filtering (A3), and
amplification.
The place a telephone call, the calling party picks up the telephone's handset, thereby operating a lever which
closes the hook switch (A4). This powers the telephone by connecting the transmission hybrid transformer, as
well as the transmitter (microphone) and receiver (speaker) to the line. In this off-hook state, the telephone
circuitry has a low resistance of typically than 300 ohms, which causes the flow of direct current (DC) in the
line (C) from the telephone exchange. The exchange detects this current, attaches a digit receiver circuit to the
line, and sends dial tone to indicate its readiness. On a modern push-button telephone, the caller then presses
the number keys to send the telephone number of the destination, the called party. The keys control a tone
generator circuit (not shown) that sends DTMF tones to the exchange. A rotary-dial telephone uses pulse
dialing, sending electrical pulses, that the exchange counts to decode each digit of the telephone number. If the
called party's line is available, the terminating exchange applies an intermittent alternating current (AC) ringing
signal of 40 to 90 volts to alert the called party of the incoming call. If the called party's line is in use, however,
the exchange returns a busy signal to the calling party. If the called party's line is in use but subscribes to call
waiting service, the exchange sends an intermittent audible tone to the called party to indicate another call.

The electromechanical ringer of a telephone (A7) is connected to the line through a capacitor (A6), which
blocks direct current and passes the alternating current of the ringing power. The telephone draws no current
when it is on hook, while a DC voltage is continually applied to the line. Exchange circuitry (D2) can send an
alternating current down the line to activate the ringer and announce an incoming call. In manual service
exchange areas, before dial service was installed, telephones had hand-cranked magneto generators to generate
a ringing voltage back to the exchange or any other telephone on the same line. When a landline telephone is
inactive (on hook), the circuitry at the telephone exchange detects the absence of direct current to indicate that
the line is not in use.[4] When a party initiates a call to this line, the exchange sends the ringing signal. When
the called party picks up the handset, they actuate a double-circuit switchhook (not shown) which may
simultaneously disconnects the alerting device and connects the audio circuitry to the line. This, in turn, draws
direct current through the line, confirming that the called phone is now active. The exchange circuitry turns off
the ring signal, and both telephones are now active and connected through the exchange. The parties may now
converse as long as both phones remain off hook. When a party hangs up, placing the handset back on the
cradle or hook, direct current ceases in that line, signaling the exchange to disconnect the call.

Calls to parties beyond the local exchange are carried over trunk lines which establish connections between
exchanges. In modern telephone networks, fiber-optic cable and digital technology are often employed in such
connections. Satellite technology may be used for communication over very long distances.

In most landline telephones, the transmitter and receiver (microphone and speaker) are located in the handset,
although in a speakerphone these components may be located in the base or in a separate enclosure. Powered
by the line, the microphone (A2) produces a modulated electric current which varies its frequency and
amplitude in response to the sound waves arriving at its diaphragm. The resulting current is transmitted along
the telephone line to the local exchange then on to the other phone (via the local exchange or via a larger
network), where it passes through the coil of the receiver (A3). The varying current in the coil produces a
corresponding movement of the receiver's diaphragm, reproducing the original sound waves present at the
transmitter.

Along with the microphone and speaker, additional circuitry is incorporated to prevent the incoming speaker
signal and the outgoing microphone signal from interfering with each other. This is accomplished through a
hybrid coil (A3). The incoming audio signal passes through a resistor (A8) and the primary winding of the coil
(A3) which passes it to the speaker (A1). Since the current path A8 – A3 has a far lower impedance than the
microphone (A2), virtually all of the incoming signal passes through it and bypasses the microphone.

At the same time the DC voltage across the line causes a DC current which is split between the resistor-coil
(A8-A3) branch and the microphone-coil (A2-A3) branch. The DC current through the resistor-coil branch
has no effect on the incoming audio signal. But the DC current passing through the microphone is turned into
AC (in response to voice sounds) which then passes through only the upper branch of the coil's (A3) primary
winding, which has far fewer turns than the lower primary winding. This causes a small portion of the
microphone output to be fed back to the speaker, while the rest of the AC goes out through the phone line.

A lineman's handset is a telephone designed for testing the telephone network, and may be attached directly to
aerial lines and other infrastructure components.

History
Before the development of the electric telephone, the term
"telephone" was applied to other inventions, and not all early
researchers of the electrical device called it "telephone". Perhaps the
earliest use of the word for a communications system was the
telephon created by Gottfried Huth in 1796. Huth proposed an
alternative to the optical telegraph of Claude Chappe in which the
operators in the signalling towers would shout to each other by means
of what he called "speaking tubes", but would now be called giant
megaphones.[6] A communication device for sailing vessels called a
"telephone" was invented by the captain John Taylor in 1844. This
instrument used four air horns to communicate with vessels in foggy
weather.[7][8]

Johann Philipp Reis used the term in reference to his invention,

commonly known as the Reis telephone, in c. 1860. His device
appears to be the first device based on conversion of sound into
electrical impulses. The term telephone was adopted into the Alexander Graham Bell's Telephone
vocabulary of many languages. It is derived from the Greek: τῆλε, Patent Drawing
tēle, "far" and φωνή, phōnē, "voice", together meaning "distant
voice".

Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is frequently

disputed. As with other influential inventions such as radio, television,
the light bulb, and the computer, several inventors pioneered
experimental work on voice transmission over a wire and improved
on each other's ideas. New controversies over the issue still arise from
time to time. Charles Bourseul, Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis,
Alexander Graham Bell, and Elisha Gray, amongst others, have all
been credited with the invention of the telephone.[9][4] The world's first telephone invented
by Antonio Meucci in 1849.[5]
Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be awarded a patent for the
electric telephone by the United States Patent and Trademark Office
(USPTO) in March 1876.[10] Before Bell's patent, the telephone transmitted sound in a way that was similar to
the telegraph. This method used vibrations and circuits to send electrical pulses, but was missing key features.
Bell found that this method produced a sound through intermittent currents, but in order for the telephone to
work a fluctuating current reproduced sounds the best. The fluctuating currents became the basis for the
working telephone, creating Bell's patent.[11] That first patent by Bell was the master patent of the telephone,
from which other patents for electric telephone devices and features flowed.[12] The Bell patents were
forensically victorious and commercially decisive.

In 1876, shortly after Bell's patent application, Hungarian engineer Tivadar Puskás proposed the telephone
switch, which allowed for the formation of telephone exchanges, and eventually networks.[13]
In the United Kingdom the blower is used as a slang term for a
telephone. The term came from navy slang for a speaking tube.[14] In
the U.S., a somewhat dated slang term refers to the telephone as "the
horn," as in "I couldn't get him on the horn," or "I'll be off the horn in
a moment." [15]

Timeline of early development

1844: Innocenzo Manzetti first mooted the idea of a
"speaking telegraph" or telephone. Use of the "speaking
telegraph" and "sound telegraph" monikers would
eventually be replaced by the newer, distinct name,
"telephone".
26 August 1854: Charles Bourseul published an article in
the magazine L'Illustration (Paris): "Transmission
électrique de la parole" (electric transmission of speech), Bell placing the first New York to
describing a "make-and-break" type telephone transmitter Chicago telephone call in 1892
later created by Johann Reis.
26 October 1861: Johann Philipp Reis (1834–1874)
publicly demonstrated the Reis telephone before the
Physical Society of Frankfurt.[4] Reis' telephone was not
limited to musical sounds. Reis also used his telephone to
transmit the phrase "Das Pferd frisst keinen Gurkensalat"
("The horse does not eat cucumber salad").
22 August 1865, La Feuille d'Aoste reported "It is rumored
that English technicians to whom Mr. Manzetti illustrated
his method for transmitting spoken words on the telegraph
wire intend to apply said invention in England on several Reis' telephone
private telegraph lines". However telephones would not be
demonstrated there until 1876, with a set of telephones
from Bell.
28 December 1871: Antonio Meucci files patent caveat No.
3335 in the U.S. Patent Office titled "Sound Telegraph",
describing communication of voice between two people by
wire. A 'patent caveat' was not an invention patent award,
but only an unverified notice filed by an individual that he
or she intends to file a regular patent application in the
future.
1874: Meucci, after having renewed the caveat for two
years does not renew it again, and the caveat lapses.
6 April 1875: Bell's U.S. Patent 161,739 "Transmitters and Bell's first telephone transmitter, ca.
Receivers for Electric Telegraphs" is granted. This uses 1876, reenacted 50 years later
multiple vibrating steel reeds in make-break circuits.
11 February 1876: Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter
for use with a telephone but does not build one.
14 February 1876: Gray files a patent caveat for transmitting the human voice through a
telegraphic circuit.
14 February 1876: Alexander Graham Bell applies for the patent "Improvements in
Telegraphy", for electromagnetic telephones using what is now called amplitude modulation
(oscillating current and voltage) but which he referred to as "undulating current".
19 February 1876: Gray is notified by the U.S. Patent Office of an interference between his
caveat and Bell's patent application. Gray decides to abandon his caveat.
 7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. patent 174,465 "Improvement in
Telegraphy" is granted, covering "the method of, and
apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds
telegraphically…by causing electrical undulations, similar
in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said
vocal or other sound."
10 March 1876: The first successful telephone
transmission of clear speech using a liquid transmitter
when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I
want to see you." and Watson heard each word distinctly.
30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. patent 186,787 is granted for
an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets,
iron diaphragms, and a call bell.
27 April 1877: Edison files for a patent on a carbon
(graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted 3
May 1892, after a 15-year delay because of litigation.
Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules
transmitter in 1879. Acoustic telephone ad, The
Consolidated Telephone Co., Jersey
City, New Jersey, 1886
Early commercial instruments
Early telephones were technically diverse. Some used a water microphone,
some had a metal diaphragm that induced current in an electromagnet wound
around a permanent magnet, and some were dynamic – their diaphragm
vibrated a coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet or the coil vibrated
the diaphragm. The sound-powered dynamic variants survived in small
numbers through the 20th century in military and maritime applications,
where its ability to create its own electrical power was crucial. Most, however,
used the Edison/Berliner carbon transmitter, which was much louder than the
other kinds, even though it required an induction coil which was an
impedance matching transformer to make it compatible with the impedance of 1896 telephone from
the line. The Edison patents kept the Bell monopoly viable into the 20th Sweden
century, by which time the network was more important than the instrument.

Early telephones were locally powered, using either a dynamic transmitter or

by the powering of a transmitter with a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant personnel was to visit
each telephone periodically to inspect the battery. During the 20th century, telephones powered from the
telephone exchange over the same wires that carried the voice signals became common.

Early telephones used a single wire for the subscriber's line, with ground return used to complete the circuit (as
used in telegraphs). The earliest dynamic telephones also had only one port opening for sound, with the user
alternately listening and speaking (or rather, shouting) into the same hole. Sometimes the instruments were
operated in pairs at each end, making conversation more convenient but also more expensive.

At first, the benefits of a telephone exchange were not exploited. Instead telephones were leased in pairs to a
subscriber, who had to arrange for a telegraph contractor to construct a line between them, for example
between a home and a shop. Users who wanted the ability to speak to several different locations would need
to obtain and set up three or four pairs of telephones. Western Union, already using telegraph exchanges,
quickly extended the principle to its telephones in New York City and San Francisco, and Bell was not slow in
appreciating the potential.
Signalling began in an appropriately primitive manner. The user alerted the
other end, or the exchange operator, by whistling into the transmitter.
Exchange operation soon resulted in telephones being equipped with a bell in
a ringer box, first operated over a second wire, and later over the same wire,
but with a condenser (capacitor) in series with the bell coil to allow the AC
ringer signal through while still blocking DC (keeping the phone "on hook").
Telephones connected to the earliest Strowger switch automatic exchanges
had seven wires, one for the knife switch, one for each telegraph key, one for
the bell, one for the push-button and two for speaking. Large wall telephones
in the early 20th century usually incorporated the bell, and separate bell boxes
for desk phones dwindled away in the middle of the century.

Rural and other telephones that were not on a common battery exchange had
a magneto hand-cranked generator to produce a high voltage alternating
signal to ring the bells of other telephones on the line and to alert the operator.
Some local farming communities that were not connected to the main Wooden wall telephone with
networks set up barbed wire telephone lines that exploited the existing system a hand-cranked magneto
of field fences to transmit the signal. generator

In the 1890s a new smaller style of telephone was introduced, packaged in

three parts. The transmitter stood on a stand, known as a "candlestick" for its shape. When not in use, the
receiver hung on a hook with a switch in it, known as a "switchhook". Previous telephones required the user
to operate a separate switch to connect either the voice or the bell. With the new kind, the user was less likely
to leave the phone "off the hook". In phones connected to magneto exchanges, the bell, induction coil, battery
and magneto were in a separate bell box or "ringer box".[16] In phones connected to common battery
exchanges, the ringer box was installed under a desk, or other out-of-the-way place, since it did not need a
battery or magneto.

Cradle designs were also used at this time, having a handle with the receiver and transmitter attached, now
called a handset, separate from the cradle base that housed the magneto crank and other parts. They were
larger than the "candlestick" and more popular.

Disadvantages of single-wire operation such as crosstalk and hum from nearby AC power wires had already
led to the use of twisted pairs and, for long-distance telephones, four-wire circuits. Users at the beginning of
the 20th century did not place long-distance calls from their own telephones but made an appointment to use a
special soundproofed long-distance telephone booth furnished with the latest technology.

What turned out to be the most popular and longest-lasting physical style of telephone was introduced in the
early 20th century, including Bell's 202-type desk set. A carbon granule transmitter and electromagnetic
receiver were united in a single molded plastic handle, which when not in use sat in a cradle in the base unit.
The circuit diagram of the model 202 shows the direct connection of the transmitter to the line, while the
receiver was induction coupled. In local battery configurations, when the local loop was too long to provide
sufficient current from the exchange, the transmitter was powered by a local battery and inductively coupled,
while the receiver was included in the local loop.[17] The coupling transformer and the ringer were mounted in
a separate enclosure, called the subscriber set. The dial switch in the base interrupted the line current by
repeatedly but very briefly disconnecting the line 1 to 10 times for each digit, and the hook switch (in the
center of the circuit diagram) disconnected the line and the transmitter battery while the handset was on the
cradle.

In the 1930s, telephone sets were developed that combined the bell and induction coil with the desk set,
obviating a separate ringer box. The rotary dial becoming commonplace in the 1930s in many areas enabled
customer-dialed service, but some magneto systems remained even into the 1960s. After World War II, the
telephone networks saw rapid expansion and more efficient telephone sets, such as the model 500 telephone in
the United States, were developed that permitted larger local networks centered around central offices. A
breakthrough new technology was the introduction of Touch-Tone signaling using push-button telephones by
American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) in 1963.

Ericsson DBH 1001 (ca. 1931), Telephone used by American

the first combined telephone soldiers (WWII, Minalin,
made with a Bakelite housing Pampanga, Philippines)
and handset.

Play media

Modern sound-powered
Video shows the operation of emergency telephone
an Ericofon
 One type of mobile phone,
called a cell phone

Digital telephones and voice over IP

The invention of the transistor in 1947 dramatically changed the
technology used in telephone systems and in the long-distance
transmission networks, over the next several decades. Along with the
development of stored program control for electronic switching
systems, and new transmission technologies, such as pulse-code
modulation (PCM), telephony gradually evolved towards digital
telephony, which improved the capacity, quality, and cost of the
network.[18]
An IP desktop telephone attached to
The development of digital data communications methods made it a computer network, with touch-tone
possible to digitize voice and transmit it as real-time data across dialing
computer networks and the Internet, giving rise to the field of Internet
Protocol (IP) telephony, also known as voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP), a term that reflects the
methodology memorably. VoIP has proven to be a
disruptive technology that is rapidly replacing traditional
telephone network infrastructure.

By January 2005, up to 10% of telephone subscribers in

Japan and South Korea had switched to this digital
telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article
suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big
thing."[19] The technology has spawned a new industry
comprising many VoIP companies that offer services to
consumers and businesses.

IP telephony uses high-bandwidth Internet connections

and specialized customer premises equipment to transmit Fixed telephone lines per 100 inhabitants 1997–
telephone calls via the Internet, or any modern private 2007
data network. The customer equipment may be an analog
telephone adapter (ATA) which translates the signals of a
conventional analog telephone to packet-switched IP messages. IP Phones have these function combined in
standalone device, and computer softphone applications use microphone and headset devices of a personal
computer.

While traditional analog telephones are typically powered from the central office through the telephone line,
digital telephones require a local power supply. Internet-based digital service also requires special provisions to
provide the service location to the emergency services when an emergency telephone number is called.

Mobile telephony
In 2002, only 10% of the world's population used mobile phones and by 2005 that percentage had risen to
46%.[20] By the end of 2009, there were a total of nearly 6 billion mobile and fixed-line telephone subscribers
worldwide. This included 1.26 billion fixed-line subscribers and 4.6 billion mobile subscribers.[21]

Characteristic icons and symbols

The Unicode system provides various code points for graphic symbols used in designating telephone devices,
services, or information, for print, signage, and other media.

U+2121 ℡ TELEPHONE SIGN

U+260E ☎ BLACK TELEPHONE
U+260F ☏ WHITE TELEPHONE
U+2706 ✆ TELEPHONE LOCATION SIGN

📞
U+2315 ⌕ TELEPHONE RECORDER

📱
U+01F4DE TELEPHONE RECEIVER

📴
U+01F4F1 MOBILE PHONE (HTML 📱)

📵
U+01F4F4 MOBILE PHONE OFF (HTML 📴)
U+01F4F5 NO MOBILE PHONES (HTML 📵)
U+01F57B 🕻 LEFT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER
U+01F57C 🕼 TELEPHONE RECEIVER WITH PAGE
U+01F57D 🕽 RIGHT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER
U+01F57E 🕾 WHITE TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE (HTML 🕾)
U+01F57F 🕿 BLACK TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE (HTML 🕿)
U+01F581 🖁 CLAMSHELL MOBILE PHONE (HTML 🖁)

See also
Bell System Party line (telephony)
Bell Telephone Memorial Phone hacking
Cordless telephone Satellite phone
Harvard sentences Spamming
Index of telephone-related articles Telephone keypad
Jipp curve Telephone jack and plug
List of telephone operating companies Telephone tapping
 Tip and ring Videophone

References
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Retrieved 2010-05-23.
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m/id/6831938/site/newsweek/) MSNBC. Archived from the original (http://msnbc.msn.com/id/68
31938/site/newsweek/) on January 18, 2005. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
20. "Are Cell Phones Ruining Our Social Skills? – SiOWfa15: Science in Our World: Certainty and
Controversy" (http://sites.psu.edu/siowfa15/2015/09/16/are-cell-phones-ruining-our-social-skill
s). sites.psu.edu.
21. Next-Generation Networks Set to Transform Communications (http://www.itu.int/newsroom/pres
s_releases/2007/20.html), International Telecommunications Union website, 4 September
2007. Retrieved 5 July 2009.

Further reading
Brooks, John (1976). Telephone: The first hundred years. HarperCollins.
Bruce, Robert V. (1990). Bell: Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=ZmR0MOQAu0UC). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-
9691-2.
Casson, Herbert Newton. (1910) The history of the telephone online (https://archive.org/details/
historytelephon00goog/page/n29).
Coe, Lewis (1995). The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland & Co.
Evenson, A. Edward (2000). The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray –
Alexander Bell Controversy. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co.
Fischer, Claude S. (1994) America calling: A social history of the telephone to 1940 (Univ of
California Press, 1994)
Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of Telecommunications Hoboken: NJ:
Wiley-IEEE Press.
John, Richard R. (2010). Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
MacDougall, Robert. The People's Network: The Political Economy of the Telephone in the
Gilded Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Mueller, Milton. (1993) "Universal service in telephone history: A reconstruction."
Telecommunications Policy 17.5 (1993): 352–69.
Todd, Kenneth P. (1998), A Capsule History of the Bell System (https://web.archive.org/web/20
080711065530/http://www.porticus.org/bell/capsule_bell_system.html). American Telephone &
Telegraph Company (AT&T).

External links
Early U.S. Telephone Industry Data (http://galbithink.org/telcos/early-telephone-data.htm)
"Telephone" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Tel
ephone). New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Kempe, Harry Robert; Garcke, Emile (1911). "Telephone" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_
Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Telephone). Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.).
pp. 547–557.
Virtual museum of early telephones (http://www.sparkmuseum.com/TELEPHONE.HTM)
The Telephone, 1877 (https://web.archive.org/web/20080828132509/http://www.theengineer.c
o.uk/Articles/294346/July+1877+The+Telephone.htm)
The short film "Now You're Talking (1927)" (https://archive.org/details/now_youre_talking_192
7) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
 The short film "Communication (1928)" (https://archive.org/details/history_of_communication) is
available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short film "Telephone Memories (Reel 1 of 2) (1931)" (https://archive.org/details/gov.archiv
es.arc.89089.r1) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short film "Telephone Memories (Reel 2 of 2) (1931)" (https://archive.org/details/gov.archiv
es.arc.89089.r2) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short film "Far Speaking (ca. 1935)" (https://archive.org/details/FarSpeak1935) is available
for free download at the Internet Archive
"US 174,465" (http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00174465&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft
1.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526
d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.ht
m%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0174,465.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%
2F0174,465%2526RS%3DPN%2F0174,465&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NO
NE&Input=View+first+page). pdfpiw.uspto.gov.—Telegraphy (Bell's first telephone patent)—
Alexander Graham Bell
US 186,787 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207123744/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-
Parser?patentnumber=0186787)—Electric Telegraphy (permanent magnet receiver)—
Alexander Graham Bell
US 474,230 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207125332/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-
Parser?patentnumber=0474230)—Speaking Telegraph (graphite transmitter)—Thomas Edison
US 203,016 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207123141/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-
Parser?patentnumber=0203016)—Speaking Telephone (carbon button transmitter)—Thomas
Edison
US 222,390 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207131626/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-
Parser?patentnumber=0222390)—Carbon Telephone (carbon granules transmitter)—Thomas
Edison
US 485,311 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207130558/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-
Parser?patentnumber=0485311)—Telephone (solid back carbon transmitter)—Anthony C.
White (Bell engineer) This design was used until 1925 and installed phones were used until
the 1940s.
US 3,449,750 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207121651/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph
-Parser?patentnumber=3449750)—Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Apparatus—
G. H. Sweigert
US 3,663,762 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207124409/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph
-Parser?patentnumber=3663762)—Cellular Mobile Communication System—Amos Edward
Joel (Bell Labs)
US 3,906,166 (https://web.archive.org/web/20131207130341/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph
-Parser?patentnumber=3906166)—Radio Telephone System (DynaTAC cell phone)—Martin
Cooper et al. (Motorola)

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