Chapter 2

Telecommunication networks: Overview

2.1 Basic telecommunication network

2.1 Basic Telecommunications Network

The basic purpose of a telecommunications network is to transmit user information in any form
to another user of the network. These users of public networks, for example, a telephone
network, are called subscribers. User information may take many forms, such as voice or data,
and subscribers may use different access network technologies to access the network, for
example, fixed or cellular telephones. We will see that the telecommunications network consists
of many different networks providing different services, such as data, fixed, or cellular telephony
service. These different networks are discussed in later chapters. In the following section we
introduce the basic functions that are needed in all networks no matter what services they
provide.
The three technologies needed for communication through the network are
(1), Transmission
(2), Switching, and
(3) Signaling
Each of these technologies requires specialists for their engineering, operation, and maintenance.
2.1.1 Transmission
Transmission is the process of transporting information between end points of a system or a
network. Transmission systems use four basic media for information transfer from one point to
another:
1. Copper cables, such as those used in LANs and telephone subscriber lines;
2. Optical fiber cables, such as high-data-rate transmission in telecommunications networks;
3. Radio waves, such as cellular telephones and satellite transmission;
4. Free-space optics, such as infrared remote controllers.
In a telecommunications network, the transmission systems interconnect exchanges and, taken
together, these transmission systems are called the transmission or transport network. Note that
the number of speech channels (which is one measure of transmission capacity) needed between
exchanges is much smaller than the number of subscribers because only a small fraction of them
have calls connected at the same time.

2.1.2 Switching
In principle, all telephones could still be connected to each other by cables as they were in the
very beginning of the history of telephony. However, as the number of telephones grew,
Operators soon noticed that it was necessary to switch signals from one wire to another. Then
only a few cable connections were needed between exchanges because the number of

simultaneosly ongoing calls is much smaller than the number of telephones (Figure 2.1). The
first switches were not automatic so switching was done manually using a switchboard. Strowger
developed the first automatic switch (exchange) in 1887. At that time, switching had to be
controlled by the telephone user with the help of pulses generated by a dial. For many decades
exchanges were a complex series of electromechanical selectors, but during the last few decades
they have developed into software-controlled digital exchanges. Modern exchanges usually have
quite a large capacity tens of thousands subscribers and thousands of them may have calls
ongoing at the same time.
2.1.3 Signaling
Signaling is the mechanism that allows network entities (customer premises or network switches)
to establish, maintain, and terminate sessions in a network. Signaling is carried out with the help
of specific signals or messages that indicate to the other end what is requested of it by this
connection.
Some examples of signaling examples on subscriber lines are as follows:
 Off-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber has raised the telephone
hook (dc loop is connected) and gives a dial tone to the subscriber.
 Dial: The subscriber dials digits and they are received by the exchange.
 On-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber has finished the call
(subscriber loop is disconnected), clears the connection, and stops billing.
Signaling is naturally needed between exchanges as well because most calls have to be
connected via more than just one exchange. Many different signaling systems are used for the
interconnection of different exchanges. Signaling is an extremely complex matter in a
telecommunications network.
Imagine, for example, a foreign GSM subscriber switching his telephone on in Hong Kong. In
approximately 10 seconds he is able to receive calls directed to him. Information transferred for
this function is carried in hundreds of signaling messages between exchanges in international and
national networks.
2.2 Operation of a Conventional Telephone
The ordinary home telephone receives the electrical power that it needs for operation from the
local exchange via two copper wires. This subscriber line, which carries speech signals as well,
is a twisted pair called a local loop. The principle of the power supply coming from the exchange
site makes basic telephone service independent of the local electric power network. Local
exchanges have a large-capacity battery that keeps the exchange and subscriber sets operational
for a few hours if the supply of electricity is cut off. This is essential because the operation of the
telephone network is especially important in emergency situations when the electric power
supply may be down.

Figure 2.2 shows a simplified illustration of the telephone connection. Elements of the figure and
operation of the subscriber loop are explained later in this chapter. Minor operational differences,
particularly in the provision of private branch exchange/automatic branch exchange
(PBX/PABX) systems, exist around the world, but the principles discussed in this chapter apply
to the overwhelming majority of PSTN systems.
2.2.1 Microphone
When we raise the hook of a telephone, the on/off hook switch is closed and current starts
flowing on the subscriber loop through the microphone that is connected to the subscriber loop.
The microphone converts acoustic energy to electrical energy. Originally telephone microphones
were so-called carbon microphones that had diaphragms with small containers of carbon grains
and they operated as variable resistors supplied with battery voltage from an exchange site (see
the subscriber loop on the left-hand side of Figure 2.2). When sound waves pressed the carbon
grains more tightly, loop resistance decreased and current slightly increased. The variable air
pressure generated a variable, alternating current to the subscriber loop. This variable current
contained voice information. The basic operating principle of the subscriber loop is still the same
today, although modern telephones include more sophisticated and better quality microphones.
2.2.2 Earphone
The microphone generates the electrical current that carries voice information, and the earphone
produces the voice at the receiving end of the speech circuit. The telephone network provides a
dialed-up or circuit-switched service that enables the subscriber to initiate and terminate calls.
The subscriber dials the number to which she wants to be connected. This requires additional
information transfer over the subscriber loop and from the exchange to other exchanges on the
connection, and this transfer of additional information is called signaling.
2.3 Signaling to the Exchange from the Telephone
Telephone exchanges supply dc voltage to subscriber loops, and telephone sets use this supplied
voltage for operation. The conventional telephone does not include any electronics, and the
supplied voltage and current are directly used for speech transmission in addition to signaling
functions that include the detection of on/off-hook condition and dialing. Modern electronic
telephones would not necessarily need this if they could take their power from a power socket at
home. However, getting the power supply from the exchange is still an important feature because
it ensures that the telephone network operates even in emergency situations when the power
network may be down.
2.3.1 Setup and Release of a Call
Each telephone has a switch that indicates an on- or off-hook condition. When the hook is raised,
the switch is closed and an approximately 50 mA of current starts flowing. This is detected by a
relay giving information to the control unit in the exchange (Figure 2.2). The control unit is an
efficient and reliable computer (or a set of computers) in the telephone exchange. It activates
signaling circuits, which then receive dialed digits from subscriber A.(We call a subscriber who
initiates a call subscriber A and a subscriber who receives a call subscriber B.) The control unit
in the telephone exchange controls
the switching matrix that connects the speech circuit through to the called subscriber B.
Connection is made according to the numbers dialed by subscriber A. When the call is being
routed to subscriber B, the telephone exchange supplies to the subscriber loop a ringing voltage
and the bell of subscriber B’s telephone starts ringing. The ringing voltage is often about 70V ac
with a 25-Hz frequency, which is high enough to activate the bell on any telephone. The ringing
voltage is switched off immediately when an off-hook condition is detected on the loop of
subscriber B, and then an end-to-end speech circuit
is connected and the conversation may start. Figure 2.3 shows the signaling phases on a
subscriber loop.
When the exchange detects the off-hook condition of a subscriber loop, it informs us with a dial
tone that we hear when we raise the hook that it is ready to receive digits. After dialing it keeps
us informed about whether the circuit establishment is successful by sending us a ringing tone
when the telephone at the other end rings. When subscriber B answers, the exchange switches off
both the ringing signal and the ringing tone and connects the circuit. At the end of the
conversation, an on-hook condition is detected by the exchange and the speech circuit is
released.
2.3.2 Rotary Dialing
The telephone set has a switch that is open in the on-hook condition and closed when the hook is
off. This indicates to the telephone exchange when a call is to be initiated and when it has to
prepare to receive dialed digits. In old telephones, which exchanges still have to support, this
method of localloop
Connection/disconnection is used to transmit dialed digits as well (Figure 2.4). We call this
principle rotary or pulse dialing.
In rotary dialing a local loop is closed and opened according to the dialed digits, and the number
of current pulses is detected by the exchange. This signaling method is also known as loop
disconnect signaling. The main disadvantages of this method are that it is slow and expensive
due to high resolution mechanics and it does not support supplementary services such as call
forwarding. The local-loop interfaces in telephone exchanges have to support this old technology
though it has been gradually replaced by tone dialing.
When a digit is to be dialed, the dialing plate with finger holes is rotated clockwise to the end
and released. While homing, the switch is breaking the line current periodically and the number
of these periods indicates the dialed digit. For example, digit 1 has one period, 2 has two periods,
and 0 has 10 periods or cycles. Mechanics make the homing speed approximately constant and
each period is about 100 ms long with a 60-ms break (Figure 2.4). This method for the
transmission of digits has also been used for signaling between exchanges and then it is known
as loop disconnect signaling.
The value of the loop current differs slightly from country to country and it is also dependent on
line length and supply voltage, for example. Typically it is from 20 to 50 mA, high enough to
control old generation electromechanical switches that used pulses to control directly the rotating
switches of the switching matrix of an exchange.

2.3.3 Tone Dialing

Currently telephones include electronic circuits that make possible the implementation of better
means for signaling. Digital exchanges do not require high-power pulses to drive the selectors as
old electromechanical switches did. However, subscriber lines are still, and will be, supplied by a
–48- or –60-V battery so that telephones continue to operate independent of the electric power
supply. Electronic telephones use 50- to 500-μA current all the time to supply power to their
electronic circuitry, which is needed for number repetition, abbreviated dialing, and other
additional features of modern telephone sets.
Modern telephones usually have 12 push buttons (keys A to D of Figure 2.5 are not included in
an ordinary subscriber set) for dialing, each generating a tone with two frequencies. One of the
frequencies is from the upper frequency band and the other from the lower band. All frequencies
are inside the voice frequency band (300–3,400 Hz) and can thus be transmitted through the
network from end to end, when the speech connection is established. This signaling principle is
known as dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF) signaling.
Advantages of tone dialing are as follows:
 It is quicker and dialing of all digits takes the same time.
 Fewer dialing errors result.
 End-to-end signaling is possible.
 Additional push buttons are available (*, #, A, B, C, D) for activation of supplementary
services.
2.4 Telephone Numbering
An international telephone connection from any telephone to any other telephone is made
possible by unique identification of each subscriber socket in the world. In mobile telephone
networks, each telephone set (or subscriber card) has a unique identification number.
The numbering is hierarchical, and it has an internationally standardized country code at the
highest level. This makes national numbering schemes independent from each other.
2.4.1 International Prefix
An international prefix or international access number is used for international calls. It tells the
network that the connection is to be routed via an international telephone exchange to another
country. The international prefix may differ from country to country, but it is gradually becoming
harmonized. For example, all of Europe uses 00; elsewhere it may be different. If many operators
are providing international telephone service, a subscriber may select from among different
operators by using an operator prefix instead of 00, for example, in Ethiopia a user would dial
+251 for International.
2.4.2 Country Code
The country code contains one to four numbers that define the country of subscriber B. Country
codes are not needed for national calls because their purpose is to make the subscriber
identification unique in the world. A telephone number that includes the country code is called an
international number and it has a maximum length of 12 digits. Because there are a few hundred
countries in the world, many country codes have been defined by the ITU and the length of them
varies from a single digit to four digits (some small areas have an even longer code). Consider
these examples of country codes: 1 for the United States and Canada, 49 for Germany, 44 for the
United Kingdom, 52 for Mexico, 358 for Finland, and 1809 for Jamaica and 251 for Ethiopia.
2.4.3 Trunk Code, Trunk Prefix, or Area Code
The trunk code defines the area inside the country where the call is to be routed. The first digit is
a long-distance call identification and other numbers identify the area. The first digit is not
needed in the case of an international call because that type of call is always routed via the long
distance level of the destination network.
2.4.4 Subscriber Number
The subscriber number in a fixed telephone network is a unique identification of the subscriber
inside a geographical area. To connect to a certain subscriber, the same number is dialed
anywhere in the area. Because of the numbering hierarchy, the subscriber part of the telephone
number of one subscriber may be the same as that of another subscriber in another area.

2.5 Switching and Signaling

To build the requested connection from one subscriber to another, the network has switching equipment
that selects the required connection. These switching systems are called exchanges. The
subscriber identifies the required connection with signaling information (dialing) that is
transmitted over the subscriber line. In the network, signaling is needed to transmit the control
information of a specific call and circuits from one exchange to another.

2.5.1 Telephone Exchange

The main task of the telephone or ISDN exchange is to build up a physical connection between
subscriber A, the one who initiates the call, and subscriber B according to signaling information
dialed by subscriber A. The speech channel is connected from the time when the circuit was
established to the time when the call is cleared. This principle is called the circuit switching
concept and is different from packet switching, which has been used in data networks.
In the past, the switching matrix was electromechanical and controlled directly by pulses from a
telephone. Later, the control functions were integrated into a common control unit. Currently, the
common control unit is an efficient and reliable computer or a multiprocessor system, including
large amounts of real-time software. This kind of exchange is called a stored program control
(SPC) exchange.

2.5.2 Signaling
The control unit of the local exchange receives the subscriber signaling, such as dialed digits,
from the subscriber line and makes consequent actions according to its program. Usually the call
is routed via many exchanges and the signaling information needs to be transmitted from one
exchange to another. This can be done via channel associated signaling (CAS) or common
channel signaling (CCS) methods.
CAS

CCS
• The modern interexchange signaling system is called CCS.
  Switching Hierarchy
During the early years of the telephone, the switching office or exchange was located at a central
point in a service area and it provided switched connections for all subscribers in that area.
Hence, switching offices are still often referred to as central offices.

As telephone density grew and subscribers desired longer distance connections, it became
necessary to interconnect the individual service areas with trunks between the central offices. With
further traffic growth, new switches were needed to interconnect central offices and a second level
of switching, trunk or transit exchanges, evolved. Currently national networks have several
switching levels.

The actual implementation of the hierarchy and the number and names of switching levels differ
from country to country. Figure below shows an example of a possible network hierarchy.
The hierarchical structure of the network helps operators manage the network and it makes the
basic principle of telephone call routing straightforward; the call is routed up in the hierarchy by
each exchange if the destination subscriber is not located below this exchange. The structure of
the telephone number, explained below, supports this simple basic principle of routing up and
down in the switching hierarchy.

2.6 Local-Access Network

 Provides the connection between the customer’s telephone and the local exchange.
Many different technologies are used in a local-access network to connect subscribers to
the public telecommunications network.
• Most subscriber connections use twisted pairs of copper wires.
• An optical connection is used
High transmission capacity (more than 2 Mbps) or
Very good transmission quality is required
• A microwave radio relay is often a more economical solution
• Fixed telephone service uses wireless local loop (WLL) which is a microwave radio relay.

2.7 Trunk Network

 • . provide a network of connections from any customer to any other subscriber in the
country.
• They use High-capacity transmission paths, usually optical line systems, with capacities
up to 10 Gbps
• The local exchanges are connected to these trunk exchanges
• The transmission systems that interconnect trunk exchanges make up a transmission or
transport network.
• Its basic purpose is simply to provide a required number of channels (or data transmission
capacity) from one exchange site to another.
• The trunk exchanges are usually located in major cities.

Figure 2.16 links between trunk and local exchanges

2.8 International Network

Each country has at least one international switching center to which trunk exchanges are
connected, as shown in Figure below. Via this highest switching hierarchy level, international calls
are connected from one country to another and any subscriber is able to access any of the other
more than 2 billion subscribers around the world.

High-capacity optical systems interconnect international exchanges or switching centers of

national networks. Submarine cables (coaxial cable or optical cable systems), microwave radio
systems, and satellites connect continental networks to make up the worldwide
telecommunications network.

We described the common structure of the global telecommunications network without separating
the different network technologies. We need different network technologies to provide different
types of services, and the telecommunications network is actually a set of networks, each of them
having characteristics suitable for the service it provides.

Fig. The international network.

2.9 Telecommunication Network Services

• There are two broad categories of telecommunication network services:
1. Public networks
2. Private or dedicated networks

1. public networks
 Owned and managed by telecommunications network operators.
 Some of the public networks are; Telephone Network, Mobile Telephone Networks,
Telex Network, Paging Networks, Public Data Networks, Internet, ISDN,Radio and
Television Networks,

2. Private or Dedicated Networks

 Designed to serve the needs of particular organizations.
 They usually own and maintain the networks themselves.
 Some of the private networks are; Voice Communication Networks, Data
Communication Networks
.