Search engine

A search engine is a software system that is designed to carry out web

searches (Internet searches), which means to search the World Wide Web
in a systematic way for particular information specified in a textual web
search query. The search results are generally presented in a line of results,
often referred to as search engine results pages (SERPs). The information
may be a mix of links to web pages, images, videos, infographics, articles,
research papers, and other types of files. Some search engines also mine
data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories,
which are maintained only by human editors, search engines also maintain
real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler. Internet
content that is not capable of being searched by a web search engine is
generally described as the deep web. The results of a search for the term "lunar eclipse"
in a web-based image search engine

Contents
History
Approach
Local search
Market share
East Asia and Russia
Europe
Search engine bias
Customized results and filter bubbles
Religious search engines
Search engine submission
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
The thought for indexing information began as far back as 1945 in Vannevar Bush's The Atlantic Monthly article "As We May
Think".[1] Vannevar expressed the emphasis on information in the future and the need for scientists to design a way to
incorporate information found in journals.[2] He suggested a memory device called the Memex, used to compress and store
information which could then be retrieved with speed and flexibility.[3] Internet search engines themselves predate the debut of
the Web in December 1990. The Who is user search dates back to 1982[4] and the Knowbot Information Service multi-network
user search was first implemented in 1989.[5] The first well documented search engine that searched content files, namely FTP
files, was Archie, which debuted on 10 September 1990.[6]

Prior to September 1993, the World Wide Web was entirely indexed by hand. There was a list of webservers edited by Tim
Berners-Lee and hosted on the CERN webserver. One snapshot of the list in 1992 remains,[7] but as more and more web servers
went online the central list could no longer keep up. On the NCSA site, new servers were announced under the title "What's
New!"[8]

The first tool used for searching content (as opposed to users) on the Internet was Archie.[9] The name stands for "archive"
without the "v".,[10] It was created by Alan Emtage[10][11][12][13] computer science student at McGill University in Montreal,
Quebec, Canada. The program downloaded the directory listings of all the files located on public anonymous FTP (File Transfer
Protocol) sites, creating a searchable database of file names; however,
Archie Search Engine did not index the contents of these sites since the Timeline (full list)
amount of data was so limited it could be readily searched manually. Year Engine Current status

The rise of Gopher (created in 1991 by Mark McCahill at the University W3Catalog Active
of Minnesota) led to two new search programs, Veronica and Jughead. Aliweb Active
Like Archie, they searched the file names and titles stored in Gopher 1993
JumpStation Inactive
index systems. Veronica (Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index to
Computerized Archives) provided a keyword search of most Gopher WWW Worm Inactive
menu titles in the entire Gopher listings. Jughead (Jonzy's Universal WebCrawler Active
Gopher Hierarchy Excavation And Display) was a tool for obtaining
Go.com Inactive, redirects to Disney
menu information from specific Gopher servers. While the name of the 1994
search engine "Archie Search Engine" was not a reference to the Archie Lycos Active
comic book series, "Veronica" and "Jughead" are characters in the series, Infoseek Inactive, redirects to Disney
thus referencing their predecessor.
Active, initially a search
Yahoo! Search
function for Yahoo! Directory
In the summer of 1993, no search engine existed for the web, though
numerous specialized catalogues were maintained by hand. Oscar Daum Active
Nierstrasz at the University of Geneva wrote a series of Perl scripts that Magellan Inactive
periodically mirrored these pages and rewrote them into a standard format.
This formed the basis for W3Catalog, the web's first primitive search Excite Active
1995
engine, released on September 2, 1993.[14] SAPO Active
MetaCrawler Active
In June 1993, Matthew Gray, then at MIT, produced what was probably
the first web robot, the Perl-based World Wide Web Wanderer, and used it Inactive, acquired by Yahoo!
to generate an index called "Wandex". The purpose of the Wanderer was AltaVista in 2003, since 2013 redirects
to Yahoo!
to measure the size of the World Wide Web, which it did until late 1995.
The web's second search engine Aliweb appeared in November 1993. Inactive, incorporated into
RankDex
Baidu in 2000
Aliweb did not use a web robot, but instead depended on being notified
by website administrators of the existence at each site of an index file in a Dogpile Active, Aggregator
particular format. 1996
Inktomi Inactive, acquired by Yahoo!

JumpStation (created in December 1993[15] by Jonathon Fletcher) used a HotBot Active

web robot to find web pages and to build its index, and used a web form Ask Jeeves Active (rebranded ask.com)
as the interface to its query program. It was thus the first WWW resource-
Active (rebranded AOL
discovery tool to combine the three essential features of a web search AOL NetFind
Search since 1999)
engine (crawling, indexing, and searching) as described below. Because 1997
of the limited resources available on the platform it ran on, its indexing Northern Light Inactive
and hence searching were limited to the titles and headings found in the Yandex Active
web pages the crawler encountered.
Google Active
One of the first "all text" crawler-based search engines was WebCrawler, Ixquick Active as Startpage.com
which came out in 1994. Unlike its predecessors, it allowed users to 1998
MSN Search Active as Bing
search for any word in any webpage, which has become the standard for
all major search engines since. It was also the search engine that was empas Inactive (merged with NATE)
widely known by the public. Also in 1994, Lycos (which started at Inactive (URL redirected to
AlltheWeb
Carnegie Mellon University) was launched and became a major Yahoo!)
commercial endeavor. Active, rebranded Yellowee
1999 GenieKnows (redirection to
The first popular search engine on the Web was Yahoo! Search.[16] The justlocalbusiness.com)
first product from Yahoo!, founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in Naver Active
January 1994, was a Web directory called Yahoo! Directory. In 1995, a
search function was added, allowing users to search Yahoo! Teoma Active (© APN, LLC)
Directory![17][18] It became one of the most popular ways for people to Baidu Active
find web pages of interest, but its search function operated on its web 2000 Exalead Inactive
directory, rather than its full-text copies of web pages.
Gigablast Active
Soon after, a number of search engines appeared and vied for popularity. 2001 Kartoo Inactive
These included Magellan, Excite, Infoseek, Inktomi, Northern Light, and
Info.com Active
AltaVista. Information seekers could also browse the directory instead of 2003
doing a keyword-based search. Scroogle Inactive
2004 A9.com Inactive
In 1996, Robin Li developed the RankDex site-scoring algorithm for Clusty Active (as Yippy)
search engines results page ranking[19][20][21] and received a US patent
Mojeek Active
for the technology.[22] It was the first search engine that used hyperlinks
to measure the quality of websites it was indexing,[23] predating the very Sogou Active
similar algorithm patent filed by Google two years later in 1998.[24] Larry SearchMe Inactive
Page referenced Li's work in some of his U.S. patents for PageRank.[25] 2005
KidzSearch Active, Google Search
Li later used his Rankdex technology for the Baidu search engine, which
was founded by Robin Li in China and launched in 2000. Soso Inactive, merged with Sogou
Quaero Inactive
In 1996, Netscape was looking to give a single search engine an exclusive
deal as the featured search engine on Netscape's web browser. There was Search.com Active
so much interest that instead Netscape struck deals with five of the major 2006 ChaCha Inactive
search engines: for $5 million a year, each search engine would be in
Ask.com Active
rotation on the Netscape search engine page. The five engines were
Yahoo!, Magellan, Lycos, Infoseek, and Excite.[26][27] Live Search
Active as Bing, rebranded
MSN Search
Google adopted the idea of selling search terms in 1998, from a small wikiseek Inactive
search engine company named goto.com. This move had a significant
Sproose Inactive
effect on the SE business, which went from struggling to one of the most 2007
profitable businesses in the Internet.[28] Wikia Search Inactive
Blackle.com Active, Google Search
Search engines were also known as some of the brightest stars in the
Powerset Inactive (redirects to Bing)
Internet investing frenzy that occurred in the late 1990s.[29] Several
companies entered the market spectacularly, receiving record gains during Picollator Inactive
their initial public offerings. Some have taken down their public search Viewzi Inactive
engine, and are marketing enterprise-only editions, such as Northern
Light. Many search engine companies were caught up in the dot-com 2008 Boogami Inactive
bubble, a speculation-driven market boom that peaked in 1990 and ended LeapFish Inactive
in 2000.
Forestle Inactive (redirects to Ecosia)

Around 2000, Google's search engine rose to prominence.[30] The DuckDuckGo Active
company achieved better results for many searches with an algorithm Active, rebranded Live
called PageRank, as was explained in the paper Anatomy of a Search Bing
Search
Engine written by Sergey Brin and Larry Page, the later founders of
Yebol Inactive
Google.[31] This iterative algorithm ranks web pages based on the number
and PageRank of other web sites and pages that link there, on the premise Inactive due to a lack of
Mugurdy
funding
that good or desirable pages are linked to more than others. Larry Page's
2009
patent for PageRank cites Robin Li's earlier RankDex patent as an Scout (Goby) Active
influence.[25][32] Google also maintained a minimalist interface to its NATE Active
search engine. In contrast, many of its competitors embedded a search
Ecosia Active
engine in a web portal. In fact, the Google search engine became so
popular that spoof engines emerged such as Mystery Seeker. Startpage.com
Active, sister engine of
Ixquick
By 2000, Yahoo! was providing search services based on Inktomi's search Blekko Inactive, sold to IBM
engine. Yahoo! acquired Inktomi in 2002, and Overture (which owned
AlltheWeb and AltaVista) in 2003. Yahoo! switched to Google's search Cuil Inactive
engine until 2004, when it launched its own search engine based on the 2010 Yandex
Active
combined technologies of its acquisitions. (English)
Parsijoo Active
Microsoft first launched MSN Search in the fall of 1998 using search
results from Inktomi. In early 1999 the site began to display listings from 2011 YaCy Active, P2P
Looksmart, blended with results from Inktomi. For a short time in 1999, 2012 Volunia Inactive
MSN Search used results from AltaVista instead. In 2004, Microsoft
2013 Qwant Active
began a transition to its own search technology, powered by its own web
crawler (called msnbot). Egerin Active, Kurdish / Sorani
2014
Swisscows Active
Microsoft's rebranded search engine, Bing, was launched on June 1,
2009. On July 29, 2009, Yahoo! and Microsoft finalized a deal in which Yooz Active
2015
Yahoo! Search would be powered by Microsoft Bing technology. Cliqz Inactive
2016 Kiddle Active, Google Search
As of 2019, active search engine crawlers include those of Google,
Sogou, Baidu, Bing, Gigablast, Mojeek, DuckDuckGo and Yandex.
Approach

A search engine maintains the following processes in near real time:

1. Web crawling
2. Indexing
3. Searching[33]

Web search engines get their information by web crawling from site to site. The "spider" checks for the standard filename
robots.txt, addressed to it. The robots.txt file contains directives for search spiders, telling it which pages to crawl. After checking
for robots.txt and either finding it or not, the spider sends certain information back to be indexed depending on many factors,
such as the titles, page content, JavaScript, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), headings, or its metadata in HTML meta tags. After a
certain number of pages crawled, amount of data indexed, or time spent on the website, the spider stops crawling and moves on.
"[N]o web crawler may actually crawl the entire reachable web. Due to infinite websites, spider traps, spam, and other exigencies
of the real web, crawlers instead apply a crawl policy to determine when the crawling of a site should be deemed sufficient.
Some websites are crawled exhaustively, while others are crawled only partially".[34]

Indexing means associating words and other definable tokens found on web pages to their domain names and HTML-based
fields. The associations are made in a public database, made available for web search queries. A query from a user can be a
single word, multiple words or a sentence. The index helps find information relating to the query as quickly as possible.[33] Some
of the techniques for indexing, and caching are trade secrets, whereas web crawling is a straightforward process of visiting all
sites on a systematic basis.

Between visits by the spider, the cached version of page (some or all the content needed to render it) stored in the search engine
working memory is quickly sent to an inquirer. If a visit is overdue, the search engine can just act as a web proxy instead. In this
case the page may differ from the search terms indexed.[33] The cached page holds the appearance of the version whose words
were previously indexed, so a cached version of a page can be useful to the web site when the actual page has been lost, but this
problem is also considered a mild form of linkrot.

Typically when a user enters a query into a search engine it is a few keywords.[35] The
index already has the names of the sites containing the keywords, and these are instantly
obtained from the index. The real processing load is in generating the web pages that are
the search results list: Every page in the entire list must be weighted according to
information in the indexes.[33] Then the top search result item requires the lookup,
reconstruction, and markup of the snippets showing the context of the keywords
matched. These are only part of the processing each search results web page requires,
and further pages (next to the top) require more of this post processing.

Beyond simple keyword lookups, search engines offer their own GUI- or command-
High-level architecture of a standard
driven operators and search parameters to refine the search results. These provide the
Web crawler
necessary controls for the user engaged in the feedback loop users create by filtering and
weighting while refining the search results, given the initial pages of the first search
results. For example, from 2007 the Google.com search engine has allowed one to filter
by date by clicking "Show search tools" in the leftmost column of the initial search results page, and then selecting the desired
date range.[36] It's also possible to weight by date because each page has a modification time. Most search engines support the
use of the boolean operators AND, OR and NOT to help end users refine the search query. Boolean operators are for literal
searches that allow the user to refine and extend the terms of the search. The engine looks for the words or phrases exactly as
entered. Some search engines provide an advanced feature called proximity search, which allows users to define the distance
between keywords.[33] There is also concept-based searching where the research involves using statistical analysis on pages
containing the words or phrases you search for. As well, natural language queries allow the user to type a question in the same
form one would ask it to a human.[37] A site like this would be ask.com.[38]

The usefulness of a search engine depends on the relevance of the result set it gives back. While there may be millions of web
pages that include a particular word or phrase, some pages may be more relevant, popular, or authoritative than others. Most
search engines employ methods to rank the results to provide the "best" results first. How a search engine decides which pages
are the best matches, and what order the results should be shown in, varies widely from one engine to another.[33] The methods
also change over time as Internet usage changes and new techniques evolve. There are two main types of search engine that have
evolved: one is a system of predefined and hierarchically ordered keywords that humans have programmed extensively. The
other is a system that generates an "inverted index" by analyzing texts it locates. This first form relies much more heavily on the
computer itself to do the bulk of the work.
Most Web search engines are commercial ventures supported by advertising revenue and thus some of them allow advertisers to
have their listings ranked higher in search results for a fee. Search engines that do not accept money for their search results make
money by running search related ads alongside the regular search engine results. The search engines make money every time
someone clicks on one of these ads.[39]

Local search

Local search is the process that optimizes efforts of local businesses. They focus on change to make sure all searches are
consistent. It's important because many people determine where they plan to go and what to buy based on their searches.[40]

Market share
As of September 2020,[41] Google is the world's most used search engine, with a market share of 92.96 percent, and the world's
most used search engines are:

East Asia and Russia

In Russia, Yandex commands a market share of 61.9 percent, compared to Google's 28.3 percent.[42] In China, Baidu is the most
popular search engine.[43] South Korea's homegrown search portal, Naver, is used for 70 percent of online searches in the
country.[44] Yahoo! Japan and Yahoo! Taiwan are the most popular avenues for Internet searches in Japan and Taiwan,
respectively.[45] China is one of few countries where Google is not in the top three web search engines for market share. Google
was previously a top search engine in China, but had to withdraw after failing to follow China's laws.[46]

Europe

Most countries' markets in Western Europe are dominated by Google, except for the Czech Republic, where Seznam is a strong
competitor.[47]

Search engine bias

Although search engines are programmed to rank websites based on some combination of their popularity and relevancy,
empirical studies indicate various political, economic, and social biases in the information they provide[48][49] and the underlying
assumptions about the technology.[50] These biases can be a direct result of economic and commercial processes (e.g., companies
that advertise with a search engine can become also more popular in its organic search results), and political processes (e.g., the
removal of search results to comply with local laws).[51] For example, Google will not surface certain neo-Nazi websites in
France and Germany, where Holocaust denial is illegal.
Biases can also be a result of social processes, as search engine algorithms are frequently designed to exclude non-normative
viewpoints in favor of more "popular" results.[52] Indexing algorithms of major search engines skew towards coverage of U.S.-
based sites, rather than websites from non-U.S. countries.[49]

Google Bombing is one example of an attempt to manipulate search results for political, social or commercial reasons.

Several scholars have studied the cultural changes triggered by search engines,[53] and the representation of certain controversial
topics in their results, such as terrorism in Ireland,[54] climate change denial,[55] and conspiracy theories.[56]

Customized results and filter bubbles

Many search engines such as Google and Bing provide customized results based on the user's activity history. This leads to an
effect that has been called a filter bubble. The term describes a phenomenon in which websites use algorithms to selectively guess
what information a user would like to see, based on information about the user (such as location, past click behaviour and search
history). As a result, websites tend to show only information that agrees with the user's past viewpoint. This puts the user in a
state of intellectual isolation without contrary information. Prime examples are Google's personalized search results and
Facebook's personalized news stream. According to Eli Pariser, who coined the term, users get less exposure to conflicting
viewpoints and are isolated intellectually in their own informational bubble. Pariser related an example in which one user
searched Google for "BP" and got investment news about British Petroleum while another searcher got information about the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill and that the two search results pages were "strikingly different".[57][58][59] The bubble effect may
have negative implications for civic discourse, according to Pariser.[60] Since this problem has been identified, competing search
engines have emerged that seek to avoid this problem by not tracking or "bubbling" users, such as DuckDuckGo. Other scholars
do not share Pariser's view, finding the evidence in support of his thesis unconvincing.[61]

Religious search engines

The global growth of the Internet and electronic media in the Arab and Muslim World during the last decade has encouraged
Islamic adherents in the Middle East and Asian sub-continent, to attempt their own search engines, their own filtered search
portals that would enable users to perform safe searches. More than usual safe search filters, these Islamic web portals
categorizing websites into being either "halal" or "haram", based on interpretation of the "Law of Islam". ImHalal came online in
September 2011. Halalgoogling came online in July 2013. These use haram filters on the collections from Google and Bing (and
others).[62]

While lack of investment and slow pace in technologies in the Muslim World has hindered progress and thwarted success of an
Islamic search engine, targeting as the main consumers Islamic adherents, projects like Muxlim, a Muslim lifestyle site, did
receive millions of dollars from investors like Rite Internet Ventures, and it also faltered. Other religion-oriented search engines
are Jewogle, the Jewish version of Google,[63] and SeekFind.org, which is Christian. SeekFind filters sites that attack or degrade
their faith.[64]

Search engine submission

Web search engine submission is a process in which a webmaster submits a website directly to a search engine. While search
engine submission is sometimes presented as a way to promote a website, it generally is not necessary because the major search
engines use web crawlers that will eventually find most web sites on the Internet without assistance. They can either submit one
web page at a time, or they can submit the entire site using a sitemap, but it is normally only necessary to submit the home page
of a web site as search engines are able to crawl a well designed website. There are two remaining reasons to submit a web site
or web page to a search engine: to add an entirely new web site without waiting for a search engine to discover it, and to have a
web site's record updated after a substantial redesign.

Some search engine submission software not only submits websites to multiple search engines, but also adds links to websites
from their own pages. This could appear helpful in increasing a website's ranking, because external links are one of the most
important factors determining a website's ranking. However, John Mueller of Google has stated that this "can lead to a
tremendous number of unnatural links for your site" with a negative impact on site ranking.[65]

See also
Comparison of web search engines
Information retrieval
 List of search engines
Question answering
Filter bubble
Google effect
Use of web search engines in libraries
Semantic Web
Spell checker
Web development tools
Search engine manipulation effect
Search engine privacy

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Further reading
Steve Lawrence; C. Lee Giles (1999). "Accessibility of information on the web". Nature. 400 (6740): 107–9.
Bibcode:1999Natur.400..107L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.400..107L). doi:10.1038/21987 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1038%2F21987). PMID 10428673 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10428673).
Bing Liu (2007), Web Data Mining: Exploring Hyperlinks, Contents and Usage Data (http://www.cs.uic.edu/~liu
b/WebMiningBook.html). Springer,ISBN 3-540-37881-2
Bar-Ilan, J. (2004). The use of Web search engines in information science research. ARIST, 38, 231–288.
Levene, Mark (2005). An Introduction to Search Engines and Web Navigation. Pearson.
Hock, Randolph (2007). The Extreme Searcher's Handbook.ISBN 978-0-910965-76-7
Javed Mostafa (February 2005). "Seeking Better Web Searches". Scientific American. 292 (2): 66–73.
Bibcode:2005SciAm.292b..66M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005SciAm.292b..66M).
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0205-66 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0205-66).
Ross, Nancy; Wolfram, Dietmar (2000). "End user searching on the Internet: An analysis of term pair topics
submitted to the Excite search engine". Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 51 (10): 949–
958. doi:10.1002/1097-4571(2000)51:10<949::AID-ASI70>3.0.CO;2-5 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1097-4571%
282000%2951%3A10%3C949%3A%3AAID-ASI70%3E3.0.CO%3B2-5).
Xie, M.; et al. (1998). "Quality dimensions of Internet search engines". Journal of Information Science. 24 (5):
365–372. doi:10.1177/016555159802400509 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F016555159802400509).
Information Retrieval: Implementing and Evaluating Search Engines (http://www.ir.uwaterloo.ca/book/). MIT
Press. 2010.

External links
Search Engines (https://curlie.org/Computers/Internet/Searching/Search_Engines/) at Curlie

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