Biomelioration Program:

2010
For Coastal Development
Beach Morning Glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae)

Sardar Taimur Hyat-Khan

PARC
04/13/2010
 Table of Contents
Tables:
Figures:
Annexures:
Executive Summary:
1. Name of the project:.................................................................................................-
2. Location:...................................................................................................................-
3. Authorities responsible for: -
4. Plan provision: -
5. Project objectives and its relationship with sector objectives: -
6. Description, Justification, Technical Parameter and Technology Transfer
Aspects: ....................................................................................................................-
6.1 :………………………………………………………………-
6.2 …………………………………………………………...-
6.3 ………………………………………………………………………-
6.4 ……………………………………………………………...-
6.5 …………………………………………………………………..-
6.6 Description: …………………………………...-
6.7 Technical Aspects:……………………………………………………….-
6.8 Project Components:…………………………………………………….-
I. ………………………………………………
II. ……………………………………………
III. …………………………………………………
7. Capital Cost Estimates.............................................................................................-
8. Annual Operating and Maintenance Cost after Completion of the Project.......-
9. Demand and Supply Analysis:………………………………………………….-
10. Financial Plan and Mode of Financing:………………………………………..-
11. Project Benefit and Analysis:…………………………………………………...-
12. Implementation Schedule:………………………………………………………-
13. Management Structure and Manpower Requirements Including Specialized
Skills during Construction and Operational Phases:…………………………-
14. Additional Project/Decisions Required Maximizing Socio-Economic Benefits
from the Proposed Project:……………………………………………………. -
15. Certified that the Project Proposal has been Prepared on the Basis of
Instructions Provided by the Planning Commission for the Preparation of PC-1
for Production Sector Project…………………………………………………-

2
 Revised 2005
GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
PLANNING COMMISSION
PC-1 FORM
(SOCIAL SECTORS)
1. Name of the Project: Biomelioration Program for Coastal Development.
2. Location: Sindh/ Makran Coastal Area (10 km width)
The area will be divided into two zones:
Zone 1: Sindh Coastal Belt. Approximately 109 miles.
Zone 2: Baluchistan Coastal Belt. 413.85 miles.

The Zones will be administrated from the following locations:

Zone 1: Sindh:
a. East Limit: 230 55’ 22.73” N 680 18’ 54.38” E
b. Keti Bundar: 240 08’ 41.11” N 670 27’ 10.55” E
0
c. West Limit: 24 47’ 32.97” N 670 08’ 41.20” E

3
Zone 2: Baluchistan:
Zone 2 Sub-Area 1: Approximately 127.98 miles
a. East Limit: 240 50’ 42.46” N 660 53’ 59.91” E
b. Winder: 250 23’ 12.15” N 660 40’ 03.66” E
c. West Limit: 250 22’ 53.90” N 650 30’ 27.86” E

Zone 2 Sub-Area 2: Approximately 142.27 miles

a. East Limit: 250 22’ 53.90” N 650 30’ 27.86” E
b. Ormara.: 250 13’ 01.50” N 640 37’ 58.82” E
c. West Limit: 250 16’ 04.87” N 630 27’ 58.00 E

Zone 2 Sub-Area 3: Approximately 143.61 miles

a. East Limit: 250 16’ 04.87” N 630 27’ 58.00 E
b. Gawadar: 250 07’ 38.07” N 620 19’ 24.04” E
c. West Limit: 250 10’ 40.12” N 610 37’ 00.20” E

4
3. Authority responsible for:
i. Sponsoring: Go Pakistan
ii. Execution: Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC).
iii. Operation and Maintenance: Organized Village/ Mohallah Councils.
iv. Concerned Federal Ministry: Federal Ministry Food & Agriculture.

4. Plan Provision: It is proposed that a special budgetary allocation be made for the
Project in view of the importance of Sustainable Development; Prevention of Environment
Degradation; Aghaaz-e-Huqooq-e-Baluchistan and Food Security under the present financial
circumstances.

5
6
 Project
objectives and
its
relationship
with Sectoral
objectives
7
5. Project objectives and its relationship with Sectoral objectives
Being an apex research organization at Federal level, responsible for coordination and
promotion of agricultural research, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) has the
mission “Poverty reduction through science-based improvements in agricultural
productivity, profitability, and competitiveness to ensure “food and livelihood security
for all in an environmentally sustainable manner”.

This project is highly critical in nature especially in the light of the present
socio-economic situation and is within the purview of the MDGs pertaining to the
provision of food security and Vision 2030 in the following sectors:
a. Poverty alleviation.
b. Nutrition enhancement.
c. Capacity building and human resource development of communities.
d. Female capacity development and empowerment.
e. Environment Protection.

The proposed project is in line with the Pakistan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper,
Medium Term Development Framework (MTDF) 2005-10 of the Planning Commission of
Pakistan.
The proposed project will help in achieving the MTDF (2005-10) goals, targets and
objectives besides supporting the implementation of its sectoral strategies. It will help
Pakistan to fulfill international obligations of the Millennium Development Goal (MDGs)
targets; Goal-1 (Halving extreme poverty and hunger; reduce by the proportion of people
who live on less than one dollar a day. Reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer
from hunger) and Goal-7; (Ensure Environmental Sustainability). In addition the proposed
project supports the National Agricultural and Environment Policy, National Conservation
Strategy (NCS) and National Environment Action Plan (NEAP).

The proposed Project’s primary Objectives are to reduce poverty; promote

sustainable livelihoods and protect the environment by adopting a four tiered approach:

1. Detailed Survey. To define subsurface aquifers; geothermal resources; sulfide ore-

bodies and geologic structures like faults and fractures.
2. Equitable Social Organization; Poverty Mapping and Gender Development.
3. Environment Protection.
4. Promoting Livelihoods and Sustainable Medium; Small and Micro-Enterprise.

8
 Description,
Justification
and Technical
Parameters:

9
6. Description, Justification and Technical Parameters:
1
According to a report prepared for the Government of Sindh and Asian Development
Bank, while addressing the fact that most interventions in the Coastal areas have either failed
or simply languished. “One of the key finding in this report is that failing to deal with cause
perpetuates the cycle of consequence. Until the fundamentals change, repeating the same
process can only produce the same outcomes.”
The report goes on to state: “It is not difficult to find glaring examples of
serious environmental damage and extreme poverty in the Project area. Nor is it difficult to
conclude that the situation is getting worse rather than better. What is more difficult to
understand, given the obvious awareness that most people have of the situation, is why
should the situation be so difficult to deal with?
In the coastal areas the uncertainty of water and the mismanagement of water
resources has caused enormous hardship and there is little prospect of change, at least in the
short to medium term. It is not just the physical consequences of less water but the ensuing
social, economic and environmental damage stemming from failure to adequately foresee or
deal with the consequences.
The conclusion reached was that the problems were structural; good people even with
adequate resources were unable to produce favorable outcomes working within such an
environment.
The point that emerges is that technical solutions cannot, on their own, solve what are
essentially failures in policy.”
As such the present Program has been designed in such a manner that a new
Management Mechanism is emplaced that is more responsive and accountable to the common
citizens. At the same time it has been determined that existing Power structures are not
disturbed. The Social Sciences Division of the PARC, after careful consideration is poised to
introduce gradual Social Change without threat to existing power structures.

Environmental degradation and extreme poverty is to be found in the target area. The
affects of Salinity; water shortages; poor water management practices and saltwater intrusion,
greatly hamper efforts to attain sustainable development. By taking the position of converting
adversity to opportunity, an all out effort will be made to live in harmony with Nature by
creating vibrant, dynamic and locally self-sufficient communities. The objectives of the
Program will be achieved when the community’s skills and talents are tapped in such a
manner that they declare “We Did It.”

1
Sindh Coastal and Inland Community Development Project, Pakistan (ADB TA 4525-PAK) Final Report Volume 1 – Main
Report.

10
 2

2
http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/930-1.pdf

11
12
General: Zone 2 is classified as “Sub Tropical Coast Line” or “Arid Marine Region of
Pakistan” (Ahmad 1964). Ahmad refers to this area’s climate as “Arid Marine Sub Tropical
Coast Lands” sub divided as “Makran and Lasbella Coasts”. Koppen’s (1918, 1936) World
Climate classification is BWhw or “Hot Desert Climate”. According to Holdridge (1947) it is
“Tropical Desert Bush Formation”.

According to Tasnif and Snead (1964), Snead (1966) and Snead and Tasnif (1966) the
Coastal vegetation of Lasbella is divided into six major land-form types identifiable from
plant indicators as follows:

1. Low Dry Alluvial Plains:

2. Riverine Tract:
3. Rocky Upland Pleistocene Hills:
4. Saline Coastal Flats:
5. Sand Dunes:
6. Mangroves and Tidal lagoon:

The world’s land-surface has 8% absolute desert and about 40% is covered or
threatened by semi-deserts. The instance of increasing desertification is a future threat that
has to be dealt with, especially in the light of Global Warming and increased aridity. Every
year 5 to 7 million hectares succumb to desertification.

Aridization and more advanced desertification of land result from the combined
action of natural tendencies and ecological mistakes made by Man in the course of his
manifold activities. Most alarmingly, the velocity of what is mainly anthropogenic aridization
is commonly measured in terms of a few years or at most a single human generation. But help
should come from the maintenance of rain-fed farming in less arid areas, and especially from
the widespread establishment of irrigation systems. There are, however, very serious
problems engendered by continuing irrigation, which is apt to be wasteful of fresh water. To
begin with, river-water resources are becoming increasingly limited and artesian waters are
too-easily depleted or become brackish. Worse still, with the high rate of evaporation in arid
regions, salinization of the surface and the uppermost soil horizon commonly ensues, and
gradually penetrates to lower strata in which plants mainly root. Most existing irrigation
systems lack the piping or consistent lining of water-bringing canals and the deep (2.5–3 m)
horizontal drainage-ducts that are needed to evacuate excessive soluble salts. The ultimate
disposal of the salt, moreover, still causes problems when the sea cannot be used or salt-lakes
be created for fish and waterfowl. Meanwhile, revegetation is becoming more and more
widely practised and some success is attending efforts to develop salt-resistant crops in USA,
India, and USSR.3 China has made considerable progress in this regard.

General Vegetation:
Capparis aphylla, Periploca aphylla, Boucerosia, Tecoma undulata, Acan-thodium spicatum,
Prosopis spicigera, Withania coagulans, Zizyphus Jujuba, Salvadora oleoides, Calotropis
procera, Caragona polyacantha, three kinds of Acacia, Leptadenia Spartium, Taverniera
3
Victor A. Kovda
Professor, Subfaculty of Pedology, Moscow State University, Moscow 177234, USSR;
formerly Director, Institute of Agrochemistry and Soil Science of the Academy of Sciences
of the USSR; sometime President of the International Society of Soil Science and President
of SCOPE.

13
Nummularia, Physorhynchus brahuicus, and Alhagi camelorum. In low-lying parts where
water is available Tamarix articulata and T. gallica are found. Here and there Euphorbia
neritfolia and the dwarf-palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana) occur, the latter often in great
quantities. The herbaceous vegetation is very scanty, consisting of such plants as Aerua
javanica, Pluchea lanceolata, Fagonia arabica, Mimulus alatus, and Cassia obovata; near
water, Eclipta erecta; and as weeds of cultivation, Solanum dulcamara and Spergularia. Two
species akin to Haloxylon, Suaeda verminculata and Salsola foetida, abound on saline soil.
Panicum anlidotale is the most important grass.

Throughout Makran the staple food is dates. Great attention is paid to the cultivation
and care of the date-tree, and the dates of Panjgur are declared by Arabs to excel those of
Basra. Though all the trees belong to the species Phoenix doctylifera, they are distinguished
locally into more than a hundred kinds, according to the weight, size, and quality of the fruit.
All trees are known either as pedigree trees (nasabi) or non-pedigree trees (kuroch). Among
the former, the best varieties are mozdati, d-e-dandan, haleni, begam jangi, and sabso. Fresh
trees are raised from offsets; they produce fruit after three to eight years, and continue to do
so for three generations. The young offsets must be carefully watered for the first year, and
afterwards at intervals until their roots strike the moisture of the subsoil. The date season is
divided into three principal periods: machosp, rang or kulont, and naen. In machosp (March)
the artificial impregnation of the female date-spathes by the insertion of pollen-bearing twigs
from the spathe of the male tree is effected. In the season of rang or kulont (June) the colour
first appears on the fruit, and there is general rejoicing. The harvest (amen) lasts from July to
September, when men and cattle live on little else but dates. The fruit is preserved in various
ways, the most common being by pressing and packing in palm-leaf baskets (laghati). Better
kinds are mixed with expressed date-juice and preserved in earthen jars known as humb.
Owing to the excessive quantity of dates in the diet of the people of Makran, night-blindness
is common.

Most of the year the vegetation of scattered xerophytic shrubs and trees is sparse.
During monsoons thick grasses are reported in abundance. The Lasbela valley is a vast
alluvial plain approximately 50 miles wide at the coast and extends 80 miles inland. The
height above sea level is generally 50 feet with two Mounatin Ranges, Mor and Hala rise to
1,000 to 3,000 feet on the Eastern and Western sides of the valley. The mountain bases form
a large alluvial plain covered with a thin gravel layer with Pleistocene sand deposits. The
Porali, Khantra and Windar Rivers and their tributaries are adding sediment. Bela, Uthal and
Somiani are the major settlements while the desert parts of the plain have sparse population.
Much fodder, cereal and vegetable crops can be grown but this varies with degree of flooding
and amount of rainfall. Major crops are Jowar (Sorghum vulgare), ‘Mung’ Bean (Phaseolus
aureus), ‘Patsan’ a fiber plant (Hibiscus cannabinus), Castor Oil ‘Arind’ (Ricinus
communis), Urad (Vigna mungo), Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) and Millet (Bajra
Pennisetum glaucum). Fruit trees such as the Date Palm ‘Khajoor’ (Phoenix doctylifera),
Mangoes (Mangifera indica) Black Plum, used for tannin (Syzgium cumini) and Guavas
(Psidium guajava) are grown on a small scale, in folk medicine, extracts of roots, bark, and
leaves are used to treat gastroenteritis, vomiting, diarrhoea, dysentery, wounds, ulcers,
toothache, coughs, sore throat, inflamed gums, and a number of other conditions (Morton
1987). The inhabitants of non-agricultural areas are nomadic and pastoral with herds of
camels, sheep and goats. Due to this most of the low scrub vegetation has been completely
destroyed. Average rainfall is 5-9 inches (166-300 mm)with most during monsoons (June,
July and August). During winters the extreme Western side of the valley gets one or two
Cyclonic storms.

14
4
5

Ecology: The area ranges from Sea level to 100 – 120 feet above Sea level along the
Coastal road. There are some bare hills further back forming natural barriers in some places.
There is evidence of Wind and Water erosion as the landscape is desiccated. As such
Biomelioration is required and methods of water harvesting must be introduced for plantation
and creation of a wetter micro environment. There is evidence of much drainage of rain water
and this can be tapped. The sub soil water is saline due to proximity to the sea. The soil is
mostly sandy along the coast and clay-loam close by. This factor along with Saline Sodicity
is forming an impervious layer and there is hardly any penetration as evidenced by standing
water in natural and man made declivities and depressions along the roads even after one
month of occurrence of rains. There is evidence of Gullying and rill erosion. Due to complete
absence of proper zoning, excellent potential agricultural land around Gawadar has been
converted to Housing Colonies (yet to be built). Hardly any organic matter is observed and
nutrient enriched surface run off is providing nutrition to the soils. Due to excessive cutting
of trees there is restricted nutrient recycling from deep sub soil. The geologic analysis of
rocks on the nearby hills and their nutrient content needs investigation. It is reported that

4
http://www.parc.gov.pk/Maps/AgroEcoBaloch.html
5
http://www.parc.gov.pk/Maps/AgroEcoPakistan.html
6
http://www.parc.gov.pk/Maps/AgroEcoSindh.html

15
Sardasht Forest is completely exhausted while Kolanch Forest near Kalmat is nearing
exhaustion. The principal trees in these forests are Prosopis spicigera, Capparis aphylla,
Tamarix indica, Tamarix arlicilata, Dalbergia Sissoo, Olea cuspidata, Pistadia khatnjak, and
Acacia modesta.
Soils are sandy; rocky; clay loam. There are some large mud flats and vestiges of
Mangroves. Coral Reefs (Phylum anidoria) off the coast from Jivni are important and should
exist in other locations as well. There are reports of damage due to pollution. Deep Sea Port
at Gawadar has adversely affected the Corral Reef and Fossils as well as local Pearl Industry
(needs confirmation). The presence of Crystals needs confirmation by analysis whether it is
Silica or Salt.
Threats: Arabian Sea:
The Arabian Sea is a center for oil shipping. As a result oil spills, anchor damage,
sedimentation, and other pollution effects are a real threat. Mining operations, fishing
pressures, destructive fish collecting practices (e.g., dynamiting), residential and commercial
development, and effluent discharge have resulted in altered species composition in many
areas. Irresponsible recreation and tourism also contribute to eutrophication and reef
degradation. War-related activities provide another source of environmental damage.

Threats: Indus Delta: Zone 1:

Dams on the river reduce flows in lower portions of the system and limit the transport
of fertile sediments downstream into the delta. They also pose a serious threat to the survival
of the Indus River dolphin as the remaining dolphins become isolated into smaller groups.
Water extraction for irrigation, runoff of chemicals into the rivers, and introduced species
also threaten the freshwater species of the delta.

Coast along Keti Bunder Sindh Mud Flat Keti Bunder Sindh

Indus Delta experiences warm monsoon climatic regime. Mild winters extend from
November to February while summer season extends from March to October. Most of the
annual precipitation falls during monsoon, which is erratic in distribution. Mean annual
rainfall is 220 mm. January is the coolest month with minimum temperature of 9.5 o C while
in June – July minimum and maximum temperatures range from 23 o C – 26o C and from 30oC
- 36oC, respectively. Humidity is generally higher in the morning than in the afternoon. It also
varies from place to place depending upon the proximity to the sea. Wind is another
important feature of coastal zone. It is variable and is faster during summer (7.4 to 20.5 km/h)
than winter (Qureshi 1985).
The area consists of mud flats and is crisscrossed with water channels, giving the
place an appearance of a marsh. Towards the west coast of Keti Bunder on the opposite bank
of Ochto River, there is vegetation of Mangrove plants Avicennis marina, wild rice Oryza

16
grass and shrub Salsola. Towards the land sand dunes are visible for miles. Most of the
mangroves plantations are lost. Dense mangroves cover about 2631 hectares; medium
mangrove cover 1996 hectares and the sparse mangrove cover 3588 hectares.

The Indus Delta is a landmark of outstanding ecological and cultural importance

occupying an area of 600,000 hectares along the coast of Pakistan. The Delta comprises of
seventeen major and numerous minor creeks, extensive mud flats and encompasses ninety-
seven percent of the mangrove forests in Pakistan. The Indus Delta is listed under the Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands, 1971, and is classified as the fifth largest delta in the world.
The Indus Delta and surrounding habitats constitute diverse ecosystems including;
riverine forests, irrigated plains, fresh water lakes and brackish wetlands. The land along the
main course of River Indus is very fertile and supports a diversity of agricultural crops such
as wheat, maize, cotton, sugarcane, rice and a variety of fruit orchards such as bananas,
mangos, date palm, Indian jujube and coconut palm. Significant fisheries resources include
Indus Baril, Indus Garua, Golden Mahasheer and the famous Palla fish. Riverine forests
along the banks of River Indus comprise species like Tamarix (Lai), Prosopis cineraria
(Kandi), Acacia nilotica (Babur) and Saccharum sp. These forests provide sanctuary to a
variety of birds (black and grey partridge, Eurasian collared dove, and crow-pheasant),
mammals (hog deer, smooth-coated otter, fishing cat and wild boar), reptiles and amphibians
(fresh-water turtles, marsh crocodile, saw-scaled viper and monitor lizard). Keenjhar, Haleji
and Hadero are three important fresh water lakes lying at the apex of the coastal region. The
Delta is also home to a significant number of brackish lagoons such as Jhubo and Nurri.
The ecology of the Indus Delta is threatened by both natural and anthropogenic
pressures. Upstream diversions of the Indus River by water infrastructure development
throughout the 20th century have altered the natural river flows endangering this globally
important and economically valuable wetland system.

Threats: Makran Coast: Zone 2

The study area is classified as “Sub Tropical Coast Line” or “Arid Marine Region of
Pakistan” (Ahmad 1964). Ahmad refers to this area’s climate as “Arid Marine Sub Tropical
Coast Lands” sub divided as “Makran and Lasbella Coasts”. Koppen’s (1918, 1936) World
Climate classification is BWhw or “Hot Desert Climate”. According to Holdridge (1947) it is
“Tropical Desert Bush Formation”.

The Makran Coastal area is at 0-300 meters above sea level, and is dry arid hot. The
oceanic influence keeps the temperature lower than that in the interior in summer and higher
in winter. The mean temperature in the hottest month (June) remains between 31°C and
32°C. The mean temperature in the coolest month (January) varies from 18°C to 19°C. The
uniformity of temperature is a unique characteristic of the coastal region in Balochistan.
Occasionally, winds moving down the Balochistan plateau bring brief cold spells, otherwise
the winter is pleasant. In Gwadar, winter is shorter than summer. Although Gwadar is not a
monsoon region it still receives light monsoon showers coming from Karachi. But in winter,
Western Disturbance can cause heavy Showers. Annual rainfall is only 100mm (3 inches).

Climate:

Solar Insolation: During summers, particularly April to June, solar insulation is intense at
180 – 200 Kcal.cm-1.

Evapotranspiration: Annual evapotranspiration is 1750 mm (Zubenok, 1977).

17
Rainfall: Rainfall is erratic and unpredictable since it arises from Eastern depressions
originating from the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea or occasionally from Central India
(Snead, 1966). Drought increases towards the West, resulting in more hot and dry conditions
in Pasni and Gawadar. Mean annual rainfall is 148.30 mm in Ormara, 131.60 mm in Pasni
and 148.90 in Jivni, mostly during winters.

Humidity: Relative humidity along the coast is high throughout the year though it is higher
in summer than winter. Lowest relative humidity occurs (49%) in December and January and
the highest is during monsoons (88 – 90%). It is highest during mornings (5 am) and declines
during the day till evening.

Temperature: Diurnal and Annual temperature ranges are considerable and extreme.
Winters are mild while summers are very hot.

18
 Wind: South-West or Westwardly winds predominate for most of the year resulting
in salt and sand particles being carried from the beaches to the interior. This results in
barchan type of Sand dunes (A barchan dune is an arc-shaped sand ridge, comprising well-
sorted sand. This type of dune possesses two "horns" that face downwind, with the slip face
(the downwind slope) at the angle of repose of sand, or approximately 32 degrees. The
upwind side is packed by the wind, and stands at about 15 degrees. Simple barchan dunes
may stretch from meters to a hundred meters or so between the tips of the horns from South-
West to North-West direction.) During winters the wind reverses and the process of dune
development consequently is also reversed resulting in deformation of shape.

Apart from South-East winds, other directions bring gales and dust storms, locally
termed as ‘Shumal’. North-West winds of winters, locally termed as ‘Uttar’ often result in
pneumonia being associated with low temperatures.

7
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barchan

19
Aridity: Detailed analysis of climate charts (outdated) show that the precipitation curve
underlies the temperature curve throughout the year except for winters in Ormara, Pasni and
Jivni. This results in a short humid period which is compounded by high velocity winds and
high temperatures in summers, resulting in increased evaporation. Less and irregular rainfall,
intense insolation and heat and Global warming which leads to high evaporation, all yield
high aridity. The upper layer of soil remains dry except for a few days after rainfall. Winter
rains were observed to form ponds in declivities and depressions and are reported to stand for
over one month. High evaporation leads to drying out.
Soils:
Jivni Formation: Shelly and reefoid limestone, sandstone and conglomerate.
Gawadar Formation: Soft and poorly consolidated mudstone with minor sandstone.
FAO Soil Characterization: Lithosols-Regosols. In Baluchistan/ Makran (arid zone)
the coastal soil is saline, in general, and unproductive. The decay of coastal halophytic flora
forms the nutrients and organic matter; however, the saline soils have very little organic
carbon that can serve as an energy source for soil mycoflora (Malik et al., 1980). The Makran
Coast falls within Zone IX Dry Western Plateau - mountainous areas. Most soil found in
humid climates in which soluble salts and minerals are leached out of the upper layers and are
cemented or compacted at a lower level). Makran’s soil is of two types: alluvial soil and litho
sols and rig sols. The valley of Dasht river in the western part of the district and the Kulanch
valley in the north consist of alluvial soil. The mountainous area of the district is covered
with litho sols and rig sols. Limestone, shale and sandstone are the main rocks involved in the
formation of this area. The area is described as BWh under Arid or Desert with hot summers
and mild winters. As such it can be suitable for growing Out of Season Vegetables like
Southern Sindh. These vegetables will find a lucrative market up-country. Owing to small
rainfall, the salt nature of the soil, and the physical conformation of the country, the shore is
almost entirely desert, presenting a succession of arid clay plains impregnated with saline
matter and intersected by watercourses. From these plains rise precipitous table hills of White
Clay (Kaolin).
The coast-line is deeply indented, but its most characteristic feature is the repeated
occurrence of promontories and peninsulas of white clay cliffs, table-topped in form.

20
 Makran Coastal Range

The Makran Coastal Range (MCR) is a narrow belt of highly folded and densely
faulted mountain ridges which parallel the present shoreline and extend for about 75 percent
of the total coast length for about 800 km (500 mi) in both the Balochistan and Sindh
Provinces. The steep mountains rise to an elevation of up to 1,500 m (5,000 ft). The coast is
rugged with uplifted terraces, cliffs and headlands.

NASA Satellite photo of a section of the Makran rugged and tectonic coastline
showing uplifted terraces, headlands, sandy beaches, mud flats, rocky cliffs, bays and deltas.
Numerous mud volcanoes are present along the shores.

Soil Analysis from Social Sciences Division (PARC) Survey Team:

 The soil analysis results show that the soil pH was around 9.2 and EC 0.90 in
orchards. The TSS of water samples was around 645 to 1510 ppm. Various grades of
brackish water are used for the production of range of fruit and seasonal crops (wheat,
cotton, alfalfa) including vegetables. Based on the existing use of saline underground
water sources, alternative crop combinations could be identified and recommended
for the specific sub-zones of the coastal line. Soil types would be quite important
factors in determining suitable crop combinations.
Soil Analysis Results
 Analysis of soil sample collected from the salicornia field shows 8.4 pH (strongly
saline) and 8.42 EC (dS/m). These results further confirm the views of the proponents
for rapid promotion of salicornia types of high value halophytes on highly salinized
coastal lands. Similar soil situations were found in abundance on lands located up to
10 km distance from the sea.

The analysis of water collected from a well shows high TSS of 4711 ppm. This water
is used for supplementing tomato crop grown under rainfed conditions which shows higher
salinity tolerance of this crop.

21
  The saline water use interventions may be expanded with the inclusion of plants like
Chico, Zyzyphus, Datepalm and crops like cotton, sorghum and millet
 The salicornia plantation discovered at Gaddani coast could be used for getting seed,
plants and suckers for re-plantation in the same as well as at other potential sites.

Major rivers in Southern Pakistan contribute enormous amounts of sediments and

turbidite deposits.

Tidal currents are a highly dynamic phenomenon that vary not only with the seasons
of the year but also change throughout the years resulting in an ever changing geography of
the beaches. This beach transformation is known as beach erosion or beach evolution.

Furthermore, as the global warming problem starts to show its effects it is now known
that within the next thirty years many near-to-shore populations will have severe problems
due to the rise of the sea level, and there is a need for the development of land reclamation
and beach erosion control methods in addition to the existing ones.
       
The currently in use methods for the control of beach erosion and land reclamation
vary in price, complexity, size and impact on the shore. The can be broadly classified
according to their stiffness as rigid and flexible or according to their capacity to absorb
energy as energy absorbing and non-energy absorbing.
Among the most common methods to control beach erosion are:

 Vertical walls (rigid, non energy absorbing).

 Rubble mounds and sloping walls (rigid, energy absorbing).
 Grass rows (flexible, energy absorbing).
 Fences for sand trapping (flexible, energy absorbing).
Powerful waves and currents, infrequent but intense flash floods, erodible young
sedimentary rocks, and strong tectonic uplift combine to make this one of the most active and
dramatic coastal regions of the Earth.

22
 The conditions for food security are not sustainable. Environment and Predator
Protection for self-reliant local food security is very much needed as nutrient mining/
leaching and absence of organic material/ biota as well as soil erosion are severely restricting
yields and aggravating pest and disease susceptibility. Climate change is bringing greater
stress upon production due to increased heat in summers and increased cold in winters.
Domestic animals/ poultry and rodents are also detrimental to food production without
physical protection. In order to ensure Kitchen Garden Food Self-Sufficiency at the very
minimum and provide a basis for safe, more quantity and quality produce the problem needs
to be addressed immediately. Plant protection through complete plant nutrition is very much
achievable and desirable as introduction of toxic materials in the name of plant protection is
extremely detrimental to the food chain.

Sustainable development is not possible without sustainable agriculture/ food

production. Environmental pollution of soil, water and air; resource depletion and nature
degradation as well as socio-economic problems, are seriously impacting the carrying
capacity of the land. As such there is an urgent requirement for farming systems to be
redesigned and transformed into more sustainable ones. Agriculture is a multifunctional and
multiple objective activity which has to supply food in sufficient quantity and quality and the
supply itself must be stable, sustainable and accessible. Agriculture must provide
employment and generate basic income and profit at farm, regional and national levels;
strictly avoid and minimize land degradation and destabilization; eschew pollution of natural
resources, protect the great cycles of nature; as well as ensure the overall health and well-
being of humans, animals, birds, insects and microbes.

Rural Women do not have enough opportunities for services and other income
generating activities. Public sector services like teaching, health etc. are not available. A vast
majority of women are in need of income generating activities. The scope and potential for
such activities lies in food security enhancing measures. Women participation in the villages,
is the need of the hour, and would greatly help in supporting and be highly beneficial for the
uplift of rural economy in the future.

Justification
The Coastal area mostly comprises of rural areas and possesses peculiar bio-physical
conditions suited to pastoral and poultry husbandry. The communities are mostly poor and
they meet their ends from a variety of subsistence activities. Poverty is wide spread
throughout the area.

Living in the extremely hostile weather conditions especially in summer coupled with
highly barren terrain, income generation sources of communities living in remote parts of the
Coastal areas are very limited. Consequently, the local communities mostly exploit the trees
and shrubs and rangeland resources of the arid semi-desert to earn their livelihoods. Thus the
fragile ecosystem is exposed to erosion and the landscape is being degraded at a very fast
rate.

In view thereof, it is therefore assumed that the project is highly justifiable in terms of
its social acceptability, economic viability, environmental safety and technical excellence.
The positive value of benefit cost analysis of the project is an indicator that the proposed
project is justified provided all necessary financial, technical and administrative inputs are
provided in time as per the provision of the PC-1.

23
 As regards the governance aspects of the project, PARC has got the required expertise
in community mobilization, livelihoods, finance, HID, M&E and marketing units assisted by
sectoral specialists for implementation of the project and is therefore well equipped to
successfully implement the proposed project and achieve all its objectives as per schedule.

The proposed project is justified by the dire and pressing need to emplace a Support
Web for a disillusioned and bewildered populace. Social harmony and positive growth can
only be ensured with sustainability if the parameters of a just and egalitarian society ensure
that the minimum in requirements of every citizen are ensured in a participatory manner. This
will discourage extremism and foster stability. The principles of Bioenvironmental
Management and transparent records that are easily accessible and verifiable will be adhered
to.

A careful phasing with concurrent activities to cut down upon lead times will ensure
sustainability and success of the interventions. GIS will provide a powerful tool for
management and ensure effective monitoring and evaluation. Sustainable Development
Action Plans will ensure harmony, while Social Mobilization and development of Village
Councils along with Village Development Plans will ensure participation and ownership. All
activities will be carried out, after capacity building of the beneficiaries through local
communities who will themselves be encouraged to become service providers.
Viable Alternative!
 Introduce Alternate Management Systems in Horticulture, including the following:
 Complete Plant Nutrition.
 Correct & Innovative Cultural Practices.
 Conservation Irrigation.
 Collective Micro Enterprise.
Vital Issues:
 Poverty Mitigation/ Prosperity;
 Ecologically Safe/ Sustainable Food Production & Afforestation;
 Micro Enterprise.
Poverty Eradication:
In order to fight hunger and combat poverty and deprivation we must release and tap
the enormous potential of the people who can develop their own skills and local resources.
Adopt Intermediate and/or Transitional Technologies Contributing to:

 Generating Economy.
 Creating Basic Production.
 Improving Employment Opportunities.
 Ensuring Adequate Living Standards.
 Bringing about gradual changes from extensive systems with low productivity to
intensive ones with higher productivity.
 Reducing pressure from Natural Resources.
 Producing an adequate Benefit/Cost Ratio.
 Ushering in Prosperity.

24
25
Interventions:
1. Preparatory:

2. Environment/ Energy/
Water:

3. Agri/ Horti/ Aqua Culture

Livestock & Range
Management:

4. Enterprise:

5. Research & Development:

26
 Preparatory:
a) GIS for Project
Management/ M&E.
b) Aquifer Mapping and
Improvement:
c) Aquifer recharging:
d) Resistivity Mono-pole
Profiling and Sounding:
e) Sustainable
Development Action
Plan:

27
2. Preparatory:
a) GIS for Project Management/ M&E.
b) Aquifer Mapping and Improvement: Through Electrical Conductivity. A strong
case exists for underground aquifer mapping using electric conductivity. This will provide a
view of possible aquifer improvement through construction of underground weirs.
Aquifer mapping works by:

 Energizing a water-bearing zone with an AC current. As the AC current flows through

the water a magnetic field is generated.
 Measuring the magnetic field at multiple points on the surface.
 Employing mathematical algorithms to reduce field data and prepare contour maps of
subsurface water footprint.

The groundwater is a conductor, which means the electrical current follows the
groundwater between the electrodes, creating a magnetic field that can be detected on the
ground's surface using a sensitive magnetic receiver.

Once the electricity is switched on, the device creates one large circuit. The circuit
emits a magnetic field below the ground at 380 Hz that follows any ground water it finds.

Once the magnetic field is created, scientists walk the ground between the probes in a
grid-like pattern with an instrument that collects data about the frequencies it detects
underground (the researchers are most interested specifically in the 380 Hz signals that the
electrodes emit). The instrument is contained in a box that is three feet (one meter) tall and
six inches (15 centimeters) square and held upright by a tripod and can collect thousands of
readings in just five minutes.

Low voltage, low amperage, audio frequency electrical current is used to energize the
groundwater. Electrodes are placed strategically in wells, springs or surface water to inject
electricity into the groundwater of interest. Because the groundwater is a conductor, the
electrical current follows the groundwater between the electrodes. As the electrical current
flows through the groundwater, the current creates a magnetic field characteristic of the
injected electrical current. This unique magnetic field can be identified and surveyed from the
ground surface using a tuned, sensitive magnetic receiver.

The magnetic receiver measures the specific magnetic field, filters out interference,
and amplifies the signal. Repeated measurements are recorded over time to ensure consistent
results. The recorded data are corrected to remove fluctuations in the data due to natural
phenomena and man-made interference. The horizontal and vertical magnetic field
magnitudes and directions can be measured to further define the groundwater.

Survey data is normalized to show relative highs and lows in the field data. These are
referred to as anomalies that represent areas of different physical conditions. A high magnetic

28
reading represents higher induced conductivity; a low magnetic reading represents low
induced conductivity. The changes in conductivity represent an increase or decrease in the
presence of groundwater. In the simplest terms, the technology identifies where groundwater
is most present in the area of investigation.

THE FINISHED PRODUCT

29
c) Aquifer Recharging: Dry bores for aquifer recharging to form fresh water plumes
over saline groundwater is very much possible. Impervious surface calls for such an
intervention. There are reports of fresh water in the deep aquifers where available, this needs
to be confirmed.
d) Resistivity Mono-pole Profiling and Sounding: This is a highly accurate and cost
effective resistivity geophysical survey and exploratory methodology used to:
 Locate, Map and Model geologic structure more accurately than traditional dipole-
dipole and Wenner surveys.
 Defines subsurface geothermal resources, sulfide ore-bodies, and geologic structures
like faults and fractures.
 Measure Resistivity, Self Potential and Induced Polarization all with the same
instrument and electrode array.

30
 Survey Layout
e) Sustainable Development Action Plan: Preparation for Coastal Areas including
Poverty mapping.

31
 Sociological:
a) Assets-based
Community
Development:

b) Social Network
Analysis:

32
c) Economic
Gardening:

2. Sociological: The current situation in the Country and especially in Baluchistan needs
to be tackled on the front foot but with care and understanding. The PARC is confident that it
can prove to be of immense benefit to Baluchistan and indeed the entire Country provided
that the PC-1 is implemented in letter and spirit. The local populace including the entire
spectrum of society has to be brought on board through a series of dialogs and demonstrated
excellence. It is proposed to introduce an Appropriate, Integrated and Sustainable Approach
to Rural Development, keeping in view latest trends that are producing “Results”. This is due
to the fact that present mechanisms and Approaches have failed to ‘Deliver’. A short analysis
is given below:

a) Assets-based Community Development:

Needs-Based Community Development: Traditional Model:

 Based on Needs
 Goal Institutional Change
 Conversation Problems and Concerns
 Change Agent Power
 View of Individual Consumer/ Client
Needs are based on Community Problems
Assets-Based Community Development: Alternate Model:
 Based on Assets
 Goal Building Communities
 Conversation Gifts & Dreams
 Change Agent Relationship
 View of Individual Producer / Owner
Assets are based on Community “Treasures”

“Asset-Based” Development:
 Reorients development from a “needs-based” approach. Needs-based models seek to
identify weaknesses in a local community and then implement strategies to overcome
those weaknesses.

33
 This method of mobilizing citizens focuses on negative characteristics of a
community and demoralizes local residents, thus limiting proactive action at the local
level.

 Focusing on local assets, instead of needs and deficits, allows residents to identify
possibilities for change that they can control, and energizes residents to take action.

Asset-Based Community Development:

Individual self-interest Asset Mapping Catalyst
Relationships undeveloped which causes
Relationships to Develop

Relationships form One Outcome

based on is Community Action!
Networks, Trust and Norms

34
 While the needs-based approach focuses on garnering external resources to solve
problems, the alternative asset based approach looks for residents’ personal skills and
dreams and links them to action through a public articulation of these local assets.

b) Social Network Analysis:

The mechanism for Community Interface based upon direct elected office bearers is not
efficient for service delivery or Appropriate Technology Transfer. Elite capture and restricted
participation defeats the intention to improve local conditions. Alternate, Page Rank
Algorithm for Ranking and Social Network analysis to pinpoint Centrality/ Nexus of Trust by
uncovering Flow Betweeness to select Village Executive Committees in place of directly
elected office bearers, is bound to overcome this first stumbling block on the Path of
Sustainable Development.
Structural Deep Democracy is Social Network Optimization approach to sustainable
development. SD2 uses PageRank as a centrality algorithm to analyze votes to determine the
center of TRUST and CONSENT in a human trust network. The top three or five lead such
an organization with one of them as the executive. This creates a small and efficient locus of
trust and accountability.
PageRank allows the best leaders to determine who the best leaders are, eliminating the
popularity game of conventional populistic-democracy. SD2 can be used by nonprofits,
businesses, government entities, but it is intended to be best for grass-roots activism for
groups thirty or more, and is scalable to a global level.
SD2's assumptions are:
1. Solving Community problems requires collective action
2. Collective action is best organized democratically
3. Democracy is based on voting.
4. Votes are processed with *centrality algorithms*
5. Representative democracy is based on the idea that, if given the opportunity, people
generally vote for those more qualified than themselves
6. The *centrality algorithm* that takes step #5 as many steps as mathematically
possible is PageRank.
7. SD2 uses PageRank to select three or five leaders of the group, then keeps those
leaders accountable with frequent rank recalculations
PageRank: rank = (# of in-votes) X (avg. strength of in-vote), AND strength of out-vote =
rank / (# of out-votes).

35
c) Economic Gardening:
Using local resources to grow their own jobs through entrepreneurial activity—
Economic gardening—instead of recruiting them from outside the community, or Economic
Hunting. The idea evolved from work by Dr. David Birch at MIT who argued that a majority
of all new jobs in any local economy were produced by small local businesses. However, as
local communities are unaware of potential soft technologies for increasing livelihoods and
improving standards of living, it is essential that innovative technology packages be tried on
ground and presented to them for capacity building. This will enable them to make informed
choices and ‘Own’ the interventions. To date there are many instances of ‘Band-Aid’
Development as standalone interventions which fail to take root as firstly, enabling
atmosphere is absent and secondly, Integrated and cross supporting interventions have not
been emplaced.

Core Elements of Economic Gardening:

36
37
38
 Environment/
Energy/
a)
Water:
Surface & Rooftop Water Harvesting:
b) Polyacralamide (PAM), Water Gel Crystals & Hydro Seed
Mulching
c) Windbreaks
d) Dune Stabilization:
e) Afforestation:
f) Municipal Solid & Liquid Waste Management/ Waste
Water Gardens:
g) Water:
h) Wetlands:
i) Pollution Control:
j) Wildlife
k) EcoTourism:
l) Alternate Energy:
i) Salt-Gradient, Solar Ponds:
ii) Solar:
 Active: Photovoltaics:
 Passive:
iii) Small Wind Mills:
iv) Small Bio-Gas Plants for Poultry Droppings:
m) Earth Sheltered, Earthquake/ Tsunami Proof, Super
Insulation Construction:
n) Desalinization Plants:
o) Ozone Generator:

39
3. Environment/ Energy/ Water: The Natural World is subject to certain Laws
and patterns that serve to maintain a balance. This balance has led to evolutionary adaptation
and development of life forms that are at the same time dependent upon Nature or the Eco
System that they inhabit in the overall Environment as well as interdependent upon each
other for survival. However, there exist numerous and often deleterious affect causing human
and pest interventions that must be rationally and sustainably managed on a sustained or self
sustaining basis in order to perpetuate the Bioenvironment and avoid breakdown. Homo
Technicalis has the ability to either nurture or destroy this delicate balance. Only complete
understanding and careful monitoring can ensure correct and proper Bioenvironmental
Management.

a) Surface & Rooftop Water Harvesting: As underlying water is saline and surface is
impervious and extremely hard (Clay content) there will be a requirement of small ponds
with reed mat (Mazri) covering to prevent evaporation and plastic lining wherever required as
mostly the surface is impervious. The British WWII Rainwater Harvesting site on Jivni
Airport is presently now disused and in a state of disrepair. The Rainwater Harvesting facility
is extensive and was highly successful. The plant can be made operational at very little cost
to provide water to Jivni City. Small Dams need to be introduced as there is great potential
from seasonal and some flowing water Bodies such as Dasht River near the Iranian Border.
Intervention of Surface Water Harvesting can be made effective by the following low-
cost structure:

Elaborate Surface Rainwater Harvesting Structures:

Jivni Airport: WWII
Surface & Rooftop Water Harvesting:
Surface Water Harvesting:

40
 Roof-Top Water Harvesting

b) Polyacralamide (PAM), Water Gel Crystals & Hydro Seed Mulching: Restriction
of soil erosion and run off by vegetation cover and other interventions is sadly lacking and
will be addressed by this Project. The use of PAM along with Hydro Seed Mulching should
prove to be a valuable intervention, especially during Wet Cycle to establish plantation.
Water Gel Crystals is a water-absorbing polymer that expands over 400%. Reduces irrigation
requirement and costs, cuts plant watering in half and reduces plant stress. When the three are
combined and used during Wet Cycles there is every possibility of successful plantation on
wide scale with minimum cost and labor.

Hydro Mulch Seeding:

There are reasons hydro seeding works so well. The seed is suspended in a nutrient
rich slurry. The contact of the seed with the water in the machine triggers the germination
cycle. The mulch layer seals in the moisture, and holds the soil in place. The seed is at an
ideal depth for good results. The conditions are right to produce luxuriant vegetation in a very
short time.

c) Windbreaks: Suited trees and bushes will be identified to create windbreaks along
the coast.

d) Dune Stabilization: There is a pressing need to undertake this exercise as dunes are
spreading and have done so for many years.

e) Afforestation: Where ever possible attempts for reforestation must be undertaken.

Aerial seeding needs to be given another chance with addition of pre-germination; hormone
and nutrient doping of seed including polymer coating is advised for trials. It is possible to
increase survival rates if Hydro seed mulching and aerial foliar nutrient support is provided
during establishment phase. The wet cycles need to be used as aerial seeding was carried out

41
previously in Baluchistan during dry cycle. There exists strong possibility of planting trees
along roads and water courses. Rainwater harvesting ponds and pitcher burying can
contribute to this. The following will be adopted:
 Establishment of forest nurseries.
 Regeneration of endangered species.
 Restricted use of endangered forest species.
 Selection of appropriate plant species for cultivation along roadsides.
 Propagation of Accacia sp for firewood and fodder.
 Aerial seeding including Natural Hormone (Rooting & Fruiting) Seed
Treatment.

f) Municipal Solid & Liquid Waste Management/ Waste Water Gardens: There is
tremendous scope for this intervention in all minor towns of the Makran Coast (Ormara,
Pasni, Gawadar and Jivni). Water can be recycled and Composting can be practiced on
relatively large scale. Polluted water resources of the Hub river at downstream side at coastal
line could be used to promote agriculture activities through using bio-remediation techniques.
It is estimated that a community of 10,000 people can generate 40-acre inches of
sewage effluent per day or an equivalent of 1 million gallons of wastewater.

g) Water: Construction of mini dams on rivers would prove to the single most effective
intervention. The Dasht River near the Iran border is one such example. Introduction of
Rodkhoi system in small hills, gullies and depressions will be of immense value.

h) Wetlands: Large scale plantation of Mangroves for Coast and Sand Dune stabilization
will be established and existing efforts will be supplemented, target minimum 200,000
hectares.
“Mangrove habitat and environmental functions are critically important to the
delta/coastal ecosystem. They offer:
 A nursery habitat for fish, shrimp, crabs, and mollusks, which is very
important to coastal and marine fisheries.
 Higher biodiversity, compared to un-vegetated coastal areas, including
indigenous animal populations, as well as migratory birds.
 Sustainable source of fuel wood, construction wood, and fodder for livestock.
 Food source for goats and sheep.
 Absorption of excessive amounts of nutrients and contaminants.
 Protection against erosion (reduction of wave energy).
 Opportunities for other economic activities, such as honey production,
ecotourism, etc.”8
The following procedure will be adopted.
 Collections of propagules from existing stands and transfer to Nurseries.
 Tissue Culture of Appropriate varieties of Mangroves.
 Planting along tidal creeks and Inland sea fringe.
 Management for a minimum period of 5 years to ensure survival.

8
Sindh Coastal and Inland Community Development Project, Pakistan ANZDEC 2006

42
 Destroyed Mangrove:

New Plantation at Keti Bunder:

i) Pollution Control: All out efforts will be made to establish strict pollution control. This
will hold for Beaches as well as roads and parks.

j) Wildlife
 Develop drinking water ponds.
 Planting of browsing shrubs.
 Implement of protection measures.

k) EcoTourism: Hingol National Park is the estuary of Hingol River. Plantations on large
scale will support biodiversity. The park can be developed for Eco-Tourism. Some other
tourist’s sites are: Nani Mandir Shrine of Devi Hinglaj (holiest among the 51 Shakti Peeths of
Hinduism) and Kund Malir Beach. Small Islands and Marine Biology is also a potential
source of Ecotourism and resultant increase of income to the locals of the area.
Microbiological and Biodiversity Study tours for School, College and University students is
also called for.

l) Alternate Energy:
 Salt-Gradient, Solar Ponds: This intervention can be used on Saline water for
harvesting fresh water and harnessing energy through the use of Rankine Engines.One Kg of
salt can supply as much electricity and three times as much heat as a Kg of coal burned in a
combustor. This results from varying salinity gradient given to a pond providing a vertical
density difference which allows heat to be trapped and store solar energy. Artificial Salt-
Gradient, Solar Ponds provide thermal energy to:

43
  Heat Buildings.
 Drive Industrial Processes.
 Generate Electricity.
 Desalt Water.
 Power Cooling Systems.
A 7,000 sq. m. Pond provides 35 KW in Summers and 15 KW in Winter, with a peak
of 150 KW.
Factors to Determine Effectiveness:
 Availability of Low-Cost land, salt and water or saline water.
 Favorable climate conditions: Sunny days and high temperatures.
 Favorable ground conditions, soil impervious to heat and water and lack of
moving groundwater with no nearby drinking water source.
 Low price compared to other energy sources.
Saline Water:

Evaporation Pond Solar Gradient Pond

 Solar:
i) Active: Photovoltaics: Local roadside hotels are consuming Rs. 600.00 per day
for generators to power 6-10 bulbs (600Watts/ 1 KW). This totals Rs.
219,000.00 per annum excluding cost of generator and repairs. Solar panels
will prove to be economically feasible. At a guaranteed life of 20 years cost
against minimum Rs.4.4 million (Diesel at current rates plus Genset cost,
excluding repairs) the intervention appears to be very feasible.
This is all the more true for Hybrid Active/ Passive Solar combined
with Wind Systems.

i) Passive: Presently the fish industry is using salt from sea water by filling in
surface tanks and allowing evaporation. The process can be speeded up
with 4 mm Plastic sheets (double) to increase heat. Secondly drinking
water can be collected from the plastic as it can be designed to act as
collectors.

ii) Solar Still:

44
 Small Wind Mills: Small Wind Generators (500 W to 1 KW) can be easily
introduced and will prove to be very successful as evidenced by a few such installations.
Wind Pumps are also of great potential.

Wind Pump: Wind Generator:

 Small Bio-Gas Plants for Poultry Droppings: There is ample scope for increasing
the intervention of Poultry Farms and hatcheries as well as provision of small Alternate
Energy Incubators to indigent families. A useful intervention is provision of small Bio-Gas
plants to existing and all future Poultry farms. This would not only provide energy to the
Operators but would also curtail environmental pollution from Poultry manure and allied
spread of disease vectors. A valuable Bio-Fertilizer would be produced for Horticulture and
Mushroom production.

45
m. Earth Sheltered, Earthquake/ Tsunami Proof, Super Insulation
Construction: This intervention is essential for the poor people living in reed mat huts and at
the mercy of the elements. In the light of Global Warming it is all the more critical.

n. Desalinization Plants:

This particular system produces, 350 M3 (92,470 US Gallons) of high quality potable
water from seawater containing up to 40,000 PPM TDS in 24 hours. Other specifications are
readily available.

o. Ozone Generator: This system of water purification for drinking purposes is superior
to other systems as “Living Water” is maintained according to time of exposure. Reverse
Osmosis tends to eliminate everything from water leaving it devoid of nutrition.

46
  

Agri/ Horti/ Aqua Culture

Livestock & Range
Management:
a) Biosaline Agriculture Technology
 Establishment of Nurseries/ Tissue Culture
Laboratories:
 Support and Training for Livestock
 Cultivation of Salt Tolerant Economic Crop Varieties
on Marginally Saline Areas
 Other Technical Inputs to be Made Available under
the Project for Farmers
 Supply of Farm Inputs at Farmer’s Fields
 Rights on the Produce
 Program Setup
 Technical parameters and technology transfer
aspects:
 Extension:
 Farmers:
 Crops:

b) Compost & Environment/ Predator Protected

Kitchen Gardens:
c) Aquaponics/ Barrelponics:
d) Poultry:
e) Mushroom Kulla:
f) Fish:
 Setting up of Aquaculture Farms
 Inland Mariculture:
 Agri Overview  Fisheries Sector in Pakistan

47
4. Agri/ Horti/ Aqua Culture Livestock & Range Management: The existing Food
Chains and Webs need to be reinforced and replenished in order to ensure health and
continued functioning.
The vital human requirements for food, water, and air cannot be left to the mercy of
ruthless, short sighted and short-term exploitation that leaves death, destruction, and
permanent loss in its wake!
The existing agriculture in the area can be described as “low input – low output”, of
the Khushk Aaba and Sailaba variety. This is due to minimization of risks for the poor
farmers in case of erratic rainfall. Marketing system is dominated by the ‘middlemen’ leading
to poor quality inputs at exorbitant prices. Coupled with inequitable sharecropping
arrangements, this system cannot be classified even as subsistence agriculture.
Over 5.7 million hectares of Pakistan’s lands are salt affected and 2.4 million hectares
are highly saline according to the Soil Survey of Pakistan. In over 25% of the Indus basin the
water table has risen to 2 metres below the soil surface, resulting in 40,000 hectares of land
being lost annually to both these problems. In some areas it has gone up to 1 metre. Badin
District in Sindh Province has a concentration of large lakes locally known as Dhands. These
interconnected shallow lakes used to provide livelihood to a large community of fishermen
known as Mallahs. The Left bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) is presently passing through two of
these lakes and adding large quantities of Saline water. This has resulted in the near
destruction of the livelihood of these fisher folk. As the project is concentrating upon Salinity
affected areas and is introducing saline resistant varities of crops, it has been determined to
present new sources of livelihood in accordance with changed physical conditions of the area.
In all the intervention areas focus will be upon poor and vulnerable households with
emphasis upon provision of livelihood opportunities. Livestock is a major livelihood source
for many of the poor with 70% HHs having possession of some kind of livestock. As such the
intervention of growing saline resistant fodder crops will definitely serve to ameliorate the
poverty of the most vulnerable HHs. Similarly, composting will also provide a source of
livelihood and also serve as valuable input to the soil. Low cost; low energy Cold Stores will
be emplaced to preserve the produce of the locals whether they are fish or vegetables.
Modern research has identified more than 1500 plant species that have high levels of
tolerance to salinity. Some of these are able to withstand salt concentrations in excess of
those- found in seawater. These plants (trees, shrubs, grasses and herbs) are major resources
that can be used in the development of agricultural systems for salt affected soils. These
plants can act as a form of biological drainage. In addition, there are opportunities to increase
the salt tolerance of existing crops using conventional plant breeding and molecular
biological approaches.

Biosaline Agriculture Technology

Various establishments of PARC possess sufficient expertise and infrastructure in the
form of scientific & technical trained manpower for undertaking interventions for
economically utilizing salt affected wastelands. The main objective of this project is to
introduce Biosaline Agriculture Technology, which has been developed over the last two
decades, to the farming community and also help in its implementation. For this purpose
some of the interventions are listed below:

 Establishment of Nurseries/ Tissue Culture Laboratories:

In order to provide salt tolerant plant species, establishment of nurseries is absolutely
essential. The plant species will include different grasses, which may be used as forage. Salt
tolerant fast growing trees having some economic value and shrubs, which can also be used

48
as animal feed and fuel. The choice of different plant species will depend on the ecology and
soil characteristics of that particular site. These nurseries will be established in participation
with the community so that the sustainability and ownership of the activities are ensured.
Regular training courses will be held for the farmers to enable them to grow such plant
species and also become aware of different agronomic practices required for this purpose.
Technical people either recruited specifically for this purpose or already available with the
collaborating institutions will carry out monitoring of this activity.
Micro Propagation of the following can prove to be extremely beneficial for Coastal
Area development:
 Salicornia (Salicornia europaea).
 Jathropha curicas.
 Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis).
 Castor Oil (Ricinus communis).

 Support and Training for Livestock

Introduction of livestock will be major activity and a comprehensive support in regard
to animal husbandry, disease vaccination and animal nutrition will be provided to the
community so that all the salt tolerant varieties and other feeds produced on their saline land
would be effectively utilized.
 Cultivation of Salt Tolerant Economic Crop Varieties on Marginally Saline
Areas
A large number and variety of salt tolerant varieties of fodder vegetables and trees
have been identified to be planted in these areas. Some of the species are mentioned as
below:
# Name # Name
1 Saline Ginger 43 Coriander Victory
2 Saline Rice 44 Chinese Coriander Yizhihua Seed
3 Maize White F1 45 yellow Carrot S.H Seeds
4 Maize Mixed color 46 Red carrot S. H seeds
5 Green Bean 47 Red Radish
6 Long Red Beans 48 Green Radish
7 Long green Beans 49 Green and Red Turnip
8 Long Big Beans 50 Green Egg Plant
9 Long Red Beans 70-80 51 Green Egg Plant
10 Onion 52 Black Egg Plant
11 Cabbage 53 Big Cabbage
12 Chinese Garlic Chives 54 Vegetable Melon
13 Noodles Melon 55 oil vegetable
14 Cucumber 56 Hybrid sun flower seed
15 Red Chillies 8819 57 Big Sweet Melon
16 Red Chilies 58 Small Sweet Melon
17 Shimla Chillies Medium 59 San Melon
18 Shimla ChilliesSmall 60 White Turnip
19 Shimla Chillies Long 61 White Turnip H.S Seeds
20 Green and Red Chillies Long 62 white Melon
21 Red and Green Shimla Chillies 63 Qin Ju jisi tang Chinese Vegetable 309
22 Beans 64 Tomato Seed 918
23 Pumpkin Yellow and Radish Hybrid F1 65 Tomato Seed 500

49
24 Long Sized pumpkin yellow 66 Tomato Kang Bing
25 King Pumpkin Brown 67 Gan Lan
26 Small pumpkin 68 Cucumber
27 Black pumpkin Small 69 Long Riddle Guord (tori)
28 Black pumpkin Big 70 Riddle Guord
29 White Dong Melon Pumpkin 71 Mint
30 Black Dong Melon Pumpkin 72 Hybrid Rice 125
31 Sesame Seed 73 Hybrid Rice 110
32 Salad202 74 Hybrid Rice 120
33 Salad H.C seeds 75 Hybrid Rice 938
34 Salad Qingxian 76 Hybrid Canola
35 Green salad H,C Seeds 77 Hybrid Cotton Seed 5 F1
36 Salad 78 Water Melon
37 Salad Tianjiao 79 Salicornia
38 White greem Salad( Celery) H.C seed 80 Asah Guord
39 Green Salad Shangaikang 81 Soya Bean
40 F1 hybrid fengang Chinese Cabbage 70 82 Saline Fodder
41 Hybrid Chinese Cabbage F1 first Wind 83 Coriander
42 Hybrid Chinese Cabbage of Zhenhaochi 84 Hybrid Chinese Cabbage Lettuce seed

 Other Technical Inputs to be Made Available under the Project for Farmers
o Provision of resources for land development.
o Provision of implements/ equipment

50
 o Large scale plantation of promising salt tolerant plant species and/ or trees.
o Preparation of technical bulletins in local languages and their wide spread
distribution in the project area.
o Evaluation of improvement in soil resource base and crop plant productivity in
different ecological situations in the project areas
o Assessment of the sustainability of the soil improvement and crop yield
enhancement.
o Performance evaluation of salt tolerant crop/ plant species introduced in
different ecological situations in project areas
o Holding of field days and demonstrations.
o Appraisal of the degree of technology package adoption by the entire farming
community in the project areas
o Economic analysis of different interventions tried in different ecological
regions of the project areas
o Study the impact and sustainability of soil improvement and brackish water
management technologies at the study sites
o Holding of National workshop highlighting Project performance
o Compilation of technical and production of popular bulletins

 Supply of Farm Inputs at Farmer’s Fields

The inputs to the farmers will be supplied free of cost for planting materials. The
fertilizer/chemicals/Compost/FYM will be applied at farmer’s fields on 50% basis by the
project and 50% by the farmers. Other farm inputs will be provided by the farmers to ensure
his ownership.

 Rights on the Produce

As this is a promotional program and most of the production factors/ inputs as lands,
water, labor and others belong to the farmers, the produce will be ultimately the property of
the participating farmers.

 Program Setup
The project envisages a participatory approach, which caters for the needs of
community especially small farmers who are most vulnerable and have lost considerable
income due to salinity. The design of the program requires very frequent interaction with the
target group according to their own convenience and therefore will not be bound by
constraints of office timings.

Salinity not only affects agriculture production but also leads to environmental
degradation and deterioration in the natural resource base. At present, around 6.5 million
hectares of land is salt affected and more than 70% of the tube wells in the country are
pumping brackish water. The most vulnerable of course are the poor, as they own only 0.27
acres per capita compared to 0.84 acres for the non-poor. Any deterioration in their natural
resource base like increasing salinity directly affects their productivity leaving them
progressively poorer.

One reason for increasing secondary salinity remains lack of adequate drainage
systems in the country Repeated applications of irrigation water in haphazard way over time
have led to water logging and salinity. This "twin menace" in Irrigated Agriculture is term
that is now accepted as "divine will" for which there were traditional solutions only. In the

51
past, the Government of Pakistan tried to solve this menace by introducing large scale
engineering solutions under the umbrella of SCARP (Salinity Control and Reclamation
Project) at a staggering cost throughout the irrigated areas. However, the SCARP project was
unable to achieve its objectives primarily because of want of recurrent maintenance and huge
O&M costs.

Historically, soil salinity contributed to the decline of several ancient civilizations.

Despite advanced technologies available today, every passing second an estimated 2000
square meters of arable land becomes wasteland due to salinization. Millions of hectares of
land are lost every year, reducing crop productivity severely worldwide. With changing
times, there is now ample scientific evidence available which show alternate solutions to the
problems of salinity. For example, new salt tolerant varieties of plants, fodders etc. have been
developed internationally and are available for replication. One approach that is now
internationally recognized is to grow salt tolerant plants rather than reclaim the soil to grow
conventional crops. This biological approach involves screening and selection of highly salt
tolerant plant species/varieties from the naturally existing germplasm or from these
developed through breeding, wide hybridization and other biotechnological techniques and
then introducing the selected plants for increased plant establishment and productivity in salt
affected areas.

The PARC, Islamabad and other agricultural Institute like the PAEC, in collaboration
with various research institutions of Pakistan and international donor agencies are actively
involved in research programs that aim to develop and introduce salt tolerant species of
crops/trees and halophytic forage shrubs. These projects are therefore actively engaged in
research to reclaim salt affected lands by using bio-drainage technique and planting salt
tolerant plants.

Pakistani scientists are therefore doing pioneering research to develop innovative and
alternative approaches to Biosaline Agriculture. Their research aims at better use of salt
affected lands and brackish irrigation water on a sustained basis through integrated use of
genetic resources (plants, animals, fish and insects) and improved agricultural practices.

However, successful research is only a part of the solution. There is a need for its
adoption on a National scale. Adaptive research has never gained legitimacy because of a top
down approach. Its affects on ground in terms of adoption have always been marginal except
for big farmers while others have always remained outside its purview. This requires
investments in adaptive research, extension, social mobilization and capacity building and to
tackle the problem in a holistic manner in which poverty reduction becomes the center piece.

The emphasis therefore in the present proposal is to move away from large scale
engineering solutions to participatory community based solutions in areas that are affected by
salinity. The linchpin of this approach is to organize the communities and address the
problem of poverty in a holistic manner through an Asset based mechanism. The aim is to
introduce technology at the farm level that enables the farmers to economically utilize the salt
effected wastelands and brackish groundwater.

 Technical parameters and technology transfer aspects:

Biosaline agriculture can be defined as the use of genetic resources (plant, animal
fish, insects and micro-organisms) and improved agricultural practices to obtain profits from

52
salt affected land and irrigation water on a sustainable basis. It is a rich collection of possible
systems for the use of Biosaline resources. The components of these systems will vary
according to the needs of the farmers and the capabilities of the land and water.
Although Agriculture is a provincial subject, research, especially in Biosaline
agriculture technology is being done by National level institutes and Agriculture Universities
which are autonomous but have Provincial Governors as their Chancellors. Some of the
institutions include Pakistan Agriculture Research Council; Institutes working under the
auspices of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission namely Nuclear Institute of Agriculture
Tandojam, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology Faisalabad and Nuclear Institute of
Food and Agriculture, Peshawar.

In this project the research institutes mentioned will also be accessed to generate
research base knowledge and intervene where ever needed during the life of the project. For
this purpose financial and physical support may be provided to the institutes where deemed
necessary.

 Extension:
Extension work is the responsibility of the Provincial Agriculture Departments. The
work is done by extension workers who help the farmers by providing technical assistance,
inputs such as certified seeds, fertilizers, plant protection materials and knowledge about
timely irrigation. The capacity of the extension department is limited and consequently the
large farmers and the influentials are the main clients. Farmers at large are generally ignored.
Moreover, there continues to be a disconnect between research and its dissemination by
extension workers. The situation is even worse in the case of Biosaline Agriculture as this is a
new technology and most extension workers are unaware of it. In addition, since research is
being done at the National level, the extension workers are unwilling to take it to the farmers.

 Farmers:
Although the pace of salinization is increasing day by day the farmers, being the end
users, have no knowledge about available technologies that can mitigate the looming crises of
secondary salinization. This phenomenon affects small farmers with limited land holdings
more acutely, leading to low yields and thereby increasing poverty.

 Crops:
Scientists have been working on the basis that soil is not just a mass of dead
chemicals but is a living system harboring numerous chemical and biological processes and is
in constant interaction with multiple environmental factors. The Biosaline-sodic soils have an
excess of sodium, are impermeable to water, have little or no organic matter and are
biologically almost dead. Based on these assumptions, Sandhu and Malik (1975) proposed
planting starting from highly salt tolerant plants followed by lesser salt tolerant plants. This
strategy has been termed as Biological Approach for utilization of salt affected soils (Malik
1978). In this scheme, leptochloa fusca (Kallar grass), being highly salt tolerant to salinity
(Sandhu et. al. 1981) and sodicity (Ahmad et. al. 1979) is used as primary colonizer for plant
establishment and biomass production on saline lands. Soil conditions also improve in the
process and less salt tolerant plants can be introduced. Introduction of a large variety of
Salinity Tolerant Crops by the PARC through the auspicious of various MOUs signed
between the Government of China and PARC through the personal interest of the Honorable
President of Pakistan have added tremendous capacity and scope of intervention to previously
limited crop alternates.

53
 Introduction of salt tolerant crops will provide a green cover and will improve the
environment for biological activity, increase organic matter and will help fertility. The
penetrating roots will provide crevices for downward movement of water and thus help
leaching of salts from the surface. The plant growth will also result in higher carbon dioxide
levels and would thus create acidic conditions in the soil that would dissolve the insoluble
calcium carbonate and will help exchange of sodium with calcium ions on the soil complex.
Further, the biomass produced could also be used as green manure, which will quicken the
lowering of pH and result in further release of ionic calcium. The soil structure, its
permeability, its biological activity and fertility could thus be restored and with extra
irrigation the surface salts could be leached down (Malik et. al. 1986)

A complete Biomelioration of the saline soil can be achieved if good irrigation water
for leaching the salts is available. However, irrigation water is already in a short supply for
existing arable lands in Pakistan and therefore its use for reclaiming the salt affected
wastelands is not feasible. In order to overcome this problem, brackish underground water
has been used for leaching the salts in the above described biological approach.

The permanent solution to the problem of soil salinity requires a comprehensive

drainage system to control the rising water table and leaching of salts with good quality
water. This drainage- leaching combination, being energy intensive and expensive, cannot be
applied on larger areas. The vast areas of saline land can not be reclaimed for growing
conventional crops due to several problems such as shortage of fresh water, lack of natural
gradient to sea, other climatic and environmental constraints and high capital costs.
Therefore, other alternate options to deal with the salinity problem are to be explored and
applied. One such alternate option — the Biological Approach aims at selection of salt
tolerant plants and growing selected plant species/varieties for increased plant establishment
and productivity in Biosaline areas using Saline ground water for irrigation.

Pakistan would thus have no option except to introduce Biosaline agriculture

technologies. In order to use this resource of water, it is imperative to develop crop varieties
having salt tolerance. In addition, the gravity of the problem and the decreasing availability of
fresh water warrants that instead of solving the problem through a project, a well concerted
holistic National program is started quickly.

However, it remains clear that despite these impressive achievements, there has been
farmer’s field adoption at a small scale. During implementation, it is also felt that the scale of
the problem is too large and multifaceted and that a project based approach would not be able
to address the issue on National scale.

 Compost & Environment/ Predator Protected Kitchen Gardens:

54
 Aquaponics/ Barrelponics: 9“This is the symbiotic cultivation of plants and aquatic
animals in a recirculating environment. Aquatic animal effluent (for example fish waste)
accumulates in water as a by-product of keeping them in a closed system or tank (for example
a recirculating aquaculture system). The effluent-rich water becomes high in plant nutrients
but this is correspondingly toxic to the aquatic animal. Plants are grown in a way (for
example a hydroponic system) that enables them to utilize the nutrient-rich water. The plants
take up the nutrients, reducing or eliminating the water's toxicity for the aquatic animal. The
water, now clean, is returned to the aquatic animal environment and the cycle continues.
Aquaponic systems do not discharge or exchange water. The systems rely on the relationship
between the aquatic animals and the plants to maintain the environment. Water is only added
to replace water loss from absorption by the plants, evaporation into the air, or the removal of
biomass from the system. Aquaponic systems vary in size from small indoor units to large
commercial units. They can use fresh or salt water depending on the type of aquatic animal
and vegetation.
For a low-cost Starting/ Training System, Barrelponics can be used instead. Here low-
cost Plastic barrels are recycled to create the same environment as used for Commercial or
medium Scale Aquaponics. This is the ideal remedy for areas with scarce water, as water is
recycled time and again, both saline as well as fresh water can be used. When coupled with a
Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System, the need to use scarce water resources is further
reduced.”
10
“Aquaponics is the integration of aquaculture (fish keeping) and hydroponic (soil
less) plant growth techniques.  It requires no soil and no chemicals to produce a vast and
large amount of fish, fruits and vegetables in a very small space.  Fish produce ammonia as
waste.  Bacteria convert that waste to nitrates used by the plants as the nutrient source.  The
water is recirculated to the fish clean and aerated.  Water consumption is lower and plant
density is usually at least twice that of soil based methods.  No pesticides can be used as they
would kill bacteria and fish in the system. Food produced is thereby pesticide free.
More than 50% of the waste produced by fish is in the form of ammonia, secreted
through the gills and in the urine. The remainder of the waste is excreted as fecal matter,
undergoes a process called mineralization which occurs when Heterotrophic bacteria
consumes fish waste, decaying plant matter and uneaten food, converting all three to
ammonia and other compounds. In sufficient quantities ammonia is toxic to plant and fish.
Nitrifying bacteria, which naturally live in the soil, water and air, convert ammonia first to
nitrite (Nitrosomonas bacteria) and then to nitrate (Nitrobacter) which the plants consume.
Nitrifying bacteria will thrive in the gravel beds and in the water in the system. The plants
readily take up the nitrites and nitrates in the water and, in consuming it, help to keep the
water clean and safe for the fish.”
The following crops have been successfully grown in Barrelponics by the developer
of this method: Tomatoes, onions, peppers (sweet and hot from bell to habanera), beans,
beets, broccoli, basil, cilantro, papaya, collards, cucumbers, carrots, lettuce, stevia, moringa,
dill, chard, okra, peas and parsley. All of the above had live Tilapia as a nutrient source, other
varieties of fish can be used.

9
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaponics
10
Travis W. Hughey

55
 Poultry: There are many Poultry farms consisting of low Mat Roofed Sheds with
open sides in the proximity of Karachi. This is probably due to availability of Market. There
are no hatcheries and day old chicks come from Karachi. Feed is provided by reject fish and
is available in plenty. There is a strong case for establishing Hatcheries and providing
Alternate Energy Incubators for small Poultry farming as a micro enterprise as well as
nutrition enhancement. This intervention is required all along the coast. There is a great need
of improving the Poultry Sheds to create better insulation for summers. Small Bio Gas Plants;
alternate energy incubators and Insulated Sheds have been designed for this purpose. Poultry
feed industry can be greatly enhanced due to ample availability of fish.

 Mushroom Kulla: Nutritional Food Security is of serious concern. With curtailed

fish catches even the fisher folk are facing problems.

56
 Fish:
Coastal Statistics, 2000 Pakistan Asia 11 World
Length of coastline (km) 2,599 288,459 1,634,701
Percent of population within 100 km of the coast 9% X 39%
Area of continental shelf (km2) 43,701 5,514,288 24,285,959
Territorial sea (up to 12 nautical miles) (km2) 31,388 5,730,868 18,816,919
Claimed Exclusive Economic Zone (km2) 201,520 11,844,193 102,108,403
Coastal Biodiversity and Protected Areas Data, 1990s
Area of Mangrove Forests (km2) 728 40,330 169,452
Percent of Mangrove forests protected 40% 27% 13%
Number of Mangrove Species 4 51 70
Number of Seagrass Species X 27 58
Number of Scleractinia Coral Genera X 79 X
International Legal Net Trade in Live Coral, X -773,430 X
1997 (number of pieces)
Number of Marine or Littoral Protected 3 831 3,636
Areas, 1999
Wetlands of International Importance, Extent 617 31,212 730,116
(km2), 2000
Fisheries Production Average Annual Capture
(excludes aquaculture) in metric tons:
Marine Fish, 2000 438,171 36,516,371 84,411,066
Mollusks and Crustaceans, 1997 43,316 7,959,125 12,055,801
Aquaculture Production (in metric tons): Total 12,485 41,305,773 45,715,559
(includes freshwater), 2000
Marine and Diadromous Fish, 1997 X 1,325,644 2,623,888
Mollusks and Crustaceans, 1997 X 8,677,590 9,889,688
Aquatic Plants, 1997 X 7,123,694 7,241,754
Fish Consumption and Trade, 2000
Per Capita Food Supply from Fish and Fishery 3 18 1612
Products (kg/person)

11
Excluding the Middle East.
12
Coastal and Marine Ecosystems—Pakistan EarthTrends.
© EarthTrends 2003. All rights reserved. Fair use is permitted on a limited scale and for educational purposes.

57
 Pakistan has a total coastline of 1,090 km and a total fishing area of approximately
300,000 sq. kms. Pakistan’s fishing waters are termed as highly rich in marine life with a vast
variety of species having commercial value. However, this potential is not reflected in the
export earning from fisheries sector. The exports of “Fish and Fish Preparation” were at
$134.5 million (with a volume of 93,214 tons) in 2002-03. (Source: EPB)

This situation was mainly attributed to unorganized nature of private sector, lack of
focus in Government policies and little institutional investment (in public and private sector
projects) in this sector.

Pakistan’s exports of fishery products stand at about 0.25% of world exports. A rough
estimate based on maximum sustainable yield figures, existing value addition, and foreign
benchmarks, puts our total export potential from this sector at around US$ 1.0 billion from
existing natural resources. If we include the high potential area of aquaculture, our fisheries
sector can yield even higher export earnings.

Pakistan’s domestic consumption is termed as one of the lowest in the world, at 1.6 kg
per person per year (compared to world average of 16.2 kg per person per year). Hence, most
of the produce is exported. There is a great dependence on a few species for exports, with
very little value addition. Most of the fish catch is from marine sources, which comprises
about 70% of total fish exports. Pakistan exports fish mainly to Europe, US, Japan and
Middle-Eastern countries.

On the coast of Pakistan, there are more than 30 species of shrimps, 10 species of
crabs, 5 species of lobster and about 70 commercial species of fish including sardine, Hilsa,
shark, Mackerel, Butterfish, Pomfret, Sole, Tuna, sea bream, Jew fish and Cat Fish, Shark,
and Eel. Marine fishing is undertaken from right beyond the coast to 200 nautical miles into
the sea. The distance has been divided into two broad categories for fishing known as: (1)
Coastal water fishing, and (2) Deep-sea fishing. Deep Sea is further divided in two zones.
The distances specified are: up to 12 nautical miles termed as coastal water fishing, 12 to 35
nautical miles is Zone I and 35 to 200 nautical miles is Zone II. Coastal water fishing is done
in the villages along the coast that are predominately inhabited by fisherman whose main
livelihood is fishing.

Major share of marine catch is within 12 nautical miles from the coast, as most of the
boats are small with little catching and preserving equipment on board. This reduces the catch
per boat and therefore increases the cost of fish per kg. Zone I (12 to 35 nautical miles)
although reserved for local fisherman remains under-utilized for paucity of modern boats
equipped with necessary gadgets for catch and preservation. The area between 35 to 200
nautical miles declared as Zone II is reserved for foreign as well as Pakistani vessels, which
operate under license from the Government of Pakistan. The catch in zone II is very nominal
and therefore it remains to be exploited. Foreign vessels have been found to operate in Zone
II without license from the Government and even enter into Zone I in with collaboration with
local firms.

2) Setting up of Aquaculture Farms

Model Aquaculture farms, using saline water, will be setup at the project sites. This
activity is based on the experience and knowledge accumulated at different demonstration
sites where different fish species have been screened which are most suitable for such farms

58
and can be fed on salt tolerant grass. The trainings and economic feasibility for such
interventions will be carried out for the benefit of interested farmers.

Fishing is the major occupation of the population of the coastal belt. Some people has started
to develop micro enterprises related to fishing, such as boat making, net making, converting
sea water into salt as preservative and fish processing for export. Boat making industry has
been established in Pasni and Gwadar area to meet the local need. Interviews of two groups
of boat makers in Pasni found more than 100 workers deployed in this particular enterprise.
The Fisheries Department is demanding evacuation of workshop sites. The matter is sub-
judice in the High Court of Balochistan.

 Inland Mariculture:
Secondary salinization has rendered over 100 million hectares of land throughout the
world unsuitable for conventional agriculture. The utilization of salinized land and its
associated water resources for mariculture is an adaptive approach to this environmental
problem with many potential economic, social and environmental benefits. Despite this,
inland mariculture is yet to develop into an industrial-scale, rural enterprise.

The following terms are used for varying salinity levels: Hyperosmotic (45 ppt), near-
isosmotic (15 ppt) and hyposmotic (5 ppt) salinities.

Static ponds largely overcome the issues associated with the disposal of salt-laden and
eutrophied waste water; however yields from static ponds are typically low and limited by the
nutrient input into the pond. new culture technology known as the Semi-Intensive Floating
Tank System (SIFTS) has been developed. This technology was designed to reduce nutrient
input into ponds by the collection of settleable wastes and to provide large volumes of well-
oxygenated water to the target species, to ameliorate the loss of fish from low dissolved
oxygen during strong micro-algal blooms. It is well documented that saline groundwater is
deficient in potassium which, depending on the extent of the deficiency, can negatively
impact on the performance of marine species, including fish.

In addition to on-growing fish, saline groundwater has potential for hatchery

production. Specific advantages include the vertical integration of inland saline farms and the
production of disease-free certified stock through isolation from the pathogens and parasites
found naturally in coastal water.

Agri Overview  Fisheries Sector in Pakistan13

 Population along the coastal line is overwhelmingly dependant on fish catching and
mainly work as labor. The earnings are already meager and are reducing drastically because
of the use of modern nets by well equipped deep sea trawlers. Improving sources of
livelihoods will be emphasized through the following interventions.
 Installation of pre-fabricated Jetties (Aluminum).
 Training and Provision of facilities for Fiberglass Boat Building.
 Local production of Fishing Nets.
 Establishment of EC Standards Fish Processing & Export Units.
 Prawn and Fish culture of high priced species promoted through involving
fishermen of the coastal area.
 Development of quality standards to exploit European markets.
13
Courtesy: The Nation

59
  Legislation for use of recommended nets.
 Restrict over exploitation of endangered fish species.
 Banning fishing in hatching periods.
 Plantation of Mangroves for promotion of shrimp population along sea shore.
 Prevention of Pollution as Mercury concentrations in ten fish species
harvested from twenty sites in the South West Coast of Pakistan, are reported.
The following fish, within a limited weight range, were included in this study:
Picnic seabream, Indian scad, Indian ariomma, Bigeye scad, Threadfins,
Cornet fish, Lefteye flounder, Gold band goatfish, Smooth dwarf monocle
bream and Half-mourning coraker. Comparative estimations were also made
of mercury content in marine water from various sites. Statistical correlations
based on the metal distribution were evolved on the basis of fish-to-site and
fish-to-fish to provide evidence for the observed mercury concentrations in
relation to sites and species. The minimum mercury concentration was
encountered in Picnic seabream (X = 0.046 μg/g, wet weight) and the
maximum concentration (X = 0.269 μg/g, wet weight) in Cornet fish. The
present data were compared with the corresponding data on the concentrations
of mercury in some common fish species in addition to prawn, crab and squid
from the polluted area along the coastal line of the Arabian Sea, India. The
study reflected mercury pollution of the local marine environment. Mercury
concentrations in ten fish species from the Arabian Sea, Pakistan.14 

14
Jaleel Tariq;M. Jaffar Department of Chemistry, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

60
 Enterprise:
a) Micro Investment Plans:

b) Micro Credit:

c) Local Industry:

d) Maritime Industry:
 Ship Building:

e) Establishment of EC
Standards Fish Processing
& Export Units:

f) White Clay:
61
5. Enterprise: Environmentally sound Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise is the only
way forward for progress. As Female populations cross the 50% mark and projected
populations for 2015 show that local populations will consist of 50% under the age of 15, it is
very important that uplift programs be designed that are Gender Sensitive and ensure a
growing economy to meet the needs of underage population groups. The 21st Century has
brought along many challenges and also opportunities. It is imperative that 21 st Century
Approaches, Mechanisms and Inputs be used in order to support a burgeoning population and
replenish badly degraded Natural Resources.

a) Micro Investment Plans:

Preparation of Micro Investment plan to devise the future plan / strategy for
individual households will be carried out. These MIPS will provide information on the
resources of the CO member; gap in optimum utilization of available resources; his/ her
capacity to generate resources; aspiration of the members and the type of support she/he will
require to increase their resource base. On the basis of that information, by assessing the
potential capacity, innate capabilities and tendencies and inherent preferences of an
individual, an income generation micro plan would be evolved.
Special programs to train landowners and tenants to enable them to undertake the role
of technology transfer agents and linking them with the formal agricultural extension system
are also planned. These will be carried out by identifying progressive farmers and/ or activists
from within the communities who will then be trained in technical skills especially regarding
Biosaline agriculture technology and other natural resource management activities like
agriculture, livestock, forestry, bee keeping, aquaculture etc. All these technical training
would be conducted with support from the R&D institutions under all technical
organizations. Some literate village youths will be identified, trained and placed as animators
in the fields of enterprise development and vocational trades, especially in the field of value
addition of the local production and provision of services at local level.

b) Micro Credit
There are a number of activities that directly involves financial capacities of the rural
communities. One major constraint in adoption of Biosaline agriculture technology is
communities’ lack of financial resources. As part of the planning exercise, the CO members
will identify various income generating activities including the activities suggested/ proposed
by the scientists/ professionals regarding Biosaline agriculture technology for which
community members will need financial assistance. For micro level activities including
agriculture inputs, livestock, fisheries, bee keeping, aquaculture or small enterprise, the credit
facility will be extended to the CO members.

c) Containerized Factory & Hand Line Canning: Configured & Pre-Installed:

 Marmalade; Tomato Paste; Ketchup; Fruit Pulp; Pure Juices; Nectars;
Concentrates & Baby Food.
 Edible Oil Processing Plants.
 Milling Plants.
 Milk Products.

62
  Fodder Pellets.
 Slaughtering/ Rendering Plants.
 Vegetables Processing/ Freezing/ Packing.
 Ice Blocks/ Flakes Plant.
 Mineral Water & Honey Plants.

f) Pilot Community Based Production Project:

Projects for Spinning, Mat and Carpet Weaving, Bed Linen Production, Bridal
Dresses, etc. through Provision of Training/ Equipment/ Raw material and Collective
Marketing.

g) Local Industry: This consists mainly of near coast fishing, as such Boat making and
Net finishing is practiced. Fish exported consists of Sole and Mackerel. There is a need to
transfer Fiber Glass Boat making expertise for which Turkey can be approached as it is pre
eminent in this regard. Fish processing is present on small scale and this can be enlarged.
Deep Sea Fishing Trawlers can be introduced successfully. Net Making should be introduced
locally as there is very little evidence as such. Half finished nets are brought from Karachi.
Eco Tourism has been introduced by the Pakistan Wetlands in Gawadar area and this can be
extended. Vehicle repair is also a small industry of some significance. Fish drying is carried
out and Brine/ Salt are extracted from Sea Water. The local practice can be improved by use
of Passive Solar practices. Passive Solar Stills can be introduced for drinking water or even at
large scale.

h) Maritime Industry:
The bifurcation of sea boats in local term is as follows:

63
  Kuti, a small boat with no engine used for fish transportation from large ship to
harbour. The large ships stay a certain distance from the shore.
 Tarsht, a small speed boat used for fishing for small time period. The same boat can
be used for bring goods and passengers from deep sea to shore.
 Yakdar, A small engine operated boat used for fishing, having capacity to carry goods
and fish storage capacity for a week or so. Most of them are used for fishing, goods
and passenger transportation. The estimated cost as reported by the local fishermen is
around 3.5 to 5 lacs.
 Galate, a medium ship having 30 to 35HP motor used for fishing in the deep sea. The
ship has carrying capacity of ten fishermen’s food cold storage fish for 2 to 3 months.
The cost varies from 10 to 15 lacs.
 Launch comes under locally made, large ships used for fishing in the deep sea and
goods transportation. The cost reported goes up to 100 lacs. The life reported around
25 years depending upon proper maintenance.
 Cargo is the largest ship used for a large quantity of goods transportation all over the
world.

 Ship Building:
Medium, modern plant facilities and metal working machinery will enable us to build
both medium and small vessels. Vessels up to 50 m. in length should be built completely
inside under heated/ cooled, environmentally controlled conditions, while larger vessels can
be built in sub-sections and assembled on building berths outside. These facilities should be

64
strategically laid out to afford smooth through-put flow of materials and components from
delivery to inspection and stocking to preparation and incorporation into the vessels
allocated.
Systems and installations are pre-engineered before work is put in hand. This
alleviates discretionary work habits during construction and provides the customer with an
efficient and professional "purpose" built vessel, ensuring layouts are functional and
appearance is eye appealing.
Close communication kept between estimating, design, administration and
production staff will ensure timely and effective problem solving without interrupted
production. What this means to the customer is a quality product built and delivered on time;
at the best, most competitive price possible.

i) Establishment of EC Standards Fish Processing & Export Units.

15
The proper design and arrangement of the processing plant greatly influence food
production hygiene. Council Directive 89/392/EEC of 14 June 1989 (EEC 1989) on
regulations concerning machinery safety and hygiene contains the following most important
requirements:
 Machinery containing materials intended to come in contact with food must be
designed and constructed so that these materials can be cleaned each time they
are used
 All surfaces and joints must be smooth, with no ridges or crevices that could
harbor organic materials
 Assembly must be designed so as to minimize projections, edges and recesses;
they should be constructed by welding or continuous bonding, with screws,
screw heads and rivets used only where technically unavoidable
 Contact surfaces must be easy to clean and disinfect, and be built with easily
dismantled parts; inside surfaces must be curved so as to allow thorough
cleaning
 Liquid derived from foods, and cleaning, disinfecting and rinsing fluids should
be easy to discharge from machinery
 Machinery must be designed and constructed to prevent liquids or living
creatures - primarily insects - from entering and accumulating in areas that
cannot be cleaned
 Machinery must be designed and constructed to avoid ancillary substances,
such as lubricants, coming into contact with food

Proper layout and designs should ensure an uninterrupted and "straight line" process
flow, and should meet other requirements listed below (Shapton and Shapton, 1991):
 All functions should avoid zigzagging and backtracking
 Visitors should move from unclean to clean areas
 Conditioned (chilled) air and drainage should flow from clean to unclean areas
 The flow of discarded outer packing material should not cross the flow of
either unwrapped ingredients or finished product
 There should be sufficient space for plant operations including processing,
cleaning and maintenance; space is also required for movement of materials
and pedestrians

15
Fisheries and Aquaculture Department: FAO

65
  Operations are separated as necessary. There are clear advantages in
minimizing the number of interior walls since this simplifies the movement of
materials and employees, simplifies supervision, and reduces the area of walls
that needs cleaning and maintenance.

Personal hygiene is a most important element of health quality assurance in a fish

processing plant. According to Thorpe (1992) the essential requirements for personnel
working in production area and stores are those mentioned below:
1. Protective clothing, footwear and headgear issued by the company must be worn
and must be changed regularly. When considered appropriate by management, a fine
hairnet must be worn in addition to the protective headgear provided. Hair clips and
grips should not be worn. Visitors and contractors must comply with this regulation.
2. Protective clothing must not be worn off the site and must be kept in good condition.
If it is in poor condition the supervisor should be informed immediately.
3. Beards must be kept short and trimmed, and a protective cover worn when considered
appropriate by management.
4. Nail varnish, false nails and make up must not be worn in production areas.
5. False eyelashes, wrist watches and jewellery (except wedding rings or the national
equivalent, and sleeper earrings) must not be worn.
6. Hands must be washed regularly and kept clean at all times.
7. Personal items must not be taken into production areas unless carried in inside
overall pockets (handbags, shopping bags must be left in the locker provided).
8. Food and drink must not be taken into, or consumed in areas other than the tea bars
and the staff restaurant.
9. Sweets and chewing gum must not be consumed in production areas.
10. Smoking or taking snuff is forbidden in food production, warehouse and distribution
areas where 'No Smoking' notices are displayed.
11. Spitting is forbidden in all areas of the site.
12. Superficial injuries (cuts, grazes, boils, sores and skin infections) must be reported to
the medical unit or nurse via the supervisor and clearance obtained before entering
production areas.
13. Dressings must be waterproof and contain a metal strip as approved by the medical
unit.
14. Infectious diseases (including stomach disorders, diarrhea, skin conditions and
discharge from eyes, nose or ears) must be reported to the medical unit or nurse via
the supervisor. This also applies to staff returning from travel abroad where there
could be a risk of infection.
15. All staff must report to medical unit on return from both certified and
uncertified sickness.

66
j) White Clay: There are many uses for this natural product. Kaolin (white dirt) is used
medically to treat diarrhea, dysentary, cholera, and is also used in paper making, paint,
fiberglass, porcelains and ceramics, china, and toothpaste. Some of the most popular products
made with kaolin (white dirt) are Kaopectate, Rolaids, Di-gel, Mylanta, and Maalox.
White Dirt (kaolin) has also been used as a natural, chemical free shampoo.
Kaolin is used in ceramics, medicine, coated paper, as a food additive, in toothpaste, as a
light diffusing material in white incandescent light bulbs, and in cosmetics. It is generally the
main component in porcelain.
Kaolinite has also seen some use in organic farming, as a spray applied to crops to deter
insect damage, and in the case of apples, to prevent sun scald.
Composition (Source of Nutrients):
SiO2% Al2O3% Fe2O3% TiO2% CaO% MgO% K2O% NaO% MnO%
52±2 45±2 ≤0.5 ≤0.8 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.004

Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating raw materials, generally including

clay in the form of kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 °C (2,192 °F) and
1,400 °C (2,552 °F). The toughness, strength, and translucence of porcelain arise mainly from
the formation of glass and the mineral mullite within the fired body at these high
temperatures.

67
 Porcelain is used to make table, kitchen, sanitary, and decorative wares; objects of
fine art; and tiles. Its high resistance to the passage of electricity makes porcelain an excellent
insulator. Dental porcelain is used to make false teeth, caps, crowns and veneers.
Glazing: Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do not need glazing to
render them impermeable to liquids and for the most part are glazed for decorative purposes
and to make them resistant to dirt and staining.

k) Sea Salt: Simple Salt production for fish preservation is carried out by using solar
evaporation method to get salt. More than twenty sites near the sea are running this business.
The project will facilitate local production through scientific interventions.

l) Marketing Cooperatives: Formation of marketing cooperatives and installation of

small processing units would further link the coastal areas communities to National
and International markets for promoting new avenues of income and employment.

Thus the Project will serve as an introduction to On-Farm and Off-Farm Development
and is not restricted to Agriculture/ Horticulture alone. This is important as increased
agricultural produce will provide many sources for value addition and serve as a means of
livelihood to the landless and dispossessed.

68
 Research

&

Development:

69
6. Research & Development:
 Development of detailed baseline information for development of multi-
pronged working strategy.
 Hand line canning for low-cost canning to preserve food stuffs and export
local produce.
 Promotion of Indigenous vegetations.
 Conservation of endangered species.
 Exploration of local vegetations for their medicinal value.
 Scientific Soil and Water sampling and analysis.
 Identification of indigenous plant species capable of bioremediation.
 Site specific plantations.
 Exploring native shrubs useful for Bio-fuel.
 Food security.
 Employment generation.
 Development of a network of stakeholders for coordinated work with shared
objectives.
 Tissue Culture Laboratory: In the highly competitive Global market,
developing Countries cannot maintain sustained economic growth due to poor
technology, infrastructure and manufacturing based economy. Future economic uplift
and development has to be technology oriented and all possible avenues have to be
explored for gaining immediate and long-term benefits in order to ameliorate the
dismal condition of the populace as well as the environment. One such method is
tissue culture or ‘in-vitrio manipulation’. This method exploits the genetic potential of
a single living cell and reproduces the entire organism. The only way to swiftly
populate barren areas with desirable species is to opt for this method in conjunction
with nurseries. A typical Tissue Culture Laboratory will consist of the following in
aseptic conditions:
 Washing & Autoclave Room.
 Media Preparation Room.
 Plant Dissection Room.
 Growth/ Incubator Room.
 Office/ Store/ Utilities.
A protected Green house is then used for growing plantlets to transplantable size.
 Rhizobium & Allied Bacteria Culture Laboratory:
Microbiology Laboratory-equipped with modern microscopes and equipment
designed to grow, identify and enumerate microbes. Microbial Genetics and
Physiology for Microbial Genetics, Bacterial Physiology, Bacterial Diversity, and
Aquatic Microbial Ecology. This lab should be equipped with equipment to
conduct state-of-the-art genetic, molecular, and biochemical techniques with
microbes. It should also contain advanced microscopes capable of phase-
contrast, darkfield, and fluorescence microscopy and a Genome Sequencer in
order to provide comprehensive services for both contract and collaborative
sequencing efforts. It is required to sequence bacterial genomes, mammal and

70
 insect EST libraries, metagenome samples, cDNA libraries from bacteria,
amplicon libraries, and viral genomes.

 Water/ Soil Analysis on the Move: The project justifies the

import of Mobile Water & Soil Testing Laboratories either as independent vehicles of
as Trailers.

71
 Workshop: The establishment of an integrated, up to date
workshop will greatly facilitate the Project’s implementation. For this the following
basic facilities will be required:
 Light Engineering.
 Steel Fabrication.
 Vehicle Maintenance.
 Electrical/ Electronics
 Wood Working.
 Ceramics.

72
Scope:
Justification:
Overall Objectives/ Goals
8. Capital cost estimates:
9. Annual operating and maintenance cost after
completion of the Project:
10. Demand and supply analysis
11. Financial Plan and mode of Financing:
12. Project benefits and analysis :
13. Implementation schedule:
14. Management structure and manpower
requirements including:
Specialized skills during execution and
operational phases:
15. Additional projects/decisions required to
maximize socio-economic
Benefits from the proposed project:

RESULT/PERFORMANCE BASED
MONITORING INDICATORS

16. Certified that the project proposal has been

prepared on the basis of

73
 instructions provided by the Planning
Commission for the preparation of PC-I for
Social Sector projects.

Scope: The scope of the proposed project is to formally and scientifically deploy various
interventions that have been researched and tried out in various sites in rural locations of
Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Since these interventions have been tried and tested in various
combinations and some on standalone basis there is a need to integrate them and prove
effectiveness in order to establish best practices for replication. The project will employ
various technologies for optimum returns keeping in mind financial constraints and ease of
replicability. A complete and integrated food security support base will emerge based on agro
ecological conditions and skills of local producers. The entire proposed project is aimed at
poor rural females and marginalized farmers. Due attention will be paid to the landless and
ways and means are included to build up food security for them as well.

Justification: Field trials have proved the efficacy of the various interventions that are
proposed for applied research. There is a great need to study them scientifically and for
consensus to be developed amongst the agricultural institutions and scientists based on on-
ground results. Rapid population increase and concomitant increased pressure upon already
depleted natural resources demands that new and innovative steps be deployed in order to
ensure food security for those living below the poverty line. Nutritional enhancement is
crucial amongst females and young children. This project is primarily aimed at solving the
issue of food security amongst poor, vulnerable and marginalized sections of the populace.
Secondly, fields of intervention wherein these population groups can themselves provide
input and effort will be identified.

Overall Objectives/ Goals:

Broad Goals
 Food Security.
 Nutrition enhancement.
 Female Empowerment.
 Local Self-Reliance.
 Environment Protection.
 Improved Community Structure for Service Delivery and Appropriate Technology
Transfer.

Specific Project Objectives:

 Water Security.
 Food security in the face of spiraling prices, climate change and uncertain socio-
economic status as a high priority objective.
 Community mobilization and food production/ processing training for local self-
reliance.
 Female Empowerment through participation in economic activities.

74
 Increasing Horticultural Production.
 Increasing self-employment.
 Developing Institutions in Rural Areas.
 Raising income of Rural Poor.
 Enhancing Health and Nutrition standards.
 Ensuring self-sustained Rural Development.
 Environment Protection.

These objectives will be achieved through the following interventions.

a) Aquifer Mapping & Charging.

b) Geological Mapping.
c) Biosaline Agri/ Horticulture.
d) Complete Plant Nutrition through Organic Soil Management and improving/
rebuilding Soil Fertility through Nutrient Cycling and Introduction of Salinity
resistant field and horticultural crop varieties.
e) Improving Rangelands, livestock breeding and herd management.
f) Introducing Earthquake/ Tsunami Proof, Super Insulated Construction Technology to
meet the challenges of the 21st Century including Unstable Climate; Aridization and
Global warming.
g) Ensuring Household Food Security through suitable interventions.
h) Encouraging/ Training and Supporting Medium/ Small and Micro Enterprises.
i) Water harvesting/ Conservation Irrigation.
j) Alternate Energy production.

8. Capital cost estimates: Prepared in January, 2009 (Rupees in millions).

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 TOTAL

75
 G R A ND T OT A L

1
2
3
4
5

9. Annual operating and maintenance cost after completion of the

Project: To be borne by Communities through individual beneficiaries.

10. Demand and supply analysis

Local self-reliance for food security in the face of spiraling prices, increasing
populations and destabilized socio-economic situations call for activating emergency and
medium/ long-term measures. Supply of goods is mostly from outside the area, which is not
sustainable in the light of strong possibilities of natural and man-made disasters. A strong
local production base needs to be rebuilt by replacing under producing food production
infrastructure.
11. Financial Plan and mode of Financing:

Year-wise/component-wise financial phasing

# Item Year-I Year- Year- Year- Year-V Total
II III IV
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

76
G
.
H
.
I.
J.
K
.

12. Project benefits and analysis :

i. Financial: Attached as Annex.
ii. Social Benefits with Indicators :
1. Self Employment (Employment Statistics).
2. Individuals able to positively contribute to society (Market Analysis).
3. Food Security (Nutrition Standards).
4. Individuals able to meet needs and desires of self and family (Market
Analysis).
5. Promotion of social harmony (Crime Record).
6. Avoidance of extremism (Crime Record).
7. Growing Economy (GDP Analysis).
8. Local self-reliance (GDP Analysis).
9. Formation of Village Committees in all villages.
10. Involvement of --------- members (mostly women) in useful activities
11. Increased supply of proteins.
12. Improvement of health of the citizens.
13. Production of organic and hygienic products.

iii. Employment generation (direct and indirect):

------- Households self employed. Direct ---------- individuals (2 per
household), average 1 per household daily wager.
Indirect ---------- (5.2 per household) plus minimum average 4 downstream
and upstream linkages, say ------------- individuals. Total of ------------ Indirect.

77
 Expected Employment – Indicators
Category Numbers
Direct Employment
Self-employed
Service Providers
Other - daily wages
Total direct employment
Dependents
Indirect Employment
Wholesale & Retail
Commission Agents, Brokers &
Transporters
Total indirect employment
Grand Total Employment

Table: Expected Employment – Indicators.

iv. Environmental Impact:

All efforts will be made to firstly avoid damage to the environment and
secondly and more importantly positively contribute to environmental stability
by deploying sound bioenvironmental practices. Bioaugmented anaerobic
decomposition of biodegradable solid waste will ensure that disease vectors
are not allowed to flourish and pollution of the environment will be avoided.
Use of ecologically safe inputs will be ensured and capacities will be
developed to understand the cycles and interdependence of Nature.
v. Impact of delays on project cost and viability:
The poverty stricken are already in the midst of a survival crisis due to
spiraling prices. This is leading to social discontent. Rising prices due to lack
of local production will impact the economic viability of the project on a daily
basis.

13. Implementation schedule: Attached as Annex.

14. Management structure and manpower requirements including:

78
Specialized skills during execution and operational phases:
PARC will maintain a Program Management Unit at its headquarters which
will comprise of highly qualified and skilled professionals in Livelihoods and
Environment, Social Mobilization, Gender Development, Human and Institutional
Development, Marketing and Enterprise Development and Finance besides having
Regional Offices spread throughout the Country. The proposed project will be
implemented in coordination with the concerned Government and Non-Government
Departments, Organizations and Institutions.

14.1 Implementing & Execution Responsibility

The PARC shall be responsible for the following pertaining to the execution and
implementation of the project:
 Developing and updating guidelines to ensure cost-effective and ethical
practices in execution.
 Providing advice and information on technical cooperation, equipment, sub-
contracting matters and related policy questions
 Issuing of Purchase Order or Contracts above Rs300,000 on behalf of Project
authorities.
 Conducting Market Research and identifying New Technologies, Products and
Services.
 Endeavoring to obtain equitable geographical distribution of resources
 Liaising with Government Departments for approvals if required for ordering,
installation, commissioning and operation of equipment, vaccinations,
quarantine and other material.
 Assisting and advising on special terms and conditions, if any, to be included
in Contracts e.g. staggered payments, special penalty provisions, liquidated
damages, time schedule for contract performance and follow-up action where
necessary.
 The PARC supervises the work of the Project Manager.
14.2 Financial Management
Financial Management in respect to Budgetary Controls, Accounting
Procedures, Financial Reporting and Audit Requirements for all projects executed by
the PARC, the established financial guidelines of the PARC are conceived with
reasonable assurance that adequate controls are in place for:
a) Budget Revisions
b) Banking
c) Disbursement of Funds
d) Financial Reporting
e) Statutory Audit
14.3 Monitoring and Evaluation
To monitor the Project, PARC has established a separate section for Monitoring
and Evaluation (M&E). The basic function of this section is to keep track of the
progress of program activities and carry out backstopping for conformity with the
standards set by PARC. M&E section would continuously monitor all project
activities and would provide technical advice to the staff in tasks related to
mobilization and execution of project interventions under the project. In executing its
interventions the M&E section follows the under mentioned guiding principles.

79
  Conducting visits in the field to monitor project activities based upon actual
findings to gauge the progress of various components.
 Determine what the beneficiaries themselves feel about the activities of the
project.
 Verify both technical and physical indicators of progress and relate them to the
components of the approved project PC-1 for implementation.
 Preparation of regular project monitoring reports with the cooperation of the
Project Manager by the monitoring team.
As a routine activity, the Monitoring Section carries out participatory evaluations
of project activities along with community groups. The Project itself is subject to
evaluation according to policies and procedures established by the PARC. The Project
timing and Terms of Reference of the evaluation will be decided by PARC after
receipts of Project Funds.
14.4 Project Steering Committees
A Steering Committee would be set up to provide advice and decide strategic
aspects of the Project. The chair of the Project Steering Committee (PSC) will be
decided by the Board of Directors of the PARC. The PSC will meet on quarterly or on
need basis.
The PSC meeting would be arranged by the CEO of PARC. The other
participants of the meeting are Officials from the Concerned Line Ministries, P&D
Department, Representatives from the Provincial Governments, Contributing Donors,
Project Manager, all Sector Heads of the PARC and Beneficiaries, where appropriate
and feasible.
The typical agenda for a PSC meeting would deal with the following items:
a) Project concept and design.
b) Follow-up to any previous PSC or evaluation of the Project.
c) Assessment of the relevance, performance and potential success of the
Project; issues and problems in design and implementation;
conclusions; and recommendations.
d) Management actions required the parties responsible and the time
frame for implementing the action.
e) Progress expected before the next PSC, proposed follow-up to the
Project, if any.
15. Additional projects/decisions required to maximize socio-economic
Benefits from the proposed project:
More importance and a sense of urgency have to be focused upon provision of food
security through local self-reliance. Projects for rehabilitation of irrigation water,
rehabilitation of farm-lands, planting of orchards, honey bee farming, intensive horticulture in
all its forms, livestock and rangeland rehabilitation, check upon soil erosion and slope
destabilization, solid and liquid waste management, fisheries, poultry and protection of
natural resources need to be conceptualized and launched with priority.
A number of crucial factors are required to be managed for the successful
implementation of the project. The steering committee of the project would be taking these
critical decisions at different stages of project implementation.
i. The Executing Agency will have to identify local institutions and citizen’s
organizations that take full responsibility to execute project activities
ii. Implementing agency has to appoint some core staff for smooth functioning of the
project and successful marketing of products

80
 iii. The growers must be supported for the supply of critical inputs for production and
linkages for marketing of outputs and products development
iv. The community will provide land for the production of and space for establishing
field units and storage building spaces
v. The respective Local Governments will help in the identification of suitable sites for
and provide land.
vi. The use and maintenance of equipment and buildings would be the responsibility of
the communities and reviewed by a committee constituted by the Steering Committee
of the project.
vii. Use and maintenance of machinery and equipment after the completion of the project
life would be responsibility of the local communities
viii. Linkages will be developed with the private sector for product development and
marketing
Other additional project decision will be suggested based on achievements to be made on
implementation of the project.

81
82
 RESULT/PERFORMANCE BASED MONITORING INDICATORS

The Project is expected to give the outcomes for environment protection through science based improvements in waste management, to
ensure “stable eco-systems in an environmentally sustainable manner”. The performance/outcome indicators given below will be measured
during and after the successful implementation of the project:
i. Adoption of an integrated approach, rational resource use, and the introduction of water efficient techniques.
ii. Institutional strengthening, capacity building & human resource development.
iii. Improving quality of and easy access to water supply, especially for women.

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS : Table 35

S# Component/Objective Activities Expected Output Expected Impact
1

5.

83
16. Certified that the project proposal has been prepared on the basis of
instructions provided by the Planning Commission for the
preparation of PC-I for Social Sector projects.

Prepared by
Sardar Taimur Hyat-Khan
0301 5456088

Checked by

Approved by

84
Prefabricated Office Structures:

Prefabricated Sheds

85
 MDGs
16
Target 10: halve by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation:
Indicators Definitions 1990-91 2001- 2004- PRSP MTDF MDG
02 05 Target Target Target
2005-06 2009-10 2015
Proportion of Percentage of 53 69 66 70 760 93
population (urban population with
and rural) with access to
sustainable access Improved water
to safe source
(Improved) water
source
Proportion of Percentage of 30 45 54 55 70 90
population (urban population with
and rural) with access to
access to sanitation
sanitation

Achieving MDG target of 90 percent of sanitation coverage is important in meeting

the desired quality of life and health. The population coverage increased by only 24 percent
in the last 15 years; an additional 36 percent population has to be covered to achieve the
target by 2015.
Vision 2030 envisages, “developed industrialized, just and prosperous Pakistan
through rapid and sustainable development in a resource constrained economy by deploying
knowledge inputs”. This vision is being operationalized through series of MTDF. National

16
Notes and Sources:
A. Planning Commission
B. Medium Term Development Framework, 2005-10
C. Pakistan Economic Survey 2004-05
D. PIHS 2000-01, (Coverage of Tap, Hand-pump water and Flush Toilets use)
E. PSLM (CWIQ) 04-05 (Coverage of Tap, Hand-pump water and Flush Toilets use).
F. Target of MTDF changed from 50 to 70 percent in view of higher coverage in the previous years
G. All PRSP targets are taken from Accelerating Economic Growth and Reducing Poverty: The Road Ahead. Poverty
Reduction Strategy Paper, Government of Pakistan, December 2003.
H. Ministry of Environment, 2003
17
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2005
Economic Council (NEC) approved on 27th May 2005 the MTDF 2005-2010, which is first of
the series.
“Water and Sanitation for All”:

Provision of safe water supply and sanitation is necessary to ensure a healthy

population. By 2015, the water supply and sanitation will stand extended to the entire
population. The main elements of the strategy will include the following:

 Adoption of an integrated approach, rational resource use, and the introduction of

water efficient techniques.
 Containment of environmental degradation.
 Institutional strengthening, capacity building & human resource development.
 Improving performance and utilization of local systems through better planning
management and community participation.
 Improving quality of and easy access to water supply, especially for women.
 Improving sanitation through sewerage and drainage schemes.
 Promoting increased take up of household sanitation.
 Improving the understanding of linkages between hygiene and health through
community education campaigns, especially among the women and children.

Table 14: Targets18

Category High HDI Med. HDI Pakistan
Pakistan Avg (2004)
Avg. (2004) 2004 MDG Target Vision 2030
-05* (2015)
2 Health
c Population with 97 51 59 90 100
sustainable access to
improved sanitation
( percent)
Water use, share of total Population access to:
Agriculture 95% Safe water Sanitation
Industrial 1% Rural 53% 27%
Domestic/municipal 4% Urban 83% 59%

Line Depiction Compost Windrow:

6 Ft.

18
HDI: Human Development Index; Sources: Human Development Report (2006); Pakistan. Millennium Development Goals Report 2005;
PSLM Survey (2004-05); MTDF, 2005-10; World Fact Book 2006; Annual Report, Pakistan Telecomm. Authority, 2006; Pakistan
Economic Survey, 2005-06.

Page 87 of 118
 100(50) Ft.

Black Plastic Winter Cover

Mound

5 Ft.

Geo-Membrane 10 Ft.

IV. Bioremediation of Municipal Liquid Waste through Waste Water Gardens.

Population increase brings with it the problem of vast amounts of Liquid and
Solid waste. Where adequate disposal/ treatment is not carried out, Nature is unable to
absorb and filter toxic materials which eventually find their way into underground
reservoirs of water and also into the food chain. A point is reached where there is a
complete breakdown and environmental and health problems increase to such an
extent that they cannot be treated.
Nature uses microbes to breakdown; plants to uptake toxic minerals as well as
the earth’s surface to filter the waste. However, nature is only capable of handling a
limited amount of waste. In case of increased amounts artificial enhancements and
interventions have to be resorted to. A very simple, close to nature, environment
friendly solution is available that converts eyesores, displeasing smells and source of
poison into a Garden that hosts Biodiversity and can be used for recreation as well as
study of plants, birds and insects.
Advanced Countries of the World are switching to the use of Bioaugmentation
(Addition of Live Bacteria to the target Waste for treatment/ biodegradation) and
Phytoremediation (Use of Plants to treat Waste) and planting Reed-Beds and other
Plants to treat their Waste. This concept has been used effectively in advanced
economies despite the fact that most of their sites are located in cold regions. In hot,
temperate climates the process is greatly enhanced. However, extreme temperatures
have to be controlled.

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1. Phytoremediation19 uses various plants to degrade, extract, contain, or immobilize
contaminants from soil and water. This technology is an innovative, cost-effective alternative
to previous treatment methods. A mechanism for contaminant degradation is metabolism
within the plant. Some plants are able to uptake toxic compounds and in the process of
metabolizing the available nutrients, detoxify them. Containment using plants either binds the
contaminants to the soil, renders them non-bioavailable, or immobilizes them by removing
the means of transport. Physical containment of contaminants by plants can take the form of
binding the contaminants within a humus molecule (humification), physical sequestration of
metals as occurs in some wetlands, or by root accumulation in non-harvestable plants. Certain
trees sequester large concentrations of metals in their roots, and although harvesting and
removal is difficult or impractical, the contaminants present a reduced human or
environmental risk while they are bound in the roots. Risk reduction may also be achieved by
transforming the contaminant into a form that is not hazardous, or by rendering the
contaminant non-bioavailable. EPA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) have
ongoing research in this area.
a. Root System
Remediation with plants requires that the contaminants be in contact with the root
zone of the plants. Either the plants must be able to extend roots to the contaminants, or the
contaminated media must be moved to within range of the plants. This movement can be
accomplished with standard agricultural equipment and practices, such as deep plowing to
bring soil from 2 or 3 feet deep to within 8 to 10 inches of the surface for shallow-rooted
crops and grasses, or by irrigating trees and grasses with contaminated groundwater or
wastewater. Because these activities can generate fugitive dust and volatile organic
compound emissions, potential risks may need to be evaluated. As shown in Table 5, the
effective root depth of plants varies by species and depends on soil and climate condition.
b. Growth Rate
Phytoremediation is also limited by the growth rate of the plants. More time may be
required to phytoremediate a site as compared with other more traditional cleanup
technologies. Excavation and disposal or incineration takes weeks to months to accomplish,
while phytoextraction or degradation may need several years. Therefore, for sites that pose
acute risks for human and other ecological receptors, phytoremediation may not be the
remediation technique of choice but is much better than no treatment at all.
c. Contaminant Concentration

19
The contents of this portion are taken from the various publications of the National Science Foundation of the U.S.A.

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 Sites with widespread, low to medium level contamination within the root zone are
the best candidates for phytoremediative processes.
d. Impacts of Contaminated Vegetation
Some ecological exposure may occur whenever plants are used to interact with
contaminants from the soil. The fate of the metals in the biomass is a concern. At one site,
sunflower plants that extracted cesium (Cs) and strontium (Sr) from surface water were
disposed of as radioactive waste (Adler 1996). Although some forms of phytoremediation
involve accumulation of metals and require handling of plant material embedded with metals,
most plants do not accumulate significant levels of organic contaminants. While metal
accumulating plants will need to be harvested and either recycled or disposed of in
compliance with applicable regulations, most phytoremediative plants do not require further
treatment or disposal. Often overlooked, however, is the possibility that natural vegetation on
the site is already creating very similar (but often unrecognized) food chain exposures. In
addition, even on currently un-vegetated sites, contaminants will be entering the food chain
through soil organisms. The remediation plan should identify and, if possible, quantify
potential avenues of ecological exposure, and determine if and where any accumulation of
toxics in the selected plants will occur.

Root Depth for Selected Phytoremediation Plants: Table 18.

# Plant Maximum Root Depth Target Contaminants

1 Indian mustard To 12 inches Metals

2 Grasses To 48 inches Organics

3 Poplar trees To 15 feet Metals, organics, chlorinated solvents

4 Alfalfa 4-6 ft. -do-
5 Grasses 2 ft -do-
6 Indian Mustard 1 ft -do-
7 Poplar Trees 15 ft. -do-
Most organic contaminants do not accumulate in significant amounts in plant tissue.
Some plant-eating animals have been shown to avoid eating plants with elevated metal levels
(Pollard 1996). In addition, the increased habitat provided by the plants may in some cases
offset any potential localized impacts. If some organisms (e.g., caterpillars, rodents, deer,
etc.) seem likely to ingest significant amounts of the vegetation, and if harmful bio-
concentration up the food chain is a concern during the life of the remediation effort,
appropriate exposure control measures should be implemented including perimeter fencing,
overhead netting, and pre-flowering harvesting. Phytoextraction techniques aim to harvest
metal-laden crops just as the plants translocate metals into shoots, thereby limiting
availability of contaminants for consumption. Transfer of the contaminants or metabolites to
the atmosphere might be the greatest regulatory concern. Transpiration of TCE into the
atmosphere has been measured (Newman et al. 1997a), but little information is available that
would indicate any release of vinyl chloride. Research being done on the bioavailability of
contaminants and on human health and environmental risk assessment is directly related to
phytoremediation. Studies are underway to determine if contaminants that are not available to
plants for uptake or that are not vulnerable to plant remediation are less of a risk to human
health and the environment.

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 Phytoremediation Overview: Table 19.
Mechanism Process Goal Media Contaminants Plants Status
Phytoextraction Contaminant Soil, Sediment Metals: Ag, Cd, Co, Indian mustard, Laboratory,
extraction and Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, pennycress, pilot and
capture sludges Ni, Pb, Zn; alyssum, field
Radionuclides, 90Sr, sunflowers, hybrid applications
137Cs, 239Pu, poplars
238,234U
Rhizofiltration Contaminant Groundwater Metals, radionuclides Sunflowers, Indian Laboratory and
extraction and Surface water mustard, water pilot
capture scale
hyacinth
Phytostabilization Contaminant Soil Sediment As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hs, Indian mustard Field
containment Pb, Zn hybrid poplars, application
sludges grasses

Rhizodegradation Contaminant Soil sediment Organic Red mulberry Field

destruction sludges compounds(TPH, grasses, hybrid, application
groundwater PAHs, pesticides poplar, cattail, rice
chlorinated solvents,
PCBs)
Phytodegradation Contaminant Soil, sediment Organic compounds Algae, stonewort Field
destruction sludges chlorinated solvents, hybrid poplar demonstration
groundwater phenols, herbicides black willow, bald
surface water munitions cypress
Phytovolatilization Contaminant Groundwater Chlorinated solvents Poplars, alfalfa Laboratory and
extraction from soil sediment some inorganics (Se, black locust, field
media and release sludges Hg, and As) Indian mustard application
to air
Hydraulic control Contaminant Groundwater Water-soluble Hybrid poplar, Field
degradation(plume surface water, organics and cottonwood, demonstration
control) or inorganics willow
containment
Vegetative cover Contaminant Soil, sludge, Organic and Poplars, grasses Field
(evapotranspiration containment, sediments inorganic compounds application
erosion control
cover)
Riparian corridors Contaminant Surface water, Water-soluble Poplars Field
(non-point source destruction organics application
groundwater and
inorganics
control)

2. Phytodegradation
a. Definition/Mechanism
Phytodegradation (also known as phytotransformation) is the breakdown of
contaminants taken up by plants through metabolic processes within the plant, or the
breakdown of contaminants external to the plant through the effect of compounds (such as
enzymes) produced by the plants. The main mechanism is plant uptake and metabolism.
Additionally, degradation may occur outside the plant, due to the release of compounds that
cause transformation. Any degradation caused by microorganisms associated with or affected
by the plant root is considered rhizodegradation.
b. Uptake
For phytodegradation to occur within the plant, the compounds must be taken up by the plant.
One study identified more than 70 organic chemicals representing many classes of
compounds that were taken up and accumulated by 88 species of plants and trees (Paterson et
al. 1990). A database has been established to review the classes of chemicals and types of
plants that have been investigated in regard to their uptake of organic compounds (Nellessen
and Fletcher 1993b). Uptake is dependent on hydrophobicity, solubility, and polarity.
Moderately hydrophobic organic compounds (with log kow between 0.5 and 3.0) are most
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readily taken up by and translocated within plants. Very soluble compounds (with low
sorption) will not be sorbed onto roots or translocated within the plant (Schnoor et al. 1995a).
Hydrophobic (lipophilic) compounds can be bound to root surfaces or partitioned into roots,
but cannot be further translocated within the plant (Schnoor et al. 1995a; Cunningham et al.
1997). Nonpolar molecules with molecular weights <500 will sorb to the root surfaces,
whereas polar molecules will enter the root and be translocated (Bell 1992). Plant uptake of
organic compounds can also depend on type of plant, age of contaminant, and many other
physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. Definitive conclusions cannot always be
made about a particular chemical. For example, when PCP was spiked into soil, 21% was
found in roots and 15% in shoots after 155 days in the presence of grass (Qiu et al. 1994); in
another study, several plants showed minimal uptake of PCP (Bellin and O’Connor 1990).
c. Metabolism
Metabolism within plants has been identified for a diverse group of organic compounds,
including the herbicide atrazine (Burken and Schnoor 1997), the chlorinated solvent TCE
(Newman et al. 1997a), and the munition TNT (Thompson et al. 1998). Other metabolized
compounds include the insecticide DDT, the fungicide hexachlorobenzene (HCB), PCP, the
plasticizer diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP), and PCBs in plant cell cultures (Komossa et al.
1995).

d. Plant-Formed Enzymes
Plant-formed enzymes have been identified for their potential use in degrading contaminants
such as munitions, herbicides, and chlorinated solvents. Immunoassay tests have been used to
identify plants that produce these enzymes (McCutcheon 1996).
e. Media
Phytodegradation is used in the treatment of soil, sediments, sludges, and groundwater.
Surface water can also be remediated using phytodegradation.
f. Advantages
Contaminant degradation due to enzymes produced by a plant can occur in an environment
free of microorganisms (for example, an environment in which the microorganisms have
been killed by high contaminant levels). Plants are able to grow in sterile soil and also in soil
that has concentration levels that are toxic to microorganisms. Thus, phytodegradation
potentially could occur in soils where biodegradation cannot.

g. Disadvantages
Phytodegradation has the following disadvantages:
• Toxic intermediates or degradation products may form. In a study unrelated to
phytoremediation research, PCP was metabolized to the potential mutagen
tetrachlorocatechol in wheat plants and cell cultures (Komossa et al. 1995).
• The presence or identity of metabolites within a plant might be difficult to determine; thus
contaminant destruction could be difficult to confirm.
h. Applicable Contaminants/ Concentrations
Organic compounds are the main category of contaminants subject to phytodegradation. In
general, organic compounds with a log kow between 0.5 and 3.0 can be subject to
phytodegradation within the plant. Inorganic nutrients are also remediated through plant
uptake and metabolism. Phytodegradation outside the plant does not depend on log kow and
plant uptake.
i. Organics
Chlorinated solvents
The plant-formed enzyme dehalogenase, which can dechlorinate chlorinated compounds, has
been discovered in sediments (McCutcheon 1996).

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TCE was metabolized to trichloroethanol, trichloroacetic acid, and dichloroacetic acid within
hybrid poplar trees (Newman et al. 1997a). In a similar study, hybrid poplar trees were
exposed to water containing about 50 ppm TCE and metabolized the TCE within the tree
(Newman et al. 1997a).
Minced horseradish roots successfully treated wastewater containing up to 850 ppm of 2,4-
dichlorophenol (Dec and Bollag 1994).
Herbicides
Atrazine in soil was taken up by trees and then hydrolyzed and dealkylated within the roots,
stems, and leaves. Metabolites were identified within the plant tissue, and a review of
atrazine metabolite toxicity studies indicated that the metabolites were less toxic than atrazine
(Burken and Schnoor 1997).
The plant-formed enzyme nitrilase, which can degrade herbicides, has been discovered in
sediments (Carreira 1996).
A qualitative study indicated that the herbicide bentazon was degraded within black willow
trees, as indicated by bentazon loss during a nursery study and by identification of
metabolites within the tree. Bentazon was phytotoxic to six tree species at concentrations of
1000 and 2000 mg/L. At 150 mg/kg, bentazon metabolites were detected within tree trunk
and canopy tissue samples (Conger and Portier 1997).
Atrazine at 60.4 g/kg (equivalent to about 3 times field application rates) was used to study
phytodegradation in hybrid poplars (Burken and Schnoor 1997).
The herbicide bentazon was phytotoxic at concentrations of 1,000 to 2,000 mg/L, but allowed
growth at 150 mg/L (Conger and Portier 1997).
Insecticides
The isolation from plants of the enzyme phosphatase, which can degrade organophosphate
insecticides, may have phytodegradation applications (McCutcheon 1996).
Munitions
The plant-formed enzyme nitroreductase, which can degrade munitions, has been discovered
in sediments; this enzyme, from parrot feather, degraded TNT (McCutcheon 1996).
Hybrid poplar trees metabolized TNT to 4-amino- 2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT), 2-amino-
4,6- dinitrotoluene (2-ADNT), and other unidentified compounds (Thompson et al. 1998).
TNT concentrations in flooded soil decreased from 128 to 10 ppm with parrot feather
(Schnoor et al. 1995b).
Phenols
Chlorinated phenolic concentrations in wastewater decreased in the presence of
oxidoreductase enzymes in minced horseradish roots (Dec and Bollag 1994).
j. Inorganics
Nutrients
Nitrate will be taken up by plants and transformed to proteins and nitrogen gas (Licht and
Schnoor 1993).
k. Root Depth
Phytodegradation is generally limited to the root zone, and possibly below the root
zone if root exudates are soluble, nonsorbed, and transported below the root zone. The degree
to which this occurs is uncertain.
l. Plants
The aquatic plant parrot feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) and the algae stonewort
(Nitella) have been used for the degradation of TNT. The nitroreductase enzyme has also
been identified in other algae, ferns, monocots, dicots, and trees (McCutcheon 1996).
Degradation of TCE has been detected in hybrid poplars and in poplar cell cultures,
resulting in production of metabolites and in complete mineralization of a small portion of the
applied TCE (Gordon et al. 1997; Newman et al. 1997a). Atrazine degradation has also been

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confirmed in hybrid poplars (Populus oliform x nigra DN34, Imperial Carolina) (Burken and
Schnoor 1997). Poplars have also been used to remove nutrients from groundwater (Licht and
Schnoor 1993). Black willow (Salix nigra), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), bald
cypress (Taxodium distichum), river birch (Betula nigra), cherry bark oak ( Quercus Colifor),
and live oak ( Quercus viginiana) were able to support some degradation of the herbicide
bentazon (Conger and Portier 1997).
m. Site Considerations
i. Soil Conditions
Phytodegradation is most appropriate for large areas of soil having shallow
contamination.
ii. Ground and Surface Water
Groundwater that can be extracted by tree roots or that is pumped to the
surface may be treated by this system. Phytodegradation can also occur in
surface water, if the water is able to support the growth of appropriate plants.
iii. Climatic Conditions
Phytoremediation studies involving phytodegradation have been conducted
under a wide variety of climatic conditions.

n. Current Status
Research and pilot-scale studies have been conducted primarily at Army Ammunition
Plants (AAPs). These demonstrations include field studies at the Iowa AAP, Volunteer AAP,
and Milan AAP (McCutcheon 1996). The following plants are used in hydraulic control:
 Cottonwood and hybrid poplar trees were used at seven sites in the East and Midwest
to contain and treat shallow groundwater contaminated with heavy metals, nutrients,
or pesticides (Gatliff 1994). Poplars were used at a site in Utah to contain
groundwater contaminated with gasoline and diesel (Nelson 1996). Passive gradient
control was studied at the French Limited Superfund site using a variety of
phreatophyte trees; native non-deciduous trees were found to perform the best (Sloan
and Woodward 1996).

o. Site Considerations: Riparian Corridors/Buffer Strips

i. Definition/Mechanism
Riparian corridors/buffer strips are generally applied along streams and riverbanks to
control and remediate surface runoff and groundwater contamination moving into the
river. These systems can also be installed to prevent down gradient migration of a
contaminated groundwater plume and to degrade contaminants in the plume.
Mechanisms for remediation include water uptake, contaminant uptake, and plant
metabolism. Riparian corridors are similar in conception to physical and chemical
permeable barriers such as trenches filled with iron filings, in that they treat
groundwater without extraction containment. Riparian corridors and buffer strips may
incorporate certain aspects of hydraulic control, phytodegradation, rhizodegradation,
phytovolatilization, and perhaps phytoextraction.
ii. Media
Riparian corridors/buffer strips are used in the treatment of surface water and
groundwater.
iii. Advantages
Secondary advantages include the stabilization of stream banks and prevention of soil
erosion. Aquatic and terrestrial habitats are greatly improved by riparian forest
corridors.
iii. Disadvantages

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 The use of buffer strips might be limited to easily assimilated and metabolized
compounds. Land use constraints may restrict application.
iv. Applicable Contaminants/ Concentrations
Nutrient and pesticide contaminants are among the water- soluble organics and
inorganics studied the most often using this technology. The nitrate concentration in
groundwater was 150 mg/L at the edge of a field, 8 mg/L below a poplar buffer strip,
and 3 mg/L downgradient at the edge of a stream (Licht and Schnoor 1993).
v. Root Depth
Uptake occurs within the root zone or the depth of influence of the roots.
vi. Plants
Poplars have been used in riparian corridors and buffer strips.
vii. Site Considerations
Sufficient land must be available for the establishment of vegetation. Typically a
triple row of trees is installed, using 10 meters at minimum. Larger corridors increase
capacity, and wider areas allow for more diverse ecosystem and habitat creation.
Native Midwestern songbirds, for example, prefer corridors 70 meters and more.
viii. Soil Conditions
The primary considerations for this technology are the depth and concentration of
contaminants that affect plant growth. Soil texture and degree of saturation are factors
to be considered for use of this system. Planting technique can mitigate unfavorable
soil conditions.
ix. Ground and Surface Water
Groundwater must be within the depth of influence of the roots.
x. Climatic Conditions
The amount of precipitation, temperature, and wind may affect the transpiration rate
of the plants.
xi. Current Status
Buffer strips have been researched and installed commercially with success.
p. Plants Used in Phytoremediation
A compilation of plants used in phytoremediation research or application is given in
Appendix D. This Appendix includes a table giving the common name followed by the
scientific name, and a table with the scientific name followed by the common name. The
following are examples of commonly-investigated or used plants:

Plants Used in Phytoremediation: Table 20

Trees: Grasses: Legumes: Metal-accumulators: Accumulators: Aquatic
plants:

Poplars Prairie Alfalfa Hyperaccumulators Sunflower Parrot

(hybrids)/cottonwoods grasses feather

Willows Fescue Thlaspi caerulescens Phragmites

reeds
Brassica juncea Cattails
Hyacinths
Summary of Bioremediation Technologies: Table 21

Technology Applicable Media Target Contaminants

Phytoremediation
Phytoextraction brownfields; sediments; soil;  groundwater metals – Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn
Phytostabilization sediments; soil metals – As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Se, Zn
hydrophobic organics – DDT, dieldrin,

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 dioxins, furans, PAH, PCB, PCP
Phytostimulation sediments; soil; waste water  (land organics – aromatics, PAH, pesticides
application)
Phyto-transformation groundwater; landfill leachate;  soil; ammunition wastes – RDX, TNT, aromatics
wastewater (land application) – BTEX, chlorinated aliphatics – TCE,
herbicides – atrazine,alachlor, hydrocarbons
– TPHnutrients – NO3 (-),, NH4 (+), PO4
(3-)
Rhizofiltration groundwater; water and  wastewater in hydrophobic organics, metals – Cd, Cu, Ni,
lagoons or  constructed wetlands Pb, Zn, radionuclides – 137Cs, 90Sr, U
Constructed Wetlands domestic wastewater; landfill  leachate; BOD, TDS, TSS, NO2, NO3, NH3, NH4
livestock wastewater; pulp mill effluent; Coliforms – fecal, total, metals – Cu, Ni, Pb,
septage Zn, nutrients – Al, Fe, K, Mn, P
Bioaugmentation
Biodegradation groundwater; sludge; soil COD organics – BTEX, NAPL, pesticides,
solvents
Biostimulation
Bioventing soil non-chlorinatedhydrocarbons, pesticides,
petroleum hydrocarbons, wood,
preservatives
Chemical Oxidation of Soils soil; wastewater inorganic contaminants
In situ Lagoon sludge; soil hydrocarbons – BTEX, PAH, other phenols
Bioreactors
Compost-based reactor lagoon sediments; municipal and  refinery ethylene glycol, explosives, hydrocarbons –
sludge; soil PAH, PCP, pesticides
Slurry-based reactor groundwater; sludge; soil acetic acid, explosives – TNT, hydrocarbons
– BTEX, PAH, pesticides, petrochemicals,
wood preservatives
Land-based Treatments
Composting lagoon sediments; municipal  sludge; soil ethylene glycol, explosives, hydrocarbons –
PAH, PCP, pesticides
Land Farming sediment; sludge; soil hydrocarbons – TPH, PCP, pesticides
Fungal Remediation
White-rot Fungus soil CAH, PCB, polychlorinated
dibenzo(p)dioxins, explosives – TNT,
hydrocarbons – PAH, pesticides – DDT,

Abbreviations: Table 22

Abbreviation Name Abbreviation Name

BOD: biochemical oxygen demand PCP: pentachlorophenol

BTEX: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, RDX: hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-

xylene triazine

CAH: chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons TCE: trichloroethylene

COD: chemical oxygen demand TDS: total dissolved solids

DDT: 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p- TNT: 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene

chlorophenyl) ethylene

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NAPL: non-aqueous phase liquid TPH: total petroleum hydrocarbons

PAH: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon TSS: total suspended solids

PCB: polychlorinated biphenyl

Raw sewage not mixed with detergents and Household/ Commercial chemicals are
generated in large quantities. It is estimated that a community of 10,000 people can generate
40-acre inches of sewage effluent per day or an equivalent of 1 million gallons of wastewater.
This waste is extremely rich in nutrients especially Nitrogen. Integrated Biosystem Highlights
Most conventional wastewater treatment tries to clean water mechanically and
chemically then releases it into waterways. Such systems are expensive, produce limited
economic benefits, and can themselves pollute. By contrast, integrated biosystems treat water
by recycling it for agricultural use, producing numerous economic, health and environmental
benefits. Nutrients in wastewater are recycled by algae, crops and livestock via processes
such as photosynthesis, mineralization, and uptake. Water is treated by combined natural
processes such as soil and root filtration, sedimentation and biochemical reactions including
photosynthesis, anaerobic and aerobic digestion. In this system, clean water is a by-product
along with organic crops, fertilized soil, and reclaimed wildlife habitat. Economic benefits
come from soil restoration, fertilizer recovery, crops and livestock. Products can be produced
safely and profitably with low input costs. Costs are minimized by using wastewater for
fertilizer, integrating crops for pest protection, maintaining biodiversity, treating water via
natural processes, and reducing environmental liability. The technology is especially suitable
for poor soil and regions where flood control or water conservation are required. Locally
available resources are used so costs for imported fertilizer and equipment are minimized.
Components are scalable, ranging from single households to large farms and communities.
Due to high levels of year-round ambient sunlight, more productive applications occur in a
belt defined by 30 degrees latitude north and south of the equator.
3. Reed Beds:
Two different basic types of reed-beds have been developed and used for the
treatment of polluting waste water effluents over the last 20 years or so:
 Horizontal flow reed-beds
 Vertical flow reed-beds
From these in more recent years a third type of reed bed system, that is highly efficient, has
evolved:
 Combination vertical and horizontal flow reed beds
i. Horizontal Flow Reed-Bed Systems:
Horizontal flow reed beds work particularly well for low strength effluents, or
effluents that have undergone some form of pre-treatment.
Whilst not effective in reducing ammonia they will almost always reduce
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) and SS (Suspended Solids) levels.
These systems play an invaluable role in tertiary treatment and for the
polishing of effluents.
A typical application would be to treat the discharge from a package sewage
treatment plant which is unable to meet the discharge consent standard
required.
ii. Vertical Flow Reed-Bed Systems:
Vertical flow reed-bed systems are much more effective than horizontal flow
reed-beds not only in reducing BOD and SS levels but also in reducing

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 ammonia levels and eliminating smells. They can be considerably smaller and
will also cope with much stronger effluents.

iii. Combination Systems:

Multi-stage reed-bed systems, incorporating one or two stages of vertical flow
followed by one or more stages of horizontal flow, and large single stage
vertical flow reed-beds, when properly designed, are used for example, for the
full treatment of domestic sewage - black and grey water - and, sludge, if
required. Systems can be designed to accommodate virtually any situation -
from flat sites to steep rocky slopes. On sloping sites gravity can be used,
whereas one or two pumping stages may be required on flat sites, to move the
effluent through the reed-beds.
Reed-bed systems do not require a lot of space. The most effective "combination
reed-bed systems", usually sized at about 2 sq. m. per person equivalent for sewage
treatment, have a remarkably small footprint.
The use of wetlands to treat effluent is not a new idea. Thousands of years ago,
natural wetlands were used by the Chinese and by the Egyptians to clarify liquid effluent.
However, the first “constructed” wetland was not used until 1904 (in Australia). Even after
that the use of such wetlands was slow to catch on. The first botanical treatment of waste was
not reported in Europe until the 1950s; America’s research into the field did not begin until
the 1970s. Nevertheless, it is now recognized that constructed wetlands are an economic way
of treating liquid effluent and even raw.
Constructed Wetlands reduce concentrations of suspended solids, biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD5), nitrogen, phosphorus, and coliform bacteria (often by up to 98%). Their
simplicity and scalability make them effective for treatment of waste from small
communities. If constructed on suitable topography, they require little energy input, which
makes them suitable for both under-developed and rural sites. However despite the suitability
of climate in developing countries, the spread of wetlands in such areas has been described as
"depressingly slow".20
Number of Wetland Systems Currently in Use:
It has been claimed that there are "thousands of wetland-based wastewater treatment
systems around the world".21 However, although it is clear use of constructed wetlands is
increasing, the precise number of such systems in operation is relatively difficult to obtain.
Those figures which are available are summarized below:
USA and Canada
Constructed wetlands are still not in widespread use as treatment systems for
wastewater. A 1996 survey of the USA and Canada showed 176 wetland treatment sites in
use. A majority (116) of these were in sub-tropical or warm-temperate zones. However, the
20
P.Denny et al., 'Constructed wetlands in developing countries', Water Sci and Tech. 35 (5) pp167-174 1997
21
K.R.Eddy and E.M.Angelo 'Biogeochemical indicators to evaluate pollutant removal efficiency in constructed wetland'’ Water
Sci and Tech. 35(5) pp 1-10, 1997

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state with the greatest number of installations was the cold-temperate South Dakota (40 sites).
The majority of wetlands in cold-temperate zones were of the FWF type
Northern Europe
In Northern Europe, Denmark is the leader in implementing constructed wetlands. A
pioneer of SSF-type (Subsurface Flow) installations, the country has at least 130 wetlands,
most of which treat municipal wastewater. By comparison, Sweden and Norway have shown
much less interest in such systems and neither government has given final approval use of
constructed wetlands for statutory water treatment. In 1996 Sweden had 6 FWF and 8 SSF
wetlands for treatment of municipal or domestic wastewater. However, in most cases they
were installed only to aid in removal of nitrogen, or to 'polish' water which had been treated
by other means. Norway had almost twenty wetlands, the majority of them SSF-type
installations
Eastern Europe
The spread of constructed wetlands is greatest in the Czech Republic. Between 1989
and 1996, 26 systems were built. As a result of their success, 54 more such systems are
currently being constructed. All systems are of the horizontal SSF-type and treat municipal
waste (after initial mechanical pre-treatment). Hungary and Estonia are also known to be
introducing constructed wetlands, but no numbers are currently available.
How Constructed Wetlands treat Waste:
The treatment of waste by constructed wetlands is achieved by a large number of
chemical and biological processes, many of the latter microbially-mediated. Table 1 (below)
shows the main processes (and the sites at which they occur) affecting Carbon (usually
measured as BOD5), Nitrogen (as NH4+ or NO3-), and Phosphorus.

Processes occurring in Treatment of Waste: Table 23

Contaminant Site Process
BOD5 Stems and Leaves Microbial respiration
Roots Microbial respiration
Bed media Microbial respiration
(gravel/sand) Settling
Bed media
(gravel/sand)
Nitrogen Leaves Volatilization (as N2 and N2O)
Algae in water NO3 and NH4+ -> Soluble Organic Nitrogen
column Ammonium -> Nitrate
Roots Nitrate -> N2, N20, or NH4+
Soil Settling
Bed
media(gravel/sand)
Phosphorus Stems and Leaves Microbial Repiration
Roots Microbial Repiration
Roots Uptake
Bed media Sedimentation/Burial
(gravel/sand) Adsorption
Bed media
(gravel/sand)
Biogeochemical Reactions and Nutrient Uptake
As mentioned at the start of this section, temperature affects the rate at which
biogeochemical processes occur. In cold climates the rate at which biomass takes up nutrients
will be significantly lower than in warm, subtropical or tropical climates. Indeed, the
Page 99 of 118
treatment area required to transfer 90% of nutrients to biomass increases from around 7 ha at
20°C to 35 ha at 0°C. However, this is not particularly important if nutrient recycling is not
required. Figure 2 shows uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus for wetlands in Florida (sub-
tropical), New Zealand (warm temperate), Sweden
(cold-temperate) and Canada (cold-temperate).

Figure - Nutrient Uptake by Wetlands from different climatic regions

Performance of New Generation Reed Bed Systems (conc. in mg/l): Table 24.
  Total COD d BOD TS T P- TK
CO 5 S P PO N
D 4
Raw Sewage 495 190 215 225 8.5 6.4 42.8
Filter A outflow 92 70 0 18 5.8 5.3 19.6
Final Outflow 58 40 16 12 5.6 5.1 10.1
Removal (%) 87.5 80 92.5 94.5 40 28 76

Performance of Swiss System after 10 years use (Conc in mg/l): Table 25.
  Total COD BOD TP NO3- NH4- Min-N
5 N N
Gray water 311 129.5 8.5 3 89.8 92.6
Sand filter out 31 0 3.1 50.7 1.9 62.2
Final Outfall 26.7 5.4 0.8 12.7 6.3 18.5
Removal (%) 91.4 95.8 90.6 -323.0 93.0 80.0
Conclusions:
 Constructed wetlands are an effective, environmentally friendly means of treating
waste (liquid and solid).
 Wetlands are effective at reducing loads of BOD/COD, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
suspended solids. Reduction can be up by 98%.
 In the last few years, there has been a tendency to construct SSF-type wetlands rather
than FWF-type. Such systems are believed to be more effective at treating waste.
 Despite current usage patterns, it is tropical and subtropical climates, which hold the
greatest potential for the use of wetlands; cold climates do bring problems with both
icing and thaw.
 Constructed wetlands require little maintenance, and remain effective after more than
10 years of use.

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  Use of constructed wetlands in developing countries can provide real economic
benefits by providing biomass and supporting aquaculture.
 Wetlands can provide a habitat for wildlife and act as a tourist attraction for the
community.
Performance Characteristics:
The means for Total Nitrogen (TN), Total Phosphorus (TP), copper and zinc
are:
 Inflow TP: 1.018mg/L and TN: 1.92 mg/L.
 Outflow TP: 1.013 mg/L and TN: 1.50mg/L.
 Inflow for Cu:9.1788 µg/L and Outflow for Cu: 2.4081µg/L
 Inflow for Zn: 9.02 µg/L and Outflow: for Zn: 3.7603 µg/L.
 Improved species diversity and abundance
Water Quality Improvement
Surface water is monitored for copper, cadmium, zinc, conductivity, pH,
turbidity, total phosphorus, total nitrogen and temperature. The results for total
phosphorus, total nitrogen and heavy metals are presented in tables 11, 12 and
13
As shown in Table 11 the concentrations of total phosphorus entering the
wetland are higher than the concentrations leaving the wetland. This indicates
a reduction of total phosphorus due to uptake by flora and sediments within
the wetland.

Statistical Analysis
Means for Total Phosphorus (TP) and Total Nitrogen (TN) for the four sites:
Table 26.
TP (mg/L) TN (mg/L) 
Inflow 1.018 1.92 
Outflow 1.013 1.50 
Upstream 1.005 1.26
Farmers
Downstream 1.006 1.29
Farmers
 
Because of heterogeneity of the data, it had to be transformed to undertake the
statistical analysis.

Transformed standard errors for TP and TN: Table 27.

TP TN 
S.E  0.000556  0.007165 

The means for Cu and Zn: Table 28.

Cu (µg/L) Zn (µg/L) 
Inflow 9.2788 9.02 
Outflow 2.4081 3.7603 
Upstream 1.1761 5.8904

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 Farmers
Downstream 1.0456  4.2496
Farmers

Wildlife Pond at end of Reed-Bed System:

Botanical/ Reed Beds: Artificial Wetlands; Constructed wetlands or Botanical/ Reed Beds
are designed to mimic the sediment and nutrient removal processes occurring in natural
wetlands. General design principles are based on holding or slowing the passage of water
through the wetland where a range of physical, chemical and biological processes can operate
to store, transform or remove various pollutants. These processes can be optimized through
the control and manipulation of the hydraulic regime, including retention time. Constructed
wetlands are configured into different zones, with each zone performing different functions.
Technical Details
The wetland is divided into three zones: sedimentation, wetlands (botanical bed) and
open water zone.
 The Sedimentation Zone improves water quality by trapping sediments, litter and
contaminants. As flow enters this zone it slows down resulting in sediment deposition.
The sediments act as a sink for phosphorus and other pollutants like heavy metals and
pesticides. Litter becomes tapped by vegetation located on the edges of this zone.
 The Wetland (Botanical Bed) Zone improves water quality by removing nutrients
and other pollutants. This zone effectively:
 Slows the flow of water, thereby increasing sedimentation and contact time
with the water (effluent);
 Filters pollutants and precipitates them from the water;
 Transfers oxygen to the root zones thereby preventing a build up of toxins
under saturated conditions;
 Assimilates, processes and stores nutrients;
 Supports microbial growth to enhance nutrient transformations.
 The Deep Open Water Zone polishes water, allowing time for finer particles to
settle and for sunlight to kill pathogens. The littoral vegetation surrounding the open
water zone contributes to pollutant removal through the processes described above.
Over the last hundreds of years there has been a general decline in the water quality of
rivers and streams. Land clearance for agriculture, urban development and manufacturing

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have led to increasing levels of phosphorus, turbidity, heavy metals and pathogenic bacterial
contamination of major water systems.
Streams and rivers have been adversely affected by industrial and urban development. The
water quality is poor, with high nutrient levels and heavy metal contamination problems.
Performance Criteria
The performance characteristics by which Wetlands are assessed include:
 The improvement of surface water quality entering water systems from the Wetland
(in particular the reduction of nutrients and heavy metals)
 The improvement of the site as habitat for native fauna; and
 Creation of a focal point for environmental education and passive recreation within
the Islamabad area.
Water Quality Improvement:
Surface water is monitored for copper, cadmium, zinc, conductivity, pH, turbidity,
total phosphorus, total nitrogen and temperature.
In simple terms, a botanical bed can be seen as a low loaded fixed film filter with in-
built sedimentation, a primary tank is required to retain the organic material, the effluent then
gravitates or is pumped to the botanical bed, membrane lined and filled with appropriate
gravel and stone and planted with appropriate plants. Dimensions, shape and number of beds
vary with type of application, flow rate and organic loading, and quality of treated effluent
required.
Botanical bed schemes have proven themselves to be an effective, sustainable,
reliable and economical method of treatment. Cost effective and aesthetically pleasing are
two good reasons for choosing botanical beds, a third and more important reason is that they
are the most environmental friendly form of sewage treatment available at this time.
The use of botanical beds in environmentally sensitive areas is now widespread in the
United Kingdom, over the last decade reed beds have been monitored by the Environment
Agency and are now an established form of treatment. Agri/ Horticulture

"Water in the environment is like blood in the body: and ours is sick. The arteries and
veins of our countryside, its rivers and wetlands, are suffering from the equivalent of low
blood pressure and blood poisoning. The condition has developed over many years and
treatment is now urgent."
Sir David Attenborough

The use of wetlands to treat effluent is not a new idea. Thousands of years ago,
natural wetlands were used by the Chinese and by the Egyptians to clarify liquid effluent.
However, the first “constructed” wetland was not used until 1904 (in Australia). Even after
that the use of such wetlands was slow to catch on. The first botanical treatment of waste was
not reported in Europe until the 1950s; America’s research into the field did not begin until
the 1970s. Nevertheless, it is now recognized that constructed wetlands are an economic way
of treating liquid effluent (and even raw sewage

Horizontal-flow wetlands may be of two types: free-water surface-flow (FWF) or sub-

surface water-flow (SSF). In the former the effluent flows freely above the sand/gravel bed in
which the reeds etc. are planted, and there may be patches of open water; in the latter effluent
passes through the sand/gravel bed. In FWF-type wetlands plant stems, leaves and rhizomes
treat effluent. Such FWF wetlands are densely planted and typically have water-depths of less
than 0.4m. However, dense planting can limit oxygen diffusion into the water, and FWF
wetlands are typically less effective at reducing BOD5 and phosphorus than SSF wetlands (in
which effluent is treated by the roots).

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Biogeochemical Reactions and Nutrient Uptake:

As mentioned earlier, temperature affects the rate at which biogeochemical processes

occur. In cold climates the rate at which biomass takes up nutrients will be significantly lower
than in warm, subtropical or tropical climates. Indeed, the treatment area required to transfer
90% of nutrients to biomass increases from around 7 ha at 20°C to 35 ha at 0°C. Constructed
wetlands are not yet widely used in developing, tropical countries. However, this is the very
environment in which such wetlands perform best. Indeed, constructed wetlands can form an
integrated part of the food production system in such climates.
The advantage of a hot climate is a continuous growing season, which means that the
wetland biomass can also be harvested. For example, the annual production of papyrus in
tropical conditions can be in excess of 100 tons/ ha/ year. The foliage can be sustainably
cropped, while the papyrus stems can be used for matting and thatching roofs. Water that has
passed through the wetland can be used to irrigate crops and/or introduced to a fishpond. In
this final stage, remaining nitrates and phosphates stimulate the growth of phytoplankton - the
favorite food of fish.
Such systems may actually yield a profit for local communities, and would be a
powerful tool in breaking the poverty cycle.
All chemical reactions slow as temperature drops and this is true for the processes
occurring in constructed wetlands Two innovative, low-cost and highly effective structures
are being introduced. These are an Environment Protected Green/ Shade House Structure
built as a Geodesic Dome and rectangular Green/ Shade covers for Botanical Beds.

Starting Medium Tunnel for Iris/ Papyrus Reeds/ African Lettuce/ Bulrushes
Botanical Bed Medium Tunnels

Bioaugmentation Pond Geodesic Dome

Line Depiction: Liquid Waste Remediation:

SEDIMENTATION POOL

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GEODESIC DOMES (Bioaugmentation). Water
Hyacinth

Botanical Beds Type “B” Filters

Pebbles/ Gravel/ Sand

Medium Tunnels

GEODESIC DOMES (Bioaugmentation).

Medium Tunnels

Botanical Beds Type “B” Filters

Pebbles/ Gravel/ Sand

POLISHING POOL

Lake/ Pond Treatment Systems:

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Page 106 of 118
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
A combination of various species of live Bacteria is used for the treatment of
Industrial, Agricultural and Residential organically contaminated wastewater. The micro-
organisms are non-toxic and non-pathogenic live bacteria suspended in a liquid medium that
is non-offensive to humans, animals, plants and all types of aqua-culture.
The bacterium remains in an adult state after manufacture which gives it ability to quickly
adapt to different environments. The combination of these diverse components provides the
flexibility to treat highly complex organic components in different systems utilizing aerobic
and anaerobic applications.
The bacteria have been very successful in the treatment of phenolic waste with large
concentrations of oils and fats and extremely offensive odors.
MODE OF ACTION:
When Bacteria is added to a contaminated area, they immediately revive themselves
and begin to feed, reproduce and attack the organic waste in the water.
The Bacteria were specifically developed to reduce Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) which causes the odors that emanate from water treatment
systems, septic tanks, lagoons and pits. The Bacteria breaks down solids including fecal
material, fats and proteins and treats phenolic waters, sewage, biodegradable Hydrogen
sulfide and other contaminants.
The operation efficiency of lagoons and other treatment facilities is greatly improved when
the Bacteria is applied. Contamination is drastically reduced as is the need for expensive
cleaning and pumping procedures. The Bacteria can help a treatment facility achieve total
compliance with Government Pollution Regulations.
LAGOON SYSTEMS:
The Bacteria’s unique ecosystem naturally breaks down the odor causing compounds
that contaminate surrounding communities and ground water supply. On the farm the
Bacteria can keep manure in a uniform pumpable slurry form and enhances it fertilizer value
making it more readily absorbable by plants while providing the following benefits.
 Reduction of Hydrogen Sulfide odors:
 Reduction of accumulated Gasses.
 Destruction of Fly and mosquito larvae.
 Reduction of BOD and COD.
 Breakdown of waste solids.
 Creation of healthier environment.
 Reduction in Livestock mortality.
 Increase in fertilizer value of recycled water.
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS:

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 One of the most significant tasks faced by City officials is to provide safe, potable
water to members of the community and subsequently to transport the used water or sewage
away to be disposed off in an environmentally compatible manner.
Some of the key areas where Bioaugmentation can be beneficial in Municipal Plants.
 Start-up and recovery of Biological Wastewater treatment systems.
 Improving organic removal efficiency.
 Improving performance of systems with inadequate aeration capacity.
 Improving Plant Stability.
 Establishing or increasing Nitrification.
 Expanding Plant capacity without Capital Expenditure.
 Improving oils and grease digestion.
 Reducing sludge generation per Kg of BOD removed.
 Improving cold weather operation.
 Improving solids settling.
 Improve breakdown of refractory organics.
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER PLANTS:
Effluents Treated from Industrial Wastewater Treatment Plants: Table29.
# ITEMS ITEMS
1 Chemicals Iron & Steel
2 Petrochemicals Food Processing
3 Refining Leather Tanning
4 Pulp & Paper Mining
Typically these Plants represent the highest organic concentrations for which
biological treatment is used. Aqua-Clean significantly reduces BOD levels and improves
overall operating efficiency.
COCA-COLA TRIALS:
“We improved the efficiency of our activated sludge facility to over 90% with the use
of Bioaugmentation,” says Mr. Juarez, Head of Maintenance, Coca-Cola Factory, Nixapa, El
Salvador, Central America.

100
80 BOD
60
40
20
BOD
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

SEPTIC TANKS & GREASE TRAPS:

Bioaugmentation degrades soluble organics in solution by a combination of aerobic
microaerophilic, facultative, aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms and primarily bacteria.
Bioaugmentation provides a higher bacterial population and augments the natural
degradation process of organic waste to assure efficient septic tank and grease trap operation.
Bioaugmentation digests the waste:

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 Prevents Overflow.
 Eliminates Organic accumulation.
 Reduces frequency of regular maintenance procedures.
 Eliminates noxious odors and reduces insect larvae.
GOLF COURSES - Ponds & Lakes:
Bioaugmentation eliminates offensive odors and keeps ponds clear and algae free by
two mechanisms: exclusion and the production of a natural inhibitor which is not harmful to
other aquatic plants or animals. The photosynthetic bacteria, which are metabolically similar
to algae, compete with algae for essential macro nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Keeps Ponds clean and clear.
 Reduces Filamentous and Planktonic Algae.
 Eliminates noxious odors caused by Algae.
 Reduces eggs and larvae of water-breeding insects.
 Safe for all Wildlife.
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT: La Costa, Uruguay
This Municipal Lagoon receives 2,40,000 liters of domestic sewage per day. A total
of 322 Liters of Bacteria was applied over a period of six weeks. The water was purified by
95% and was certified for use in Agriculture, pH was improved to 7.2 and Biological Oxygen
Demand was reduced from 40 initially to 13 after treatment. All noxious odors were
eliminated as was the presence of insects including flies and mosquitoes.

SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS: Table 30.

Origin WASTE
Chemical Phenols, alcohols, straight chain alkanes and aromatic
compounds
Dairy Fats and whey
Confectionary Sugar wastes and chemicals
Halogenated Chloro and di-chloro phenols
Aromatics
Detergents Surfactants and other components of detergents
Fish Farms Organic components of fish waste and unused fish food
Food Processing Reduction of BOD and odors
Petrochemicals Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Paper & Cellulose Reduction of BOD and odors
Pharmaceuticals Spent fermentation media, tabletising binders and
extraction solvents
Refinery Wastes Phenols, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, petroleum oils and
greases
Steel Phenols, cyanide, thiocyanate, ammonia and rolling oils
Manufacturing
Tanneries Vegetable tanning wastes
Textiles Surfactants, starches and organic dyes
Beverages Liquid sugars, high fructose corn syrups and flavorings

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 PLANT NUTRITION:

A factor common to all of the before mentioned agricultural developments and indeed part
of them is Plant Nutrition. In fact, the basis of the controversy is the deleterious affects of Plant
Nutrition as introduced by the Green Revolution. Rather than only highlight the positive results
accrued by this revolution, it would serve humanity to take lessons from past mistakes or
oversights and move to correct them. This does not take from venerable reputations but rather
reinforces them by provision of continuity rather than termination. A greater and deeper
understanding of organics and their inorganic building blocks is badly required.

Organics are high-energy-level compounds that have arisen due to energy input (usually
from the sun) to low-energy-level inorganic elements and or compounds. Thus, low-energy-level
inorganic materials arise to constitute the parts of high-energy-level organic compounds and
entities of progressively higher life forms that, in turn are subject to reversion to low-energy-level
inorganic materials on decomposition and/ or death22. With this as a fact, there is absolutely no
basis for an organic versus inorganic debate what so ever. The debate should revolve around the
safety of the introduction by humans of fabricated materials into the environment. In case they are
not safe then safer materials need to be developed and unsafe materials need to be banned,
immediately or whenever such safe materials are available.

It is an inescapable fact that all life forms require nutrition to maintain life. Modern research
has shown that a life form must change its physical constituents quite rapidly in order to meet its
growth and existence requirements. Indeed, we require a constant supply of all kinds of atoms,
molecules, and compounds in order to replace what is being lost. The environment provides us
with air and water to fulfill our need and indeed that of all life forms with Oxygen, Carbon and
Hydrogen which make up over 90% of the life form’s body, be it human, animal or plants. Apart
from this there are a number of essential raw materials required, this placed is between eighteen to
forty for human beings. Of these eighteen are most commonly required, i.e. fifteen apart from the
three already mentioned. These elements are the same for humans, animals, and plants. As yet
however, only plants are able to synthesize these raw materials into assimilable forms and make

22
Environment Systems Engineering, Linvil G. Rich. Mcgraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-052250-2

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them available to humans and animals on an economic scale. There are six classes of nutrients for
humans; of these four supply indispensable building materials. These are water; protein; minerals
and vitamins. The other two are classed as energy foods (carbohydrates and fats, oils) and are
interchangeable whereas the previous four are not.

Just as living organisms shed their components and replace them on a continuous basis
thereby consuming energy so too does Nature constantly consume energy through breakdown of
organic matter, weathering process in the soil, the hydrothermal cycle, and mobility of substances
in soil, water, and air. Many dynamic and interdependent chains and cycles exist within the
Biosphere as elements are cycled and recycled, are consumed and/ or replenished, subjected to
output losses due to lack of input: output balance. Stable Eco Systems are those wherein minerals
(essential elements) and particulate material are retained by recycling them within its constituent
sub-systems. It is important to note that rebuilding of this dynamic recycling, in case of disruption,
can take from 60 to 80 years and longer depending upon the severity of the disruption. Secondly, it
has taken millions of years for these Eco Systems to evolve. For instance, soil that has been either
deposited or built up in millions of years can be lost within a few years if mismanaged. Thus, large
quantities of minerals are removed. If Compost or well-rotted Farm Yard Manure is inculcated in
the soil, quantities of these minerals are returned to the soil and fertility is replenished to the extent
of addition. Since Farm Yard Manure does not contain sufficient minerals to replace those
removed, unless prohibitively large quantities of rarely available manure are added. Even when
composted with biodegradable organic material, the output: input ratio is not balanced. Thus,
agricultural soils face continuous depletion (Nutrient Mining). This is compounded by run off and
leaching losses due to poor cultural practices. Thirdly, over use of deadly pesticides and herbicides
tend to kill or eliminate useful biota in the form of microbes and fungi. These biota are of vital
importance as they mineralize organic material and provide them to plants and other energy
pathways within the Eco System.

Therefore, if uptake is value 5, retention is one and return is two then Nutrient Mining
output: input ratio will be 5:3 representing a net loss of two per crop leading to declining fertility.
When organic material and biota are absent or deficient then the even two return is not, or partially
mineralized and will not be available to the plants. Thus, our Nutrient Reserves are soon
exhausted.

If cultivated land is managed correctly, nutrient reserves can be replenished and fertility
levels can be increased. For example, nutrient loss from the Eco System is minimized by presence
of plants that hold soil through their roots and thus prevent erosion; convert water run-off to
evapo-transpiration and restrict leaching losses; provide shade and reduce rates of decomposition
of organic matter so that the supply of soluble ions available for loss via run-off is lessened.

If sufficient nutrients and compounds are provided to the plant, uptake from the reserve is
curtailed and soil fertility is maintained. These nutrients etc. must be in a form that makes it
available to the plant and must be stable and safe for the environment.

Thus, we see that provision of Plant Nutrition and Correct Cultural Practices are of prime
importance. These are common to all seed; often critical for hybrid or Genetically Modified
Organisms. If either of these two is not rational, the result is poor quality and quantity produce as
well as more susceptibility of the plant to Negative Growth Factors and pest attacks.
Thus, we see that humans require minerals either directly from plants or from animals
dependent upon plants (meat, milk, eggs etc.). It is the human, animal or plant that makes organic
compounds out of basic essential building materials. Some of these organic compounds are known

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as hormones, which are described as chemical messengers that excite one response or the other in
the body’s organs or tissues.

Plants normally obtain their mineral requirements from the soil and the ability of a soil to
provide the proper elements and compounds, in proper amounts and in proper balance for growth
of specified plants when temperature and other factors are favorable is what determines soil
fertility (proper means in the ionic forms commonly absorbed by the plant).

It is highly recommended to use compost or manure for its primary beneficial roles
such as:

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 Either by seed coating (not sufficient due to limited amount of nutrients that can be
coated) or foliar application, the target plant is the sole beneficiary and weeds or other
undesirable plant species do not receive the nutrient. Secondly, loss by leaching or run-off is
reduced to almost zero. This is more so if the nutrients are chelated {derived from the Greek
‘Chelae’ or Claw and used to denote covering an element with organic material to provide
ionic bonding affect of cation: anion (positive & negative ion attraction)}. The chelated
nutrient ions bond to the leaf and stem surface and resist being washed off till they have a
reasonable chance of being absorbed by the plant’s tissue. Through pioneering work in this
field PARC has introduced Humic Acid, which has the capacity to organically chelate already
existing metal ions in the soil and facilitate uptake by the Plants.

The single positively charged Sodium ion (Na+) is repelled by the double positive
charged Calcium ion (Ca++), which, being a Secondary Nutrient and basic building block for
Plant Tissue is taken up by the Plant along with other Nutrient elements in the Soil solution.
Thus plants can thrive in saline environments provided sufficient quantities of soluble
calcium are present. Weathering process of exoskeletons and other Marine Biota is providing
this calcium and allowing plants to adapt to saline environment.

If we ensure that the nutrient element that we are providing to our crops are not dangerous to
the environment and other life forms. If we provide the crops with these safe nutrients in a
responsible manner and if these nutrients are sufficiently stable and do not decompose to toxic
material through either hydrolysis or volatilization. Then there is no point what so ever in deriding
their use.

Von Liebeg’s Law states that the yield of a crop is limited by the nutrient in least supply.
This means that supply of whichever of the essential building materials is restricted in terms of
quantities required by the plant, it will restrict the yield. This is compared to a bucket with holes
for various nutrients placed in accordance to amounts required. As these amounts are met, the hole
is plugged and nutrient intake increases to the next critical nutrient element required by the plant.
Maximum genetic potential yields are achieved only when all holes are plugged. Of course soil,
management systems; cultural practices; climate, environment, mutual antagonism, or stimulation
between various minerals and Negative Growth Factors play their own critical role in determining
yields.
If there are enough nutrients available for the following yields, total yield will be determined
by the least available nutrient in terms of the plant’s requirements,

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 Nutrient Yield (Kgs)
Nitrogen 1000
Phosphorus 800
Potassium 600
Sulfur 1000
Magnesium 800
Calcium 300
------------- ----
------------- ----
Molybdenum 150

Yield will be restricted to 150 Kgs.

It is important to note that this is true for crops of all kinds, under all management systems
and independent of source or manner of derivation of the plant. In other words, this inescapable
fact holds true for Organic; Super Organic; Smartly Bred or Genetically Modified Organisms.

Therefore, our Management requirement is to provide enough environmentally safe and

available forms of nutrients to fulfill the needs of the plant. This ensures achievement of genetic
potential apart from other factors. These other factors such as water; climate; cultural practices and
control of Negative Growth Factors (NGF), are also managed in order to achieve maximum
genetic potential (MPG).

The presence of nutrients in compost or manure is negligible as compared to an intensive

crop’s requirements. Intensive cropping means intensive mining of finite supplies of nutrients
available in any given soil. As we all know, soils vary greatly in nutrient availability, and
inculcation of compost or manure is one way of replenishing these nutrient supplies. However, we
have seen that there are inefficient and do not contain enough nutrients to fulfill the plant’s
requirements. Added to this is the fact that particular nutrient deficient soils will not have sufficient
amounts of that nutrient to cycle into the food chain and will eventually not only restrict the crop’s
yield but will also not be available to the humans and animals that feed upon plants grown on such
soils. If this element is lacking it will not find its way either into manure or compost and the cycle
of deficiency will be reinforced. To overcome this, the element has to be obtained externally.
Secondly, and more importantly, it is prohibitively expensive to analyze and update soil analysis
for all elements required by a plant. On the other hand, how much of each nutrient is required by a
particular species of plant for a given yield is known to science.

There are some critical periods for plant development wherein growth and yield increase
with increased availability of nutrients that can be used by the plant. Foliar feeding with correct
combinations of nutrients as required by the plant in different growth periods will provide
increased growth and vigor resulting in increased yields, weather proofing and disease resistance.
Another factor that increases yields is the prolonging of root life after flowering in order to
provide longer time for grain/ fruit to fill. In order to do this we need to keep the root growing
vegetatively during the early period and after flowering, we need to elongate the period of root life.

Plateau corresponds to flowering

% Root Growth

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 Death
Drought Good Weather

Days

This is done by hormones. The hormone balance of a plant is responsible for dictating its
response to environmental factors. Changes in climate affect hormone balance. This is more in
some varieties and less in others. This is dictated by the genetics of a plant. Down through the
centuries humans have domesticated and then bred plants for desirable genetic traits. These genetic
traits need to be tapped by the plant and this is only possible through the support of complete plant
nutrition. However, genetic expression of potential can be modified to weatherproof a plant and
ensure that climate change has less impact upon yields.

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The fisheries sector in Pakistan offers direct employment to over one million people, most of
which work as fishermen. There are a large number of fishermen’s villages all along
Pakistan’s coast line where fishing is primary source of earnings for centuries. The stagnant
fisheries sector directly affects standards of living of this community. In addition, these large
socioeconomic groups face economic survival problems due to marine resource
mismanagement, decreased landing figures and problems faced by seafood processors (who
buy their produce) in export marketing because of poor quality product.

Given the changing eating habits and depleting natural resources, world seafood
market is termed as mainly “sellers market”. The focus in fishing is shifting from already
exploited regions to under-exploited areas because of conservation and environment
pressures. Despite such favorable circumstances, Pakistan’s seafood exports have actually
decreased during the past decade, with 1992 showing highest figures, i.e., US$ 181 million.

The main problems faced by Pakistan’s fishing industry are technical, operational and
regulatory in nature. During1999-2002, SMEDA worked for the uplift of the fishing industry
through a number of measures. First it carried out a sector study identifying the key issues
being faced by the industry. Then SMEDA worked closely with Karachi Fish Harbour
Authority (KFHA) and Fishermen’s Cooperative Society (FCS) in the cleanup and improving
hygienic conditions of the Fish Harbour, encouraging the fishermen to use modern on-boat
storage and handling techniques, boat modification, training of fishermen, etc.
By adopting modern techniques of fishing and fish processing, Pakistan can exploit
the huge opportunity that exists in the fisheries sector.23

The fluid and dynamic nature of marine ecosystems, and the high diversity of habitats and
species that may occur within an area, including migratory species, often requires multiple
objectives and diverse management schemes. Multiple–use MPA (Marine Protected Areas)
are generally zoned, each type zone having different objectives, with allowing some greater
use and removal of resources than the others. A critical habitat may be zoned for strict
protection (Nursery ground/spawning ground for any commercially important fish or
shellfish), it may be surrounded by an area managed for broader objective e.g. recreation
(National park), and this turn might be surrounded by an area managed for a range of uses
(fishing area). Any Marine National Park may also be categorized as core zones with strict
protection (no take) zone and general use zone (fishing area). No take zones have become an
important tool for marine biodiversity protection and fisheries management.  They may
comprise a whole MPA or be a core zone within multiple-use MPA. Within them any
removal of marine species and modification, extraction or collection of marine resources (e.g.
through fishing, harvesting, dredging, mining or drilling) are prohibited. Other forms of
human disturbance may also be restricted. Recent research demonstrating the role of no-take
areas in increasing fishery stocks and their importance as key elements in the ecosystem
approach to marine biodiversity   protection has stimulated efforts to create such areas.  There
are proposals to establish such protected areas in Pakistan. Astola Island, Jiwani-Gawater
Bay, Ormara and Miani Hor on West coast of PakistanThe importance of some of these sites
23
http://www.pakissan.com/english/agri.overview/fisheries.sector.in.pakistan.shtml Director, Special Projects Division,
SMEDA.). 

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has already been recognized internationally as wintering grounds for migratory birds and the
sites of Miani Hor, Ormara, Astola Island and Jiwani- Gawatar Bay have been declared as
Ramsar Sites. The species like Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus), White pelican
(Pelecanus oncrotalus) and Lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) have been recorded from these
sides, and these species come under Appendix 1 of CMS (Convention on Migratory Species)
that lists migratory species that are endangered. Twenty-seven species of birds were also
recorded from these localities which come under Appendix II of CMS (Appendix II describes
migratory birds which have unfavorable status among Range States but not declared
endangered as yet)   Astola Island, Jiwani-Gawater Bay, Ormara and Sandspit-Hawks Bay
are important breeding grounds of marine turtles. Two important species of marine turtles,
green turtle (Chelona mydas) and Olive Ridley turtle( Lepidochelys olivacea) breed in these
areas.  Out of 43 species of marine mammals that inhabit the Indian Ocean, 12 species of
marine mammals have been recorded from Pakistan waters and all of them are migratory and
some of them often listed as Data Deficient because there is insufficient information to
determine the risk of extinction. Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus ) frequently use
Pakistan waters, Oman and Iran in its western range states and there are several records of its
stranding on western part of Pakistan coast. The Humpback whale (Megaptera
novaeangliae ) is one of the most common species on eastern coast of Pakistan while
Humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), Bottlenose dolphin (Neophocaena phocaenoides ) and
Finless porpoise (Tursiops truncates) are common throughout coastal waters of Pakistan.
About 50 species of sharks are reported from South Asian region and their biology is more
comparable to large mammals than to the bony fishes. Whale sharks tend to come to inshore
especially during periods of heavy rain fall, probably to feed on the plankton that blooms
with increased nutrients and coinciding upwelling. Sharks fins have particularly high value
and sharks are increasingly being caught for these alone. Dries shark fins are used for soup in
many Asian countries. All five maritime nations of South Asia are involved in shark fin
fisheries. Pakistan and Sri Lanka feature in top 20 shark catching countries. Large sharks
travel long distances. The collection of lobsters in Pakistan began with the demand for the
tourists and export markets.  Spiny lobsters (Panulirus spp.) are traditionally not a favoured
food item among local communities in South Asia including Pakistan.  West coast of
Pakistan has excellent breeding/spawning grounds for spiny lobsters.  A considerable
quantity of spiny lobsters is collected from the waters of Ormara, Astola Island, Pasni,
Gawadar and Jiwani (West coast of Pakistan) and Cape Montz, Churna Island (East coast of
Pakistan).
The shrimp fishery in Pakistan bears a strong relation to the extent and status of the
mangroves. Mangroves are especially important as nursery grounds for fish and shrimp are
widely distributed along the coast of Pakistan. Major portion of mangroves belongs to Sindh
Coast.  The Sindh Coast (Eastern coast) is studded with dense growth of mangroves
extending from Karachi to beyond Indo-Pakistan border.  The distribution of mangroves
along the Balochistan coast is restricted to three geographical locations namely Miani Hor,
Kalmat Hor and Gwatar Bay. Government of Pakistan is earning an average of Rs.8.8 billion
from the export of shrimps and fish annually. The destruction of habitats will seriously
hamper fisheries production which in turn could jeopardize food security for local
communities and reduce the economical contribution of the fisheries sector to the national
economy.
The coral diversity in Pakistan is very low as compared to other South Asian maritime
nations. India is near the centre of coral diversity in the world, with at least 250+ different
species of corals.  They often occur in association with other ecosystems, particularly
seagrass beds and mangrove forests which provide nursery and feeding areas of high primary
productivity which provide nutrients for the coral reef organisms.  In Pakistan attempts are

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being made to explore coral reef ecosystems and recently 20 species of corals have been
recorded from Astola Island.  Similar attempts are being undertaken in mangrove areas at
Gawater Bay (Jiwani).24

24
Seminar on transboundary coastal and marine protected areas with special priorities for spawning grounds - Pakistan
Concept note on “A Seminar on transboundary coastal and marine protected areas with special reference to spawning grounds”
proposed to be held at Karachi, Pakistan in May, 2009

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