Smart Polymeric

Coatings—Recent Advances
W. FENG
Otto H. York Department of Chemical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology,
Newark, NJ 07102

S. H. PATEL, M-Y. YOUNG

Polymer Processing Institute, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102

J. L. ZUNINO III
U.S. Army Corrosion Office, Picatinny Arsenal, NJ 07806

M. XANTHOS
Otto H. York Department of Chemical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology,
Newark, NJ 07102
Received: January 2, 2007
Revised: March 11, 2007

ABSTRACT: There is an ever-growing number of developments that aim to

bring novel functionalities to polymer-coating systems with nanotechnology
being one of them. This article will cover recent advances in the field of smart
polymeric structures that are used in protective coatings in terms of stimulus and
response, sensing mechanisms, and current or potential applications. Such
structures are commonly based on polymers modified through organic or
inorganic additives. Emphasis is placed on smart sensors used for detecting the
onset of corrosion on polymer coated ferrous and nonferrous substrates.
Examples of self-healing and repair through the action of microcapsules are also
presented.
C 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Adv Polym Techn 26: 1–13, 2007;

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI

10.1002/adv.20083

Correspondence to: M. Xanthos; e-mail: [email protected].

Contract grant sponsor: U.S. Army Corrosion Office;
Picatinny, NJ through the Smart Coatings program at the
New Jersey Institute of Technology.

Advances in Polymer Technology, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1–13 (2007)

C 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

KEY WORDS: Additives, Coatings, Corrosion, Sensors, Smart materials,

Stimuli-sensitive polymers

and established industrial R&D laboratories are

Introduction rapidly producing technologies with high potential
to convert otherwise conventional, “dumb” coating

I ntelligent or smart materials, which may com-

bine the functions of sensor or actuator, rely on
their capabilities to respond to physical, chemical, or
systems into “intelligent” ones. The present brief
review concentrates on polymeric structures, which
in most cases are modified through organic or
inorganic additives and are used in polymer coat-
mechanical stimuli by developing readable signals.
ings. Emphasis is placed on smart sensors used for
Changes in properties and structure, in response to
detecting the onset of corrosion on coated metallic
changes in the environment, are in many cases re-
substrates.
versible. Responses may often actuate, in addition
to simple sensing, corrective action such as self-
mending or healing. Smart materials are expected
to be used not only as advanced functional mate- Smart Polymer Coatings Based
rials but also as an integral part of complete smart
structures composed of various elements including
on Color Response
sensors, actuators, control algorithms, control hard-
ware, and structural members.1 For smart sensors based on color response, the
The range of materials displaying some property, response may be visible color change, fluorescence,
which would allow them to be incorporated as sen- or phosphorescence as a result of a variety of stimuli
sors or actuators in a smart structure, is almost lim- that include
itless and well documented.1,2 Clearly, it would be
beyond the scope of the present brief review to list all

pH change,
common types of material response to every possi-
redox reactions,
ble form of stimuli. Key technologies that have been
the presence of heavy metals,
developed or are currently evaluated include shape
sorption of chemicals,
memory metal alloys and polymers, fiber optic sen-
radiation,
sors, piezoelectric materials, electrochromic materi-
mechanical action,
als, and electro-rheological and magneto-rheological
fluids. With respect to coatings, in addition to pro-

temperature changes, and
tective polymeric coatings for military and civilian
electrical current.
applications, intended uses of organic and inorganic
Table I summarizes the characteristics of selected
systems with smart functionality include
polymeric coatings described in the literature as hav-
ing smart functionality. Information is presented on

membranes for controlled drug release;
type of stimulus and response, sensor type, sensing

coatings with different adsorptive capacity for mechanism, and types of existing or potential ap-
proteins; plications. The smart functionality may be imparted

thermochromic, electrochromic, and gasochro- by functional additives (colorants) that are added
mic smart windows; and separately into the coating prior to its application

sensors for volatile organic compounds (VOC) on a given substrate (systems 1–4, 6–8); examples of
contaminants, land mines, radiation, and such applications include corrosion detection, self-
chemical warfare gases. healing, surface decontamination, radiation detec-
tion. Smart functionality may also be built into the
There is an ever-growing number of develop- polymeric structure (systems 5, 9, 10). Examples
ments that aim to bring novel functionalities to include
polymer-coating systems with nanotechnology be-
ing one of them. Interdisciplinary materials research (a) Acrylic polymers with long crystal-
at universities, research centers, start-up companies, lizable hydrocarbon side chains that

2 Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv

 TABLE I
Smart Polymeric Coatings Containing Functional Colorants
System Stimulus Response Sensor Type Sensing Mechanism Application References

1 pH change Color pH indicators Ionic form of different Corrosion detection 3

color
2 Oxidation Fluorescence Fluorescein, Schiff Redox Corrosion detection 4

Advances in Polymer Technology

bases reaction-fluorescent
oxidized form
3 Sorption, diffusion Fluorescence Fluorescence probes Decrease fluorescence Follow degradation 5
(increase free of coating
volume)
4 Mechanical action Capsule U/F capsules with film Healing: film or CaCO3 Self-healing; crack 6
rupture-healing, former, or Ca(OH)2 formation—Crack detection

DOI 10.1002/adv
color change or marker dye sensing: dye release
5 UV light, γ-rays Color Diacetylenes Polymerization Radiation detection 7
6 Light, temperature Color Photochromic dyes, Structural transitions Battery tester, printing 8–12
Thermochromic inks, miscellaneous
pigments, LCP coatings
and dyes
7 Heavy metal, Color change Colorimetric dye Colored metal complex Strippable coatings for 13,14
radioactive surface
contamination decontamination
8 TNT, nerve gas Quenching Fluorescent polymer TNT binds to receptors Location of land mines; 15
presence fluorescence fiber, reactive sensor on chromophores, sensor for chemical
reducing signal; warfare gas
nerve gas reacting
with sensor
9 Temperature Color change Side-chain Reversible crystalline H2 O barrier controlling 16
crystallizable polymer to amorphous seed germination
10 Oxidation Optical absorbance, Conducting polymer Switch between Sensors, actuators, 17
miscellaneous films (Pani, Ppy, Pth) charged and corrosion resistance
properties neutral states
SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

3
SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

can act as temperature-activated crys- and octopi, change of volume (and apparent color) of
tallinity/permeability switches. In a typical sacs containing pigments may occur through muscle
application involving seed germination with contraction and relaxation.22
soil temperature below about 13◦ C, the seed An example of a bioinspired intelligent system
coating is crystalline, provides a barrier is a N-isopropyl acrylamide gel loaded with car-
to moisture, and prevents germination; at bon black. Through temperature changes, the sys-
higher temperatures, the amorphous coating tem undergoes reversible volume changes and, as
structure enhances permeation and allows a result, changes in polymer chain conformations;
germination.21 at the lowest critical solution temperature (LCST) of
(b) Conductive forms of polypyrrole, polythio- 31◦ C, these changes affect apparent color. Potential
phene, and polyaniline undergo property applications for such system include smart windows
changes during reversible redox and pH and camouflage.23,24
switching reactions; properties include color,
electrical conductivity, permeability, density,
and charge density. Such polymers can be used
in corrosion protection coatings for steel, stain- Smart Polymer Coatings Based
less steel, aluminum, and copper. The conduct-
ing polymer anodically protects the metal, en-
on Noncolor Response
couraging the formation of a passivating oxide
layer.17 Numerous polymeric coatings based on noncolor
response have been described in the literature as
Colorants may be simple dyes or pigments as having smart functionality. Table III summarizes the
shown for systems 1–8 in Table I, or more complex characteristics of selected intelligent polymeric coat-
hybrid, multicomponent colorants based on inor- ings based on stimulus, response, sensor type, sens-
ganic substrates coated with inorganic or organic ing mechanisms, and types of existing or potential
additives that provide specific effects or offer a po- applications. The smart functionality may be im-
tential for smart functionality (Table II). Figure 1 parted by functional additives added separately into
shows the structure of a TiO2 coated mica special the coating prior to its application on a given sub-
pearlescent pigment. strate or be built in the polymeric structure. Exam-
Some recent research efforts toward the devel- ples include self-healing of cracks in coatings (sys-
opment of smart materials have been bioinspired. tem 1), selective absorption of gaseous pollutants
Color and color changes due to environmental (system 2), modification of absorptive characteristics
changes may be considered as functional proper- of coatings on biomaterials (systems 3 and 4), tem-
ties of certain living organisms. For certain birds, porary protective coatings that can be removed on
fish, snakes, and butterflies, color and apparent color demand through dissolution in appropriate reagents
are due to pigments but also to iridescence (creative (system 5), and monitoring durability of coatings
interference) because of overlapping carbohydrate through dielectric sensors (system 6). Durability of
scales giving the appearance of different color; the polymeric systems containing glass fiber reinforce-
effects depend on the angle of viewing, wavelength, ment can also be monitored by incorporating fiber
and the medium refractive index. For chameleons, optic sensors that respond in real time to excessive
there is a control of the extent of surface exposure of strains imposed upon the structure during manufac-
layers of colored or reflecting cells. For certain squids turing and actual use.32

TABLE II
Multicomponent Colorants with Potential for "Smart Functionality"
Effect Material Reference

Pearlescence, interference effect Mica substrate based pigments (TiO2 , FeTiO3 , Fe3 O4 , Cr2 O3 ) 18
Electrical conductivity, magnetism, Oxide coated mica substrate (Sn, Sb, Fe, Ti oxides) 18
IR reflective, laser sensitive
Electroluminescence Nanoclay substrate coated with emissive polymer 19
Color Bentonite coated with cationic dyes—pulp colorant 20

4 Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv

 SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

FIGURE 1. Hybrid special effects pigments consisting of TiO2 coating deposited on mica flakes. Reproduced with
permission from Wiley-VCH.18

TABLE III
Smart Polymeric Coatings Based on Noncolor Response
Sensing
System Stimulus Response Sensor Type Mechanism Application Reference

1 Mechanical action Capsule U/F capsules DCPD- Crack 25

rupture-healing containing catalyzed self-healing
DCPD polymeriza- of coatings
tion
2 Gases; HC’s, Selective PP copolymer, Match Coating on 26,27
ammonia, absorption PC, acrylics solubility quartz crystal
acetaldehyde parameters resonator,
electronic
nose
3 Light Surface Azobenzene Cis–trans iso- Coating with 28
wettability derivatives merization reversible
absorptive
capacity for
biological
agents
4 Temperature Hydrophilicity/ N -isopropyl LCST31◦ C Coating on 29
hydrophobicity acrylamide (transition biomaterials
from random (nonprotein
coil to absorptive or
dehydrated) protein
retentive)
5 Neutralizing Dissolution Carboxylated Water soluble Temporary 30
agents (NH3 , copolymer neutralized protective
(NH4 )2 CO3 ) form coatings
6 Aging Mechanical Frequency Dielectric Monitor 31
deterioration properties, dependent sensing of durability of
water dielectric molecular coatings
resistance measure- mobility
ment
sensor

Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv 5

SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

the conductive polymer with either the alu-

Corrosion Detection minum surface or functional groups of the
binder.41
GENERAL
A polymethyl methacrylate coating containing
anion-doped polyaniline and applied on iron,
Corrosion occurs within both industrial and do- first releases anions through polyaniline re-
mestic environments, and corrosion of a metal sur- duction; the doping anions form a passivating
face increases significantly as the structure ages. complex with iron cations that act as a physi-
Structural defects from corrosion can cause fail- cal protective barrier for aggressive corrosive
ure. As a result, detection of corrosion at the ear- ions.42
liest stages is an important step toward improving
safety and reducing cost. Many different sensors and
techniques are being developed to detect corrosion. CORROSION-SENSING COATINGS
Methods that are currently used to detect corro- A variety of corrosion resistant or protective poly-
sion include X-ray,33 ultrasound,34 optical,35 flash meric coatings and paints have been described in the
thermography,36 and electrochemical impendance literature as having smart functionality. Some exam-
spectroscopy.37 ples have been shown in Tables I and III. Additional
The use of smart materials for corrosion-sensing smart-coating principles, relevant or potentially rel-
purposes relies on a material undergoing a transfor- evant to corrosion sensing that are described below
mation through its interaction with the corrosive en- include the following:
vironment. It is such transformations that can poten-
tially be used for indicating and detecting corrosion
Paint systems containing color-changing com-
damage. Ideally, the sensing function could be inte-
pounds, responding to pH changes that result
grated with additional actuation and control func-
from corrosion processes.
tions designed to protect metals from corrosion and
to control corrosion damage. A recent example of

Changes of coating compounds from nonfluo-
a smart nonpolymeric coating is an amorphous Al- rescent to fluorescent states, upon oxidation or
Co-Ce alloy applied on structural aluminum alloys. complexing with metal cations.
The pH change accompanying corrosion prompts
Release of color dyes containing anticorrosive
dissolution of the coating and release of corrosion- additives from embedded microcapsules filled
inhibiting ions that migrate to the critical site. When with dye and additive following mechanical
corrosion stops, the pH returns to normal and the damage of the capsule coating.
dissolution of the coating returns to low levels.38 In
Use of pigments that absorb corrosive chem-
another example, pH changes for metals exposed in icals or release corrosion inhibiting chem-
corrosive media may be measured by a novel local icals “on demand” with or without color
ion concentration technique. Using a miniaturized changes.
pH sensor and reference electrode, a significant in-
crease in alkalinity (up to pH 12) was detected in Compounds, which show fluorescence in the ul-
a scribe of a coating, 5 h after immersion in NaCl traviolet to near infrared region, have been investi-
solution.39 gated for their corrosion-sensing capabilities when
Additional examples related to the use of con- subjected to the effects of temperature, pH, reduc-
ductive coatings for corrosion inhibition by repassi- tion, and reoxidation behavior. For corrosion sens-
vating the metal substrate involve the use of mod- ing, the chemical should fluoresce only when ei-
ified polyanilines containing anionic inhibitors as ther oxidized or when reacting with the corroding
dopants that are released through polarization of a species. Compounds such as fluorescein, Morin or
polymer–polymer blend whose one component is a Schiff bases, oxines and hydroxyquinolines, were
conductive polymer.40 Related references are found to fluoresce with aluminum ions and dur-
ing oxidation in air when incorporated into primer

Epoxy, polyester, or crosslinked polyvinyl paint coatings for aluminum alloys. Fluorescent
alcohol coatings containing polyaniline or dyes were applied to microelectronic test vehicles to
polypyrrole have been shown to increase the detect pH changes associated with corrosion of Al
corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys sev- or Au metallization under an applied bias in a hu-
eral fold; this is possibly due to interactions of mid environment.43 Fluorescing and color-changing

6 Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv

 SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

FIGURE 2. Fluorescent materials for corrosion detection on alloy surfaces.45 [Color figure can be viewed in the online
issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

dyes also have been applied to Al after corrosion to time (Fig. 3b); color change in the coating indicated
identify the location of the hydrous aluminum ox- the occurrence of localized corrosion. In another
ide corrosion product [44]. Johnson and Agarwala4 approach,48 pH sensitive dyes have been encapsu-
incorporated into paint different chemicals that flu- lated in a polymeric shell susceptible to degradation
oresce upon oxidation or upon complexation with at the alkaline pH accompanying cathodic corrosion.
metal cations formed by the corrosion process. This The released dyes serve as corrosion indicators at the
is shown in Fig. 245 , for an epoxy coating containing localized corrosion sites.
fluorescein on aluminum panels, the area experienc- Fiber-optic arrays have been evaluated for cor-
ing corrosion fluoresces under UV light. These stud- rosion sensing of uncoated or coated aeronautic
ies show the potential of fluorescent compounds as structures.49−51 The imaging fiber’s distal face, con-
early warning corrosion sensors; large surface areas, taining an immobilized pH-sensitive fluorescent dye
such as aluminum alloys used in aircraft, coated with or coated with coatings containing pH-sensitive
epoxy-containing fluorescent probes can be scanned dyes, was used for visualizing remote corrosion
with light of suitable wavelength to determine the sites. By measuring local chemical concentrations at
onset of corrosion.46 these sites, the results were applied to real-time cor-
In addition to compounds that change their rosion such as galvanic and crevice corrosion and
optical signature when they undergo redox (re- pitting. In a particular arrangement, applicable to
duction/oxidation) behavior, there exist a vari- coated surfaces, tapped Bragg gratings of different
ety of compounds that change color as a result Bragg periods are spaced along the fiber to refract
of pH changes. Zhang and Frankel3 and Frankel a narrow bandwidth component of a broad beam
et al.47 used different color change or fluorescing light pulse transmitted through the fiber. Figure 4
compounds, which are sensitive to the increase in shows a cut-away view of a lap joint with one tapped
local pH associated with the cathodic reaction Bragg grating in a longitudinal segment of the op-
tical fiber sensor.52 The sensing compound #18 that
O2 + 2H2 O + 4e− → 4OH− coats the optical fiber is a corrosion responsive chem-
ical acting through color change or fluorescence,
accompanying the anodic reaction that forms hy- e.g., 1,10-phenanthroline for steel and fluorescein
drous aluminum oxide corrosion product. Figure 3 for aluminum. Because of corrosion, the compound
contains a schematic of an experimental painted lap reflects the refracted components and their ampli-
joint setup for detecting crevice corrosion on alu- tudes are detected and displayed for each narrow
minum panels (Fig. 3a) and results on panels coated bandwidth.
with acrylic paints containing pH indicators after More recently, anion-exchanging hydrotalcite53
immersion in 1 M NaCl solution for a period of and cation-exchanging bentonite54 clays, both

Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv 7

SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

FIGURE 3. (a) Experimental setup for determining crevice corrosion onset through color changes in painted lap joint.
Reprinted with permission from Zhang and Frankel.3 (b) Photographs of color change of two pH sensing coating on Al
5454 substrate following immersion in 1.0 M NaCl solution. Left: phenolphthalein paint after 8 days, Right: Bromothymol
paint after 13 days. Reprinted with permission from Zhang and Frankel.3 © NACE International 1999. [Color figure can be
viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

modified through the incorporation of specific ray diffraction could be detected as a result of an
ions, were used in organic coatings for corro- ion exchange reaction accompanying corrosion. As
sion protection and sensing. It was shown that shown in Fig. 5, the coatings with a decavanadate-
a change in crystalline structure identified by X- modified hydrotalcite (HT-V) show better protection
in the salt spray test than the unmodified coating.
Figure 6 (left) compares the X-ray diffraction pat-
terns of epoxy containing HT-V deposited on alu-
minum before and after exposure in a 0.5 M NaCl
solution for 450 h. Figure 6 (right) shows that the
profound changes in the diffraction pattern of the
exposed coatings are the result of an ion exchange
reaction leading to the formation of HT-Cl and
the release of corrosion-inhibiting decavanadate.
Vanadate release may be triggered at specific pH or
by a sudden decrease in electrochemical potential for
novel coatings based on the biopolymer chitosan.55
FIGURE 4. Cut-away view of lap-joint with one tapped In another approach,56 corrosion inhibitors attached
Bragg grating in a longitudinal segment of the optical fiber to nanopaticles that are embedded in epoxy primers
sensor. The sensing compound (18) coating the optical are released upon the development of alkalinity at
fiber is a corrosion responsive chemical acting through the onset of corrosion and migrate to arrest corrosion
color change or fluorescence.52 at the steel/coating interface.

8 Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv

 SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

FIGURE 5. Optical macrographs of 2024-T3 coupons coated with PVA with and without HT-V inhibitors before and after
exposure to ASTM B117 salt spray. Reproduced with permission from Progress in Organic Coatings, 47.53 [Color figure
can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

Polymeric coatings containing aligned imper- ing additives such as ionizable dyes; such dyes have
meable platelets of high-aspect ratio, or additives been used successfully for doping other inorganics
reactive toward corrosive liquids, can significantly such as mesostructured silica.60
reduce permeability of liquids and vapors versus The evaluation of nanoclays modified with pH
the unmodified polymers.57,58 This permeability re- sensitive colorants as sensors for onset of corrosion
duction has been shown to impart barrier properties of polymer coated aluminum and ferrous substrates
and inhibit corrosion of aluminum substrates coated is part of a broad recent research program aiming
with epoxy filled with mica flakes as a result of in- at developing smart coating systems for military
creased tortuosity.59 The use of cationic (e.g., mont- materiel with unique properties such as self-repair,
morillonite) or anionic (e.g., hydrotalcite) nanoclays selective removal, corrosion resistance, and sensing
after exfoliation and planar orientation of the indi- capabilities.61 Preliminary data62−65 indicate that it is
vidual lamellae would also be expected to provide possible to produce nanoclay based, well-dispersed,
barrier properties. The presence of reactive sites on functional colorants for corrosion sensing and
these clays could also offer the option of using them barrier improvement where the colorant is strongly
as carriers for pH responsive, color changing sens- bound to the clay, at concentrations as low as 1 wt%

FIGURE 6. X-ray diffraction patterns from HT-V dispersed in epoxy resin and exposed to aerated 0.5 M NaCl solution
for 450 h. Reproduced with permission from Buchheit et al.53 [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is
available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv 9

SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

FIGURE 7. Accelerated corrosion testing in salt fog spray chamber (two layer structures—tape protected exposed area)
of scribed aluminum panels. From left to right: 0, 96, 432 h.65 [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is
available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

(based on clay). Furthermore, it is possible to de- ing agent that would bridge cracks after reaction
tect development of localized alkalinity as a result with appropriate catalysts as shown in Fig. 8.25
of corrosion of metallic panels coated with acrylic, A self-repair approach applicable to cementitious
polyurethane, or epoxy paints through color changes matrices involves cracking of hollow repair fibers
as a function of time. Detection of onset of corrosion and timed release of chemicals that seal matrix
strongly depends on the initial color of the modified microcracks.66 A biomimetic approach to perform
polymer paint. Figure 7 shows results of accelerated self-repair by a bleeding action of filled hollow fibers
corrosion testing (ASTM B117) of aluminum pan- has been described by Pang and Bond.67 The addi-
els coated with two paint layers. The bottom layer tion of a fluorescent die enhances damage visibility
with poor protective capacity consists of a liquid in the reinforced plastics structure. A similar pro-
acrylic coating containing a colorant-modified nan- cess has been used with acrylic coatings applied on
oclay, whereas the top layer is a clear crosslinked deteriorated lead-based paints. Figure 9 shows mi-
acrylic powder with excellent protection character- crocapsules containing film formers that suppress
istics. Development of blue color as a result of the the release of lead dust. If corrosion-resistant addi-
increasing alkalinity accompanying corrosion at the tives were encapsulated into the microcapsules, the
scribed area is evident. same process could also be used for corrosion protec-
tion or detection. Polymeric capsules could also be
degraded by the high alkalinity accompanying cor-
rosion, thus, delivering healing agents to terminate
corrosion at its early stage.48
Self-healing Coatings It should be noted that color development
through capsule rupture and subsequent chemical
Microcapsules containing a small amount of reaction of its colorless acid sensitive dye contents
“healing agent” that will be released by crack has been used over the years in carbonless carbon
propagation or other triggering mechanism have paper. In a three-part form, the released dye solu-
been incorporated into polymeric coatings. This tion is transferred from the bottom surfaces of the
process has been used for self-healing in polymer first and second sheets to the top surfaces of the
composites through release of a polymerizable heal- second and third sheets, respectively, where it reacts

10 Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv

 SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

with an acidic clay or resin coating to form an image

as a result of a change of pH or oxidation. Figure 10
shows a typical three-part carbonless copy paper
system.68

Concluding Remarks

Significant work is underway toward the tran-

sition of smart polymeric coatings from labora-
tory curiosities toward the identification of ap-
plications that would eventually lead to their
commercialization. These efforts will be facilitated
by increased interaction between academia and in-
dustry, focus on market applications, and a coherent
technical and funding strategy from national gov-
ernments. Primary areas that are to benefit from
such efforts appear to be transportation, aerospace,
military, and self-healing composites. Examples of
FIGURE 8. A microencapsulated healing agent is areas of continuing active and innovative research
embedded in a structural composite matrix containing a efforts are conductive polymers, molecular surface
catalyst capable of polymerizing the healing agent. (a) design, use of ionic liquids in functional coatings,
Cracks form in the matrix wherever damage occurs; (b) photolatent colors enabling coloration on demand,
the crack ruptures the microcapsules, releasing the
polymer brushes from immiscible polymer blends
healing agent into the crack plane through capillary
attached on substrates to create surface gradients,
action; (c) the healing agent contacts the catalyst,
triggering polymerization that bonds the crack faces smart biocoatings for decontamination, or coatings
closed. Reprinted with permission from Macmillan that protect materials from biofouling. Challenges
Publishers LTD: Nature, 2001.25 [Color figure can be in more advanced research areas that could pos-
viewed in the online issue, which is available at sibly reach fast commercialization are (a) the un-
www.interscience.wiley.com.] derstanding of the corrosion protection mechanism

FIGURE 9. Left: Urea/formaldehyde microcapsules filled with polybutene; center: microcapsules release healant when
damaged; right: urea/formaldehyde microcapsules (60 µm) in acrylic latex topcoat.6 [Color figure can be viewed in the
online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv 11

SMART POLYMERIC COATINGS

FIGURE 10. Three-part carbonless paper system.68

imparted by conducting polymers, (b) the advance- 11. Lucht, B. L.; Euler, W. In Proc. European Coatings Conference,
ment of micro- nanoencapsulation as a means to im- SMART COATINGS II, Berlin, Germany, June 16–17, 2003.
part self-healing, or depaint-on-demand functionali- 12. Fischer, K. -H. In Proceedings of European Coatings Confer-
ence, SMART COATINGS II, Berlin, Germany, June 16–17,
ties in thin polymeric coatings, and (c) the limitations
2003.
of corrosion-sensing color-based systems in real
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commercial products that contain color-interfering Polym Prep 2001, 42(2), 298.
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berger, A. Ind Eng Chem Res 2001, 40, 3540.
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York, 1999; pp. 245–261.
17. Barisci, J. N.; Lewis, T. W.; Spinks, G. M.; Too, C. O.; Wallace,
The assistance of Ms. G. Chouzouri, Dr. S. Kim, G. G. J. Intell Mater Syst Struct 1998, 9, 723–731.
Mr. N. Patel, and Mr. K. Park with early experimental 18. Smith, H.; (Ed.), High Performance Pigments; Wiley-VCH:
results of the work conducted at New Jersey Institute Weinheim, Germany, 2002; pp. 88–89.
of Technology, Newark, NJ, is much appreciated. 19. Park, O-Ok.; Lee, Tae-Woo. PCT WO 01/72925 A1, 2001.
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