Chemistry and Biology of Human

CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY OF HUMAN
VISION
BILAL MASOOD
The physical stimulus is light and receptor is eye
Light, as waves carry energy, contains energy by different wavelength. In vision,

light is the stimulus input. Light energy goes into eyes stimulate photoreceptor in
eyes. However, as an energy wave, energy is passed on through light at different
wavelength.
The light is mapped as an image
along the surface of the retina by activating a series of light-sensitive cells known as
rods and cones. These photoreceptor cells convert the light into electrical impulses
which are transmitted to the brain via nerve fibers. For an image to be recognized,
many photoreceptor cells will be activated and the visual information will be
transported to the brain via numerous nerve fibers. The brain then determines,
according to which nerve fibers carried the electrical impulse, which photoreceptors
were activated by the light, and then creates a picture
Photoreceptor Cells and Nerve-Impulse Generation
As explained above, the vision process is initiated when photoreceptor cells are
activated by light from an image. Hence, our discussion of the vision process shall
focus on the photoreceptor cells, and how these cells are activated to generate a
nerve impulse to the brain.
The retina is lined with many millions of photoreceptor cells that consist of two
types: 7 million cones provide color information and sharpness of images, and 120
million rods (Figure 3) are extremely sensitive detectors of white light to provide
night vision. (The names of these cells come from their respective shapes.) The
outer segments (tops) of the rods and cones contain a region filled with membrane-
bound discs, which contain proteins bound to the chromophore 11-cis-retinal. (A
chromophore is a molecule that can absorb light at a specific wavelength, and thus
typically displays a characteristic color.) When visible light hits the chromophore,
the chromophore undergoes an isomerization, or change in molecular
arrangement, to all-trans-retinal (see below for a fuller description of this
isomerization). The new form of retinal does not fit as well into the protein, and so a
series of conformational changes in the protein begins. As the protein changes its
conformation, it initiates a cascade of biochemical reactions that result in the closing
of Na+ channels in the cell membrane, as outlined in Figure 4. Prior to this event, Na+
ions flow freely into the cell to compensate for the lower potential (more negative
charge) which exists inside the cell. When the Na+ channels are closed, however, a
large potential difference builds up across the plasma membrane (inside the cell
becomes more negative and outside the cell becomes more positive). This potential
difference is passed along to an adjoining nerve cell as an electrical impulse at the
synaptic terminal, the place where these two cells meet. The nerve cell carries this
impulse to the brain, where the visual information is interpreted.
Two types of light-sensitive cells function as photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods
are color-blind and become the dominant receptor cells in dim light. Cones contain
the pigments necessary for color vision, but only become the dominant receptor
cells in bright light. Humans possess both rods and cones, but many animals possess
only one of the two. Pigeons have only cones. They can, therefore, only see in bright
light, and they are blind at night. Owls, on the other hand, have only rods. Owls see
very well at night, but are color-blind. There has been more research in rod
chemistry, because rods are larger and easier to handle than cones. We will focus
solely on rod chemistry.
The sequence of events to generate a signal to the brain for monochrome vision
(which occurs in the rod cells) and for color vision (which occurs in the cone cells) is
essentially the same, although monochrome vision is somewhat simpler. Hence, we
shall first describe how a monochromatic visual nerve impulse is generated, and
then show how color vision differs. The process of generating a monochromatic
visual signal can be broken down into three important steps: the isomerization of
retinal, the protein conformational changes following retinal isomerization, and the
signal transduction cascade to generate a nerve impulse.
Isomerization of Retinal
The first step in the monochrome vision process, after light hits the rod cell, is for
the chromophore 11-cis-retinal to isomerize to all-trans-retinal. This event is best
understood in terms of molecular orbitals, orbital energy, and electron excitation.
Protein Conformational Changes Following Retinal Isomerization
The isomerization of retinal has an important effect on special proteins in the rod
cell: the isomerization event actually causes the proteins to change their shape. This
shape change ultimately leads to the generation of a nerve impulse.
In rod cells, the protein which binds the chromophore retinal is opsin, and the
bound complex of 11-cis-retinal plus opsin is known as rhodopsin, or visual purple.
Alone, 11-cis-retinal has a maximum absorbance in the ultraviolet part of the
spectrum, but the maximum absorbance for rhodopsin is 500 nm (in the visible
green part of the spectrum).
Sources of 11-cis-retinal include Vitamin A and b -carotene. A diet lacking in Vitamin
A can lead to night blindness, whereas a diet rich in b-carotene (found in carrots)
can improve vision. Carrots truly are good for your eyes.
When the chromophore absorbs a photon it isomerizes to the all-trans configuration

without (at first) any accompanying change in the structure of the protein (Figures
7 and 8). Rhodopsin containing the all-trans isomer of retinal is known as
bathorhodopsin. However, the trans isomer does not fit well into the protein, due to
its rigid, elongated shape. While it is contained in the protein, the all-trans
chromophore adopts a twisted conformation, which is energetically unfavorable.
Therefore, a series of changes occurs to expel the chromophore from the protein.
Signal Transduction Cascade to Generate a Nerve Impulse
After the metarhodopsin II is formed, there are approximately four more steps in
the vision process: activation of the enzymes transducin and phosphodiesterase,
hydrolysis of cyclic GMP, closing of Na+ channels, and propagation of an electrical
impulse to the brain

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Chemistry and Biology of Human

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CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY OF HUMAN

Light, as waves carry energy, contains energy by different wavelength. In vision,

When the chromophore absorbs a photon it isomerizes to the all-trans configuration

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