LESSON 11.

2
Applying Mendel’s Getting Started
Principles Objectives
11.2.1  Explain how geneticists use the principles of
probability to make Punnett squares.
ThiNk AbouT iT Nothing in life is certain. There’s a great deal of Key Questions 11.2.2  Explain the principle of independent
wisdom in that old saying, and genetics is a fine example. If a parent How can we use probabil- assortment.
carries two different alleles for a certain gene, we can’t be sure which ity to predict traits?
of those alleles will be inherited by any one of the parent’s offspring.
11.2.3  Explain how Mendel’s principles apply to all
How do alleles segregate
However, think carefully about the nature of inheritance and you’ll when more than one gene is
organisms.
see that even if we can’t predict the exact future, we can do something involved?
almost as useful—we can figure out the odds. What did Mendel
contribute to our understanding Student Resources
Probability and Punnett Squares of genetics?
Study Workbook A and B,  11.2 Worksheets
How can we use probability to predict traits? Vocabulary
Whenever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he carefully probability • homozygous • Spanish Study Workbook,  11.2 Worksheets
categorized and counted the offspring. Consequently, he had plenty heterozygous • phenotype • Lab Manual A,  11.2 Quick Lab Worksheet
of data to analyze. For example, whenever he crossed two plants that genotype • Punnett square •
were hybrids for stem height (Tt), about three fourths of the resulting independent assortment Lab Manual B,  11.2 Hands-On Activity
plants were tall and about one fourth were short. Taking Notes
Upon analyzing his data, Mendel realized that the principles of
Preview Visuals Before you Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes
probability could be used to explain the results of his genetic crosses. read, preview Figure 11–7. • Activities: InterActive Art • Assessment: Self-
Probability is a concept you may have learned about in math class. Try to infer the purpose of this
It is the likelihood that a particular event will occur. As an example,
Test, ­Lesson Assessment
diagram. As you read, compare
consider an ordinary event, such as flipping a coin. There are two pos- your inference to the text. After
sible outcomes of this event: The coin may land either heads up or tails you read, revise your statement F or corresponding lesson in the
up. The chance, or probability, of either outcome is equal. Therefore, if needed or write a new one
about the diagram’s purpose. Foundation Edition, see pages 266–270.
the probability that a single coin flip will land heads up is 1 chance in 2.
This amounts to 1/2, or 50 percent.
If you flip a coin three times in a row, what is the probability that it
will land heads up every time? Each coin flip is an independent event
with a 1/2 probability of landing heads up. Therefore, the probability
of flipping three heads in a row is:

1/2 × 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/8

As you can see, you have 1 chance in 8 of flipping heads three times
in a row. The multiplication of individual probabilities illustrates an
important point: Past outcomes do not affect future ones. Just because
you’ve flipped three heads in a row does not mean that you’re more
likely to have a coin land tails up on the next flip. The probability for
that flip is still 1/2.
Figure 11–6 Probability Probability allows you to
calculate the likelihood that a particular event will occur. The
probability that the coin will land heads up is ½, or 50 percent.
national science education standards
Lesson 11.2 • Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes 313
UNIFYING CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES
II
3/26/11 1:43 AM 0313_Bio10_se_Ch11_S2_0313 313 3/26/11 1:44 AM

Teach for Understanding CONTENT

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING  DNA is the universal code for life; it enables an C.2.a, C.2.b, G.2
organism to transmit hereditary information and, along with the environment,
determines an organism’s characteristics. INQUIRY

GUIDING QUESTION  How can you predict the outcome of a genetic cross? A.1.b, A.1.c, A.2.a, A.2.b, A.2.d
EVIDENCE OF UNDERSTANDING  After completing the lesson, give students the
following assessment to show they understand how to predict the outcome of a
genetic cross. Have students create a “how-to” book based on lesson concepts. Their
books should explain how to apply the principles of probability to predict outcomes
of genetic crosses as well as how to construct and use Punnett squares.

Introduction to Genetics  313

0306_mlbio10_Ch11_0313 313 12/13/11 4:49 PM

LESSON 11.2 Both F1 plants
Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes
The way in which alleles segregate during
Teach F1 Tall Tall have the same set
of alleles (Tt) and
are tall.
gamete formation is every bit as random as
a coin flip. Therefore, the principles of prob-
ability can be used to predict the outcomes of
Connect to Math Tt Tt
The probability
genetic crosses.
of each gamete Look again at Mendel’s F1 cross, shown in
To explain how probability principles work in genetic ½ ½ ½ ½ acquiring the Figure 11–7. This cross produced a mixture of
crosses, model the cross shown in Figure 11­–7. tall (T) allele is tall and short plants. Why were just 1/4 of the
½. Similarly, the offspring short? Well, the F1 plants were both
Write Tt on the board, and draw a circle around it to Gametes T t T t probability of
tall. If each plant had one tall allele and one
represent the cell of one of the parents in the figure. acquiring the short
short allele (Tt), and if the alleles segregated as
(t) allele is also ½.
Draw ten gamete circles under the parent cell. Then, Mendel thought, then 1/2 of the gametes pro-
draw an arrow from the parent cell to each gamete. duced by the plants would carry the short allele
TT Tt Tt tt (t). Yet, the t allele is recessive. The only way to
To determine which allele (T or t) will go in each When the alleles
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ pair up in the F2 produce a short (tt) plant is for two gametes,
gamete circle, flip a coin. Tell students that heads generation, the each carrying the t allele, to combine.
represents the dominant allele (T ) and tails repre- probability of a
Like the coin toss, each F2 gamete has a one
sents the recessive allele (t ). As you fill in each circle, F2 tall offspring (TT
or Tt) is ¼ + ¼ in two, or 1/2, chance of carrying the t allele.
flip the coin and repeat that the probability of a T or + ¼, or ¾. The There are two gametes, so the probability of
a t going to a gamete is one in two, or 1/2. Empha- probability that both gametes carrying the t allele is 1/2 × 1/2 =
the offspring will 1/4. In other words, roughly one fourth of the
size that each event is random and independent of be short (t t ) is ¼.
Tall Tall Tall Short
F2 offspring should be short, and the remain-
the others and that probability predicts outcomes; it ing three fourths should be tall. This predicted
does not guarantee them. Then, do the same with homozygous heterozygous homozygous ratio—3 offspring exhibiting the dominant trait
another parent cell. Show two gametes joining, and to 1 offspring exhibiting the recessive trait—
Figure 11–7 Segregation and Probability In this cross, the showed up consistently in Mendel’s experi-
explain that this event also is random and indepen- TT and Tt allele combinations produced three tall pea plants,
ments. For each of his seven crosses, about 3/4
dent. Therefore, the probability of an F2 cell having a while the tt allele combination produced one short plant. These
quantities follow the laws of probability. Predict If you crossed of the plants showed the trait controlled by the
particular combination of alleles is found by multiply- a TT plant with a Tt plant, would the offspring be tall or short? dominant allele. About 1/4 showed the trait
ing 1/2 × 1/2. controlled by the recessive allele. Segregation
did occur according to Mendel’s model.
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION As you can see in the F2 generation, not all organisms with the
same characteristics have the same combinations of alleles. Both the TT
LPR   Less Proficient Readers If students have and Tt allele combinations resulted in tall pea plants, but only one of
trouble understanding the subsection Probabilities these combinations contains identical alleles. Organisms that have two
identical alleles for a particular gene—TT or tt in this example—are
Predict Averages, have each student toss a coin
said to be homozygous (hoh moh zy gus). Organisms that have two
20 times and record the outcomes. Then, combine different alleles for the same gene—such as Tt—are heterozygous
the data from the entire class. As you add in each (het ur oh zy gus).
student’s results, the overall data should get closer
Probabilities Predict Averages Probabilities predict the average
and closer to the expected ratio of one head to outcome of a large number of events. If you flip a coin twice, you are
one tail. likely to get one heads and one tails. However, you might also get two
heads or two tails. To get the expected 50 : 50 ratio, you might have to
flip the coin many times. The same is true of genetics.
ELL  Focus on ELL: The larger the number of offspring, the closer the results will be
to the predicted values. If an F2 generation contains just three or four
Extend Language offspring, it may not match Mendel’s ratios. When an F2 generation
contains hundreds or thousands of individuals, the ratios usually
BEGINNING, INTERMEDIATE, and ADVANCED
come very close to matching predictions.
SPEAKERS  Have students construct a three-
column chart to record lesson vocabulary terms
314 Chapter 11 • Lesson 2
and any other terms they may find difficult. Label
column 1 Words I Understand, column 2 Words I
Think I Understand, and column 3 Words I Have
Never Seen. Ask students to write the definitions 0313_Bio10_se_Ch11_S2_0314 314 3/26/11 1:44 AM 0313_Bio10_se_C

in their own words for columns 2 and 3. Allow Check for Understanding
beginning speakers to dictate their definitions
HAND SIGNALS
as you record them. Intermediate and advanced
speakers should write their own definitions. Focus students’ attention on Figure 11–7, and present them with the following state-
Use the information in the chart to focus ELL ments. Ask them to show a thumbs-up sign if they understand, a thumbs-down sign
instruction. if they are confused, or a waving-hand sign if they partially understand.
• A tall plant can be homozygous or heterozygous. A short plant must be
homozygous.
• One-half of the F2 generation is heterozygous and one-half is homozygous, but
three-fourths are tall and one-fourth is short.
Answers
ADJUST INSTRUCTION
FIGURE 11–7  All of the offspring would be tall
(TT or Tt). If students showed a thumbs-down or waving-hand sign, review the terms homozy-
gous and heterozygous. Then, have small groups discuss why each statement is true.
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 LESSON 11.2
Genotype and Phenotype One of Mendel’s most revolutionary
insights followed directly from his observations of F1 crosses: Every BUILD Vocabulary
organism has a genetic makeup as well as a set of observable charac- PREFIXES The prefix pheno - in Lead a Discussion
teristics. All of the tall pea plants had the same phenotype, or physi- phenotype comes from the Greek
cal traits. They did not, however, have the same genotype, or genetic word phainein, meaning “to show.” Make sure students understand the difference
Geno -, the prefix in genotype, between phenotype and genotype. Have students
makeup. Look again at Figure 11–7 and you will find three different
is derived from the Greek word
genotypes among the F2 plants: TT, Tt, and tt. The genotype of an genus, meaning “race, kind.” look at Figure 11–7 and note that tall plants have
organism is inherited, and the phenotype is largely determined by the one phenotype but two possible genotypes.
genotype. Two organisms may share the same phenotype but have dif-
ferent genotypes. Ask What are the two possible genotypes of a tall
Using Punnett Squares One of the best ways to predict the out-
plant? (TT and Tt)
come of a genetic cross is by drawing a simple diagram known as Ask What is the phenotype of a plant that has two
a Punnett square. Punnett squares use mathematical prob- alleles for shortness? (short)
ability to help predict the genotype and phenotype combinations
in genetic crosses. Constructing a Punnett square is fairly easy. You
begin with a square. Then, following the principle of segregation, DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
all possible combinations of alleles in the gametes produced by one LPR Less Proficient Readers Help students distin-
parent are written along the top edge of the square. The other par-
ent’s alleles are then segregated along the left edge. Next, every possi- guish the terms phenotype and genotype by point-
ble genotype is written into the boxes within the square, just as they ing out that physical and phenotype begin with ph.
might appear in the F2 generation. Figure 11–8 on the next page Explain that genotype shares the root gen with gene.
shows step-by-step instructions for constructing Punnett squares.

In Your Notebook In your own words, write definitions for the terms
homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, and genotype.
Address Misconceptions
Genotype and Phenotype Some students equate
genotype and phenotype. Give them practice in dis-
tinguishing the two terms by making a T-Chart on
the board. Label the left column Genotype and the
How Are Dimples Inherited? right column Phenotype. List the possible allele com-
1 Write the last four digits of any telephone 3 Use the last two digits the same way to find the binations of a tall pea plant in the left column and
number. These four random digits represent mother’s genotype. Write her genotype. the words tall or short in the right column beside
the alleles of a gene that determines whether a 4 Use Figure 11–8 on the next page to construct a the correct combinations. Explain the difference,
person will have dimples. Odd digits represent Punnett square for the cross of these parents. Then,
the allele for the dominant trait of dimples. and have students complete their own T-Charts with
using the Punnett square, determine the probability
Even digits represent the allele for the recessive other traits of pea plants.
that their child will have dimples.
trait of no dimples.
5 Determine the class average of the percent of Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S30, T-Chart.
2 Use the first two digits to represent a children with dimples. Transparencies, GO15.
father’s genotype. Use the symbols D and d to
write his genotype as shown in the example. Analyze and Conclude
1. Apply Concepts How does the class average
Father’s genotype Mother’s genotype compare with the result of a cross of two
is dd (2 even digits). is Dd (1 even digit heterozygous parents?
and 1 odd digit).
2. Draw Conclusions What percentage of the
children will be expected to have dimples if one
46 38 parent is homozygous for dimples (DD) and the
other is heterozygous (Dd)?

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Tell students that having dimples is a
dominant trait.
ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE
PURPOSE Students will be able to
1. Answers will vary, but class averages
conclude how dimples are inherited.
usually will be close to the results of
MATERIALS calculator a cross of two heterozygous parents,
PLANNING Students can use their own that is, 75 percent of the children Answers
phone numbers. Tell them to count 0 having dimples.
IN YOUR NOTEBOOK Sample answer: homozygous –
as an even digit. Demonstrate the use 2. 100 percent will have dimples, an individual with two copies of the same allele
of a 4-digit number to represent the because the allele for dimples is of a gene; heterozygous – an individual with
genotypes of the parents in a genetic dominant. two different alleles for a gene; phenotype – the
cross. Show students how to set up
outward appearance of an individual; genotype – an
and use Punnett squares, if necessary.
individual’s genetic makeup

Introduction to Genetics 315

LESSON 11.2 HOW TO MAKE A PUNNETT SQUARE
FIGURE 11–8 By drawing a Punnett square, you can determine the
Teach continued allele combinations that might result from a genetic cross.

One-Factor Cross Two-Factor Cross

Write the genotypes of the two organisms that will IIn this
h examplel we willll cross two pea plants
l h are
that
serve as parents in a cross. In this example we will 1 heterozygous for size (tall and short alleles) and pod
Use Figure 11–8 to help students learn how to cross a male and female osprey, or fish hawk, that color (green and yellow alleles). The genotypes of the
are heterozygous for large beaks. They each have Start With two parents are TtGg and TtGg.
construct, complete, and interpret a Punnett square. genotypes of Bb. the Parents
Walk them through the one-factor cross first. Have Bb and Bb TtGg and TtGg
them identify the alleles each parent could pass on Determine what alleles would be found in all of the
e Determine what alleles would be found in all of the
to offspring (Bb and Bb). Walk through each column possible gametes that each parent could produce. possible gametes that each parent could produce.
2
and row to make sure they understand how the B B
TG TG
Figure Out
alleles combine. Point out that combinations are Bb Bb the Gametes TtGg
Tg Tg
TtGg
simply pairings of the male and female alleles from tG tG
b b
tg tg
a particular row and column. In step 5, remind stu-
dents that a Punnett square identifies possible gene Draw a table with enough squares for each pair of In this case, each parent can make 4 different types of gametes,
combinations and that actual combinations could gametes from each parent. In this case, each parent so the table needs to be 4 rows by 4 columns, or 16 squares.
can make two different types of gametes, B and b.
be different. Then, call on volunteers to explain each Enter the genotypes of the gametes produced by TG tG Tg tg
step in the two-factor cross. Give the class practice both parents on the top and left sides of the table.
TG
problems in making and completing both types of 3
B b
Punnett squares. Line Them tG
B Up
Tg
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION b tg

L1 Struggling Students Students might need

extra help figuring out the gametes in step 2 of the

Fill in the table by combining the gametes’ genotypes. Fill in the table by combining the gametes’ genotypes.
two-factor cross. Make sure they understand that
each parent’s genotype includes two genes and that TG tG Tg tg TG tG Tg tg

gametes get only one allele for each gene. Thus, for B b B b 4 TG TG TTGG TtGG TTGg TtGg
TtGg, there are two choices for height: T or t. No Write Out
B Bb B BB Bb tG TtGg tG TtGG ttGG TtGg ttGg
the New
matter which of these goes into a gamete, there are Genotypes
b b bB bb Tg Tg TTGg TtGg TTgg Ttgg
two choices for color: G or g. So the number of pos- bB
sible combinations is 4; 2 × 2 = 4. Tell students that tg ttGg tg TtGg ttGg Ttgg ttgg
one way to double-check their work in step 4 is to
make sure the letter above each column appears in Determine the genotype and phenotype of each In this example, the color of the squares represents pod
the cells below it. Similarly, the letter to the left of offspring. Calculate the percentage of each. In this color. Alleles written in black indicate short plants, while
example, 3/4 of the chicks will have large beaks, but alleles written in red indicate tall plants.
the rows must appear in each cell in that row. only 1/2 will be heterozygous for this trait (Bb). TG tG Tg tg
ELL English Language Learners As you describe 5
B b TG TTGG TtGG TTGg TtGg
each step, use vocabulary terms as often as pos- Figure Out
B BB Bb the Results tG TtGG ttGG TtGg ttGg
sible. For example, in step 4, point out that in the
completed table on the right, BB is homozygous b bB bb Tg TTGg TtGg TTgg Ttgg
dominant, bb is homozygous recessive, and Bb is tg TtGg ttGg Ttgg ttgg
heterozygous. Phrase questions so that students
answer using vocabulary terms.
316 Lesson 11.2 • InterActive Art

Students can learn more about 0001_Bio10_se_Ch11_S2.indd 4 6/2/09 7:00:07 PM

Punnett squares in InterActive Art: Punnett

Squares. How Science Works
INVENTOR OF THE PUNNETT SQUARE
Reginald Punnett (1875–1967) was an English geneticist at Cambridge University
who, along with William Bateson, was one of the first scientists to use Mendelian
experimentation on plants and animals. Punnett devised the Punnett square to graph-
ically represent the results of hybrid crosses. He also wrote a textbook on the subject
of genetics and, together with Bateson, co-founded the Journal of Genetics, which is
still in print today.

316 Chapter 11 • Lesson 2

 LESSON 11.2
Independent Assortment rryy
How do alleles segregate when more than one gene Use Visuals
is involved? ry ry ry ry
Tell students the two-factor cross they learned about
After showing that alleles segregate during the formation of gam-
etes, Mendel wondered if the segregation of one pair of alleles in Figure 11–8 is called a “dihybrid cross” because
RY
affects another pair. For example, does the gene that determines RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy it involves two different traits. Refer them to Figure
the shape of a seed affect the gene for seed color? To find out,
RY
11–9, and discuss the results of the F1 cross.
Mendel followed two different genes as they passed from one RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy
generation to the next. Because it involves two different genes, RRYY Ask Why didn’t Mendel know, from the results of
Mendel’s experiment is known as a two-factor, or “dihybrid,” RY
RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy
the first cross, whether two genes segregated inde-
cross. (Single-gene crosses are “monohybrid” crosses.) pendently? (All the offspring had dominant alleles.)
RY
The Two-Factor Cross: F1 First, Mendel crossed true-breeding RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy Ask What evidence did Mendel have that alleles
plants that produced only round yellow peas with plants that segregated independently in the cross shown in
produced wrinkled green peas. The round yellow peas had the F1 Generation
genotype RRYY, and the wrinkled green peas had the geno-
Figure 11–10? (All combinations of phenotypes
type rryy. All of the F1 offspring produced round yellow peas. resulted.)
FIGURE 11–9 Two-Factor Cross: F1
These results showed that the alleles for yellow and round peas Mendel crossed plants that were Ask What phenotypes would Mendel have observed
are dominant. As the Punnett square in Figure 11–9 shows, the homozygous dominant for round
yellow peas with plants that were if the alleles did not segregate independently—in
genotype in each of these F1 plants is RrYy. In other words, the
F1 plants were all heterozygous for both seed shape and seed homozygous recessive for wrinkled other words, if the RY always stayed together and
green peas. All of the F1 offspring
color. This cross did not indicate whether genes assort, or seg- were heterozygous dominant for round
the ry always stayed together? (round, yellow seeds
regate independently. However, it provided the hybrid plants yellow peas. Interpret Graphics and wrinkled, green seeds)
needed to breed the F2 generation. How is the genotype of the offspring
different from that of the homozygous
The Two-Factor Cross: F2 In the second part of this experi- dominant parent? DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
ment, Mendel crossed the F1 plants to produce F2 offspring.
L1 Special Needs Help students who are over-
Remember, each F1 plant was formed by the fusion of a gamete
RrYy whelmed by the symbols in the figures to write out
carrying the dominant RY alleles with another gamete carrying
the recessive ry alleles. Did this mean that the two dominant alle- the crosses using words. Use ROUND and YELLOW
les would always stay together, or would they segregate independ- RY Ry rY ry for the dominant alleles and wrinkled and green for
ently, so that any combination of alleles was possible?
the recessive ones. Tell students when a capitalized
In Mendel’s experiment, the F2 plants produced 556 seeds. RY
Mendel compared their variation. He observed that 315 of the RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy (dominant) word appears with a lowercase (recessive)
seeds were round and yellow, while another 32 seeds were wrin- word, the capitalized word is the trait that shows.
Ry
kled and green—the two parental phenotypes. However, 209 seeds RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy Explain that with the symbols, the same letter is used
RrYy
had combinations of phenotypes, and therefore combinations of for one gene, such as Rr, instead of Rw, because two
alleles, that were not found in either parent. This clearly meant rY
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy alleles code for the same gene.
that the alleles for seed shape segregated independently of those
for seed color. Put another way, genes that segregate independently ry
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
(such as the genes for seed shape and seed color in pea plants) do
not influence each other’s inheritance.
Mendel’s experimental results were very close to the 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 F2 Generation
ratio that the Punnett square shown in Figure 11–10 predicts.
Mendel had discovered the principle of independent assortment. FIGURE 11–10 Two-Factor Cross: F2
The principle of independent assortment states that genes When Mendel crossed F1 plants that
were heterozygous dominant for round
for different traits can segregate independently during the yellow peas, he found that the alleles
formation of gametes. Independent assortment helps account for segregated independently to produce
the many genetic variations observed in plants, animals, and other the F2 generation.
organisms—even when they have the same parents.

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Quick Facts
CALCULATING PROBABILITIES WITHOUT PUNNETT SQUARES
You can obtain the outcomes of dihybrid or trihybrid crosses without setting up a
Punnett square by multiplying probabilities. The ratio of dominant to recessive phe-
notypes in a monohybrid cross is 3:1. Using the example of seed color and shape,
the chance of showing the dominant phenotype, having YY (or RR) or Yy (or Ry), in a
monohybrid cross is 3/4. The chance of showing the recessive phenotype, having yy
(or rr) is 1/4. You can find the chance of yellow, round peas by multiplying those two
probabilities (3/4 × 3/4 = 9/16). If a third trait is added, for example, pod color, the
same rules apply. Green pod color is dominant over yellow, so the chance of GG or Answers
Gg is 3/4 and the chance of gg is 1/4. For example, the probability of offspring with
FIGURE 11–9 The offspring are heterozygous for
green, wrinkled peas and green pods is 3/64 (1/4 × 1/4 × 3/4).
each trait (RrYy).

Introduction to Genetics 317

LESSON 11.2 A Summary of Mendel’s Principles
Assess and Remediate What did Mendel contribute to our understanding of genetics?
As you have seen, Mendel’s principles of segregation and independent
assortment can be observed through one- and two-factor crosses.
EVALUATE UNDERSTANDING Mendel’s principles of heredity, observed through patterns of
Assign students different pea traits from Fig- FIGURE 11–11 A Model inheritance, form the basis of modern genetics. These principles are
ure 11–3. Instruct them to set up a Punnett square Organism The common fruit as follows:
fly, Drosophila melanogaster, • The inheritance of biological characteristics is determined by indi-
to show a cross between two pea plants that are is an ideal organism for vidual units called genes, which are passed from parents to offspring.
heterozygous for the trait. They should give both genetic research. These fruit
flies are poised on a lemon. • Where two or more forms (alleles) of the gene for a single trait exist,
the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the offspring. some alleles may be dominant and others may be recessive.
Then, have them complete the 11.2 Assessment. • In most sexually reproducing organisms, each adult has two copies of
each gene—one from each parent. These genes segregate from each
REMEDIATION SUGGESTION other when gametes are formed.
• Alleles for different genes usually segregate independently of each other.
L1 Struggling Students If your students have trou-
Mendel’s principles don’t apply only to plants. At the beginning
ble with Question 4, show them how to calculate of the 1900s, the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan wanted
that 29% (31/106) of the plants have white flow- to use a model organism of another kind to advance the study of
ers. Explain that this is close to the 25% you would genetics. He decided to work on a tiny insect that kept showing up,
uninvited, in his laboratory. The insect was the common fruit fly,
expect from a heterozygous cross, similar to the 3:1 Drosophila melanogaster, shown in Figure 11–11. Drosophila can
ratio in the tall to short plants in the F2 generation in produce plenty of offspring—a single pair can produce hundreds
Figure 11–7. of young. Before long, Morgan and other biologists had tested all of
Mendel’s principles and learned that they applied to flies and other
organisms as well. In fact, Mendel’s basic principles can be used to
study the inheritance of human traits and to calculate the probability
Students can check their under- of certain traits appearing in the next generation. You will learn more
standing of lesson concepts with the Self- about human genetics in Chapter 14.
Test assessment. They can then take an online
version of the Lesson Assessment.

Review Key Concepts

1. a. Review What is probability? Information and Heredity
b. Use Models How are Punnett squares used to predict the 4. Suppose you are an avid
outcomes of genetic crosses? gardener. One day, you come
2. a. Review What is independent assortment? across a plant with beautiful
b. Calculate An F1 plant that is homozygous for shortness is lavender flowers. Knowing that
crossed with a heterozygous F1 plant. What is the probability the plant is self-pollinating,
that a seed from the cross will produce a tall plant? Use a you harvest its seeds and plant
Punnett square to explain your answer and to compare the them. Of the 106 plants that
probable genetic variations in the F2 plants. grow from these seeds, 31 have
3. a. Review How did Gregor Mendel contribute to our white flowers. Using a Pun-
understanding of inherited traits? nett square, draw conclusions
about the nature of the allele
b. Apply Concepts Why is the fruit fly an ideal organism
for lavender flowers.
for genetic research?

Lesson 11.2 • Self-Test • Lesson Assessment

318 Chapter 11 • Lesson 2

Assessment Answers
1a. the likelihood that a particular event will
occur 0001_Bio10_se_Ch11_S2.indd 6 6/2/09 7:00:15 PM

2b. 50 percent; the Punnett square should 4. Of the 106 plants, 31 had white
1b. Punnett squares are used to show all of
show a cross between a homozygous short flowers; this is 29%, or approxi-
the combinations of alleles that might
plant (tt) and a heterozygous tall plant (Tt). mately one-fourth, of the plants.
result from a cross and the likelihood that
each might occur. 3a. The patterns of inheritance he observed To get an approximate 3:1 ratio of laven-
form the basis of modern genetics. der to white flowers, the parent plant was
2a. During gamete formation, pairs of alleles heterozygous with the allele for lavender
for a gene segregate, or separate, inde- 3b. Fruit flies are small, easy to keep in the
laboratory, and produce large numbers of flowers being dominant. The Punnett
pendently of each other. square should show the self-pollination of
offspring in a short period of time.
a plant that is heterozygous for lavender
flowers (Ll).

318 Chapter 11 • Lesson 2