GROSS ANATOMY I

BVSc & AH, 1st Semester

IAAS, Paklihawa
Bhairahawa, Nepal

Prepared by
Ganga Prasad Yadav
 Terminologies in Veterinary
Anatomy
• Anatomy: study of structure of an organism and
relationship of its parts.
• Veterinary anatomy: study of structures and forms of
organs and tissues of domestic animals and birds.
• Gross anatomy: study of structures of the body that are
visible to naked eye. Examples: muscles, bones etc.
• Histology/microscopic anatomy: study of finer details
of the structures of various tissues of different organs.
• Embryology/developmental anatomy: process of
differentiation, growth and development of an organ or
structure prior to birth.
• Systemic anatomy: study of structures of
particular organ system.
• Topographic/surface anatomy: study of
structures or organs of any part of the body in
relation to a definite area of body.
• Surgical anatomy: deals with surgical site for
surgical practice.
• Radiological anatomy: anatomy of body studied
under x-rays.
• Comparative anatomy: analogous structures of
different species of animals are studied on
comparative basis.
• Regional anatomy: anatomy of certain region of
a body.
Directional terms
Anatomical terms of
mouth and teeth
• Buccal: towards the teeth
• Contact: surface of tooth
that is adjacent to next
tooth
• Labial: surface of incisor
teeth that is next to the
lips
• Palatal: surface of upper
teeth that is next to the
hard palate.
 Terms of Movement
• Abduction: movement of limb away from median line
or middle of the body.
• Adduction: movement of a limb toward the median line
or middle of the body.
• Eversion: turning outward or inside out.
• Extension: straightening or the act of straightening, as
with a joint.
• Flexion: bending or act of bending, as with a joint.
• Pronation: act of turning body or arm (leg) so the
ventral aspect of the body or palm is down.
• Rotation: turning about an axis.
• Supination: act of turning the body or arm (leg) so the
ventral aspect of the body or palm is up.
Planes of the body
 Division of gross anatomy
On the basis of different organ system, gross
anatomy can be divided into following:
1. Osteology: study of bones
2. Arthrology/syndesmology: study of Joints
3. Myology: study of muscles
4. Splanchnology: study of visceral organs of
different systems
5. Angiology: study of hearts and vessels
6. Neurology: study of organs of nervous system
7. Aesthesiology: study of organs of special senses
Parts of body
 Skeletal system
• Skeleton is the bony framework
which supports and protects the soft
tissue of the body.
• Composed of body’s bones and
associated ligaments, tendons and
cartilages.
Can be classified as:
• Exoskeleton: derived from
ectoderm. Example: Hoof, Hair,
Nails etc.
• Endoskeleton: derived form
mesoderm. Example: Bones,
Cartilages etc.
 On the basis of position of skeletal
parts, classified as
• Axial skeleton:
- forms the long axis of the body.
- includes bones of skull, vertebral column
and rib cage (ribs and sternum).
• Appendicular skeleton:
- bones of upper and lower limbs and girdles
(Shoulder bones and Hip bones)
- these bones attach to axial skeleton.
• Visceral skeleton:
- also known as Heterotrophic bones/Splanchnic
bones.
- small bones found in tissues of an organ or
other structures, which do not form a part of regular
skeleton.
- Examples: Os cordis: in heart of cattle
Os penis: in penis of dog, also in
bats, rodents and some primates.
Os rostri: in snout of pig
Os phrenic: in diaphragm of camel.
 Bones
• A hard structure, appears yellow-white in color
in a fresh dead bone.
• While in living animal, appears bluish pink.
• Functions:
- to move, support and protect the various
organs of the body
- to produce red and white blood cells
and store minerals
 Functions
• Protects and supports vital organs
• Serves as a resorvoir for calcium and
phosphate (about 85% ).
• Contains bone marrow which function in
hemopoiesis.
• Provides attachment for muscles
• Forms the body skeleton.
 Classification of bones
• On the basis of their general shape and functions:
1. Long bones
2. Short bones
3. Flat bones
4. Sesamoid bones
5. Irregular bones
6. Pneumatic bones
7. Visceral bone
 Long bones
 Much longer than they are
wide.
 All bones of the limbs except
patella, carpals and tarsals.
 Consists of a shaft and two
extremities.
 Shaft encloses the medullary
cavity which is occupied by
yellow marrow.
 Some bones though long they
do not have a medullary cavity
and referred as elongated
bones. Example: Ribs
 Short bones
Roughly cube shaped
Have similar length breadth
and thickness
Made up of a thin layer of
compact bone outside and
spongy bone inside
Medullary cavity is absent
Examples: Carpals and
tarsals Carpal bones of horse
 Flat bones
 Expanded in two directions, plate like for
attachment of muscles and protection of subjacent
structures.
 Made up of varying thickness of spongy bone
between two layers of compact bone. Example:
scapula, frontal, parietal bones of skull etc.
 Flat bones of cranial vault are composed of an
outer layer of ordinary compact bone and inner
layer of very dense compact bone and between
these is a variable amount of spongy bone called
dipole.
Left Scapula of Dog
 Sesamoid bones
• Short bones which do not bear weight of the
body.
• Developed in the capsules of joints or in
tendons.
• Alter the direction of tendon and also give
leverage to the tendons of muscles.
• Eample: Patella
 Irregular bone
• Irregular in shape and usually found on the
median line.
• Resemble short bones in structure.
• Example: vertebrae
 Pneumatic bones
• Contain air space within compact substance
instead of spongy bone and marrow and air spaces
are lined by mucous membrane termed as sinuses.
• In mammals, some flat bones of skull (frontal,
maxilla, palatine etc) encloses sinus and
communicate directly or indirectly with nasal
cavity.
• In fowl, many of bones are pneumatic (vertebrae,
sternum, humerus and femur) and receive air
through the medium of air sacs.
 Visceral bone
- Also known as heterotrophic bones/splanchic
bones.
- Small bones found in tissues of an organ or
other structures, which do not form a part of
regular skeleton.
- Examples: Os cordis: in heart of cattle
Os penis: in penis of dog, also in
bats, rodents and some primates.
Os rostri: in snout of pig
Os phrenic: in diaphragm of
camel.
 Physical properties of bones
• Yellow in color
• Softer than dentin
• Lined by connective
tissue containing
osteoprogenitor cells
• Vascular tissue
 Chemical composition of bones
• Bone is composed of organic and inorganic
matters.
• Roughly it contains 30% organic and 70%
inorganic.
• Proportion varies with age and bones of
different parts of bodies and there is high
percentage of organic matter in growing
animals, which slowly replaced by
inorganic matter.
Organic matter:
• Present in bones are bone cells, collagen fibres
and matrix or intracellular substances.
• Chiefly consists of fibrous protein - collagen,
ossein and chondroitin sulphate.
• Contributes to the flexibility.
• Inorganic matter:
• Consists mostly of calcium phosphate (about
85%), and small amounts of calcium carbonate
(10%), magnesium phosphate, sodium carbonate
and sodium chloride.
• Responsible for the rigidity and hardness of bone.
 Structure of bone
Microscopic structure
• Bone is one of the varieties of connective
tissue consisting of bone cells or osteocytes,
parallel rows of fine collagen fibres which are
embedded in amorphous ground substance.
• Ground substance or matrix is impregnated
with regularly arranged crystals of calcium
salts.
• Deposition of mineral matter renders the
intercellular substance hard and impermeable,
forming thin plates of lamellae.
 Macroscopic or gross structure
• Bone shows differences in arrangement of
these bony lamellae, forming either compact or
cancellous bone.
 Compact bone
• Dense, white and hard and forms the outer
shell of a bone, found aggregated in portions
where there is greatest strain on the bone is
exerted.
• Bone is arranged in the form of concentric
system called Haversian system or Osteon.
 Cancellous or spongy bone
• Made up of delicate plates which intercross
each other forming a meshwork with spaces
containing marrow.
• Found in epiphysis of long bones and is always
covered by a layer of compact bone.
• Haversian systems are absent.
 Covering of bones
Periosteum
• Membrane which invests outer surface of the
bone except its articular areas where it is
covered by articular cartilage.
• Periosteum consists of an outer protective
fibrous layer and an inner cellular osteogenic
layer.
Endosteum
• Thin membrane lining of medullary cavity and
larger heversian canals.
• Also called as medullary membrane.
 Bone marrow
• Two kinds of marrow: red and yellow.
Red marrow:
• Occupies the interstices of spongy bone
everywhere and medullary cavity of long bones at
birth, after birth, the red marrow is gradually
replaced by yellow marrow.
• Red marrow is an important blood forming
substance and contains precursors of erythrocytes,
leucocytes, platelets and few fat cells.
• In adult, red marrow is present only in vertebrae,
sternum, ribs, skull bones and epiphyses of long
bones.
Yellow marrow:
• Consists of adipose tissue especially in the
medullary cavity of long bones and short
bones.
• Fills the spaces of spongy bone in short bones
(carpals and tarsals) and medullary cavity of
long bones.
 Terminology
• Process= prominence
• Tubercle=small blunt projection
• Tuberosity= more developed tubercle is called
tuberosity
• Spine= pointed projection
• Crest= a sharp ridge
• Head= a rounded articular enlargement at the end of a
bone, joined by shaft of neck
• Condyle= somewhat cylindrical articular eminence
• Epicondyle= non-articular projection in connection
with condyle
• Trochlea = a pulley like articular area
• Glenoid cavity= a shallow cup like articular depression
• Cotyloid cavity= a deep cup like articular depression
• line= a faint elongated elevation
• Crest= an elongated elevation
• Facet= a flat articular surface
• Foramen=a perforation for transmission of vessels and
nerves etc.
• Sinus= an air cavity within bone lined by mucous
membrane and communicate with exterior
• Hiatus= a depression leading two or more foramina
• Fossa, fovea and sulcus= denote various forms of
depressions
• Cleft= a fissure in a bone
• Lamina= a thin plate of a bone
• Cornu or hamulus= a curved horn like process or
hook-like projection
• Canal= a bony tunnel (foramen of some length)
• Meatus= a narrow passage
• Articular process= the region where adjacent
bones contact each other- a joint
• Eminence= a relatively small projection or bump
• Suture=articulation between cranial bones
• Labyrinth= a cavity within a bone
• Malleolus= one of two specific protuberances of
bones in the ankle
 Bones of Thoracic limb
• Divided into 4 regions
1. Bones of shoulder girdle: Scapula,
Coracoid and Clavicle
2. Bones of arm: Humerus
3. Bones of forearm: Radius and Ulna
4. Bones of manus: Carpal, Metacarpals
and Phalanges
• In Ox and Horse: only scapula is present,
coracoid is reduced to coracoid process and
clavicle is absent.
• In dog, clavicle is present in addition to
scapula.
• In birds: consists of fully developed scapula,
coracoid and clavicle.
 Scapula
• Flat triangular bone, situated on the
antero-lateral aspect of thorax and
directed obliquely downward and
forward.
• Connected to axial skeletal only by
muscles.
• Has two surfaces, three borders and three
angles.
Scapula of Ox
A. Lateral view
B. Medial view
• Surface: lateral and medial
Lateral surface (dorsum of scapula):
• Wider above and narrow below and divided into two
unequal areas by the wavy spine of scapula in the ratio of
1:3 ie., supra spinatus fossa (lodges supraspinatus
muscle) in front of the spine and covers one fourth part of
the dorsum and the infraspinatus fossa (lodges
infraspinatus muscle) behind spine which forms
remaining three fourth part of dorsum.
• Margin of spine is thickened in the middle for attachment
of trapezius muscle.
• In lower side the spine becomes prominent and forms
acromion process which gives origin to the acromial part
of deltoid muscle.
Medial surface
• Smooth and presents a shallow depression in
the middle called subscapular fossa which
lodges the subscapularis muscle.
• Proximal third (upper part) of this surface
presents anteriorly a rough triangular area for
insertion of serratus cervisis muscle, a rough
line posteriorly serves insertion of serratus
thoracis muscle.
• Borders: anterior border, posterior border and the
vertebral border
• Anterior border:
• Thin, sharp and convex in the dorsal two third,
rounded and concave for the remainder of its
extent.
• Posterior border:
• Thick and slightly concave, nutrient foramen is
present in lower third of this border.
• Vertebral border:
• Thick and pitted for reception of the scapular
cartilage, which extends beyond the bone and
forms rounded projection
• Angles: Anterior/cervical, posterior/dorsal, and
inferior/articular.
• Anterior:
• Thin and is formed by the vertebral and the
anterior border.
• Posterior:
• Thick and tuberous and is formed by the
vertebral and posterior borders which can be
felt in the living animals.
• Inferior angle and glenoidal angle:
• Attached to the rest of bone by neck of the scapula.
• Composed of glenoid cavity and tuber scapulae.
• Glenoid cavity is shallow, nearly circular, articular
depression and meets head of the humerus to form
shoulder joint.
• The rim of cavity presents an underveloped glenoid
notch on its lateral aspect.
• The tuber scapulae (supraglenoidal tubercle) is a
rough eminence placed in front of the glenoid cavity
which gives origin to the biceps brachii muscle.
• A short rounded coracoid process projects from the
medial side of tuber and gives origin to the coraco-
brachialis muscle
 Species differences
Horse:
• Supraspinatous to infraspinatous fossa surface area
ratio 1:2.
• Scapular spine is placed further backward.
• Subscapular fossa is deeper and presents well marked
vascular impressions.
• Nutrient foramen is present on distal third of
infraspinatous fossa.
• Tuber scapulae or supraglenoid tubercle and glenoid
cavity are placed further apart and coracoid process is
well developed.
• Glenoid cavity is oval in outline and glenoid notch is
deep and distinct in anteromedial part.
• Acromion process is absent.
Scapula of horse
Dog:
• The spine divides dorsum into 1:1 ratio of
Supraspinatous to infraspinatous fossa.
• Acromion process is short, blunt and
overhangs the glenoid cavity.
• Subscapular fossa is very shallow with few
rough lines.
• Glenoid cavity is prolonged forwards under
tuber scapulae.
• Tuber scapulae is blunt.
• Coracoid process is absent.
Left Scapula of Dog
Pig:
• Ratio of supra-spinatous and infra-
spinatpous fossa is 1: 0.8.
• Spine is wide.
• Acromian process is rudimentary.
• Coracoid process is not distinct.
• Glenoid notch is absent.
Fowl:
• Scapula is elongated, narrow, thin slightly
curved bone.
• It is parallel to vertebrae.
• Anterior extremity is articular and posterior
end is free and non-articular.
• Clavicles are two in number ie., right and left
unite to form furcula or wish bone.
• Clavicles of two sides unite ventrally o form a
flattened plate called Hypocleidium which is
attached to rostrum of sternum by a ligament.
 HUMERUS
Direction: obliquely downward and backward.
Relation: shoulder joint proximally to the
scapula and elbow joint distally with radius
and ulna.
Shape: Long cylindrical bone with medullary
cavity.
Location: Proceeding distally down the
forelimb.
Composition: one shaft and two extremities.
• Shaft: twisted and presents four surfaces.
1. Anterior surface: triangular- wide and smooth above and
narrows below and bears muscular imprints in middle and
distal parts. Separated from lateral surface by a distinct
border called crest of humerus which bears a prominence
called deltoid tuberosity for insertion of deltoideus,
brachiocephalicus and teres major muscles.
2. Posterior surface: rounded and smooth and blends with
lateral surfaces. Nutrient foramen is located in about the
middle of the distal third.
3. Medial surface: rounded from side to side, nearly straight
and blends with anterior and posterior surface. At about its
middle, teres tubercle for insertion of tendon of latissimus
dorsi and teres major muscles.
4. Lateral surface
 Spiral, smooth and presents musculo-spiral
groove which lodges the brachialis muscle and
radial nerve.
The groove continues with posterior surface
above and winds towards the front below.
• Extremities: Proximal and distal
1. Proximal extremity: consists of an articular head, two
tuberosities and a bicipital groove.
2. Head: large rounded convex and double the size of glenoid
cavity of scapula. Below head is neck which is distict
posteriorly.
Tuberosities: lateral and medial separated by bicicpital groove.
1. Lateral tuberosity (Greater tubercle) is large and
divided into anterior summit which forms outer boundary
of the bicipital groove and hangs to the same and is
attached the lateral tendon of supraspinatus muscle, and
posterior convexity
2. The convexity placed posterior to summit gives insertion
of infraspinatus muscle.
• Medial tuberosity (Lesser tubercle):
• Small and divided into anterior and posterior part.
• The anterior part forms medial boundary of bicipital
groove and curves over it and gives attachment to
the medial tendon on supraspinatus above and to the
deep pectoral muscle below.
• The posterior part gives attachment to the
subscapularis muscle.
• Distal extremity
• Divided into two condyles by antero-posteral ridge.
• Medial condyle
– Larger and traversed by anteroposteral groove which
reaches the olecranon fossa.
– Articulates with the semilunar notch of ulna posteriorly.
• Lateral condyle
– Smaller and placed at much lower level.
– Anteriorly is the coranoid fossa (receives coranoid process of
radius during extension and flexion of the joint).
– Posteriorly is a much deeper olecranon fossa (receives
olecranon process of the ulna during extension and
flexion of the joint).
• It is bounded by epicondyles on either side.
• Medial epidcondyle
– gives origin to flexor carpi radialis,
pronator teres, flexor carpi ulnaris,
superficial digital flexor and the humeral
head of deep digital flexor muscle.
• Lateral epicondyle
– gives origin to ulnaris lateralis at its
tuberous portion.
– makes lateral aspect of condyloid crest
which forms posterior boundary of the
musculo-spiral groove and gives origin to
extensor carpi radialis, common digital
extensor and medial digital extensor.
 Comparative anatomy
Horse:
 Musculospiral groove is deeper and more spiral.
 Nutrient foramen is placed on the distal third of the
medial surface.
 Deltoid tuberosity is better developed.
 Head is smaller, neck distinct and bicipital groove is
subdivided by an intermediate ridge.
 Lateral tuberosisty is not much larger.
 Coronoid and olecranon fossae are shallower.
Dog:
• Relatively long and slender but less spirally
twisted.
• Deltoid tuberosity is in the form of a ridge like.
• Musculo-spiral groove is not prominent.
• Nutrient foramen is placed on posterior surface.
• Head is rounded and slightly convex, the lateral
tuberosity is single while the bicipital groove
is undivided.
• Coronoid and olecranon fossa communicate by a
large foramen (supratrochlear foramen).
Pig:
• Both proximal &
distal ends are
inclined.
• Musculo-spiral
groove is shallow.
• Bicipital groove is
undivided.
• Supratrochlear
foramen is present in
most of the animals.
Fowl:
• Proximally this
bone articulates
with scapula and
coracoid.
• Pneumatic
foramen is
situated medially
below head.
• Head is oval in
form.
 THE RADIUS AND ULNA
• Fuse with each other in ox but
comparatively it is longer in sheep and
goat.
• Before maturity, the two bones are
separate but they fuse as adultism is
reached.
• However, those bones are described
separately.
 Radius
Direction: vertical somewhat oblique.
Relation: attached with humerus proximally
and the carpal bones distally.
Shape: cylindrical.
Location: in the forearm, somehow oblique
and distal extremity is nearer the median plane
than proximal extremity.
Composition: one shaft and two extremities.
Shaft:
• Long, flattened craniocaudally and curved
longiudinaly and presents four surfaces: anterior,
posterior, medial and lateral.
Anterior surface:
• Convex, smooth and covered with extensors of
carpus and digit.
• In distal third part, three wide vertical grooves are
present.
– Lateral groove is for passage of tendon of medial digital
extensor and common digital extensor.
– Central groove is wider and passage for tendon of extensor
carpi radialis.
– Medial groove passes the tendon of extensor carpi obliquus.
 Posterior surface:
 Concave and throughout the whole length along the lateral part, it
is attached with cranial surface of shaft of ulna excepting at two
interosseous spaces. These iterosseous spaces are proximal and
distal. The radial surfaces of the spaces are smooth for passage of
interosseus vessels.
The nutrient foramen is located on the lateral aspect of proximal
radio-ulnar arch (position varies in individual).
 Medial surface:
• Smooth and continuous with the anterior and posterior surface at
its upper part.
• At proximal end, smooth area for insertion of tendon of brachialis
muscle.
 Lateral surface:
• Slightly concave, rounded and smooth in upper third where it
blends with the anterior and posterior surface.
 Proximal extremity:
• A deep antero-posterior groove divides proximal
extremity into medial and lateral part (medial is
larger).
• The articular surface is surrounded by bony rim
which present in front at around middle, a
prominent lip-like projection called the coronoid
process.
• Posteriorly, there are two large concave faces
for articulation with ulna. Below these facets, is a
four sided rough area for attachment with ulna via
interosseous ligament.
• At the antero-medial aspect is the large radial
tuberosity for insertion of biceps brachii
muscle.
• On either side are two roughened medial and
lateral tubercle for attachment of medial and
lateral ligaments of elbow joint.
 Distal extremity
Large and thick with oblique articular suface
which is composed of three facets for
attachment with proximal carpals.
 Medial facet is largest and articulates with
radial carpal.
 Middle facet articulates with intermediate
carpal and is intermediate in size, wide and
concave in front and gradually narrows and
pointed behind.
 Lateral facet articulates with ulnar
carpal bone.
 Ulna
Long bone and longer than radius.
Situated on the posterolateral aspect of
radius.
Fused with the radius in adult except at
the two inter-osseous spaces above and
below.
Consists of shaft and two extremities.
 Shaft
Complete, three sided and strongly
curved/bent.
Proximal part contains the medullary cavity
which extends somewhat into the proximal
end.
Consists of three surfaces and three borders.
Anterior surface: fused with postero-lateral
aspect of radius except at proximal and distal
interosseous spaces, at upper part of this
surface, two articular facets for articulation
with corresponding facets of radius.
Medial surface: smooth, wide and
concave and blends with posterior surface
of radius and provides accommodation
for flexor muscles..
Lateral surface: narrow and presents
radio-ulnar groove between it and radius.
Out of three borders, medial and lateral
borders are fused with the radius and
posterior one is smooth and concave on
its length.
 Extremities/Ends
 Proximal and distal.
Proximal extremity:
 Expanded and comprises one large olecranon process
and a semilunar notch.
 Olecranon process has two surfaces and two boarders.
 Lateral surface is convex and medial surface is
concave.
 The free rough and tuberous proximal end is
called summit where insertion of triceps brachii,
tensor fasciae antibrachii and anconeus muscle.
 Anterior border is limited by semilunar notch and
thereby formed a beak like projection known as
anconeus process.
Anconeus process along with semilunar notch
is inserted into the olecranon fossa of humerus
during extension of limb.
Distal extremity
Fused with radius. Projects styloid process
below the level of radius and furnishes a part
for the articular facet for ulnar carpal.
 Comparative anatomy
Horse:
 Ulna is further ill developed and extended only upto
the distal third of radius and hence only one
interosseous space.
 Distal interosseous space is absent.
 Radial tuberosity is well marked.
 On lower third of radius- towards medial border of
posterior surface is roughened elevation for
attachment of superior check ligament.
 Medial surface of olecranon process is more concave.
 Semilunar notch is more extensive.
Dog
Two separate bones and are in contact with
each other by their ends.
Interosseous space is narrow and is extended
throughout the length of the bone.
Olecranon process at its anterior part presents
a pair of tubercles.
Pig
Radius is comparatively shorter and thin
Ulna is massive and curved backwards
Interosseous space is very narrow
Fowl
Ulna is comparatively massive than radius
Both bones are at contact to their extremities only
Interosseous space is wide
Semilunar notch is ill-marked
 Carpal
Consists of six bones arranged in two rows
between the radius and ulna above and
metacarpal bones below - four in proximal row
and two in distal row.
These are short bones arranged as follow :
 Radial carpal (Scaphoid)
Largest bone of the upper row.
Proximal surface is convexo-concave from
before backward and articulates with radius.
Distal surface articulates with fused second
and third carpal.
Lateral face bears facets for intermediate
carpal.
Anterior, medial and posterior surfaces are
continuous and rough.
Intermediate carpal (Semilunar)
 Wedge shaped.
 Anterior surface is non articular and broad.
 Posterior surface is narrow, prolonged medially.
 Proximal surface is convexo-concave from before
backward and articulates with the radius.
 Distal surface is divided by a ridge into two facets
for the fused second and third and fourth carpals.
 Medial face has facets for the radial carpal.
 Lateral face articulates with ulnar carpal.
 Ulnar carpal (Cuneiform)
Very irregular and compressed laterally.
Proximal surface is oblique directed backward
and downward, encroaches on distal face and
articulates with fourth carpal.
Medial surface has facets for the intermediate
carpal.
Anterior surface is rough and convex.
Posterior surface has a facet for accessory
carpal.
 Accessory carpal (Pisiform)
Short, thick and rounded.
Proximal surface is narrow and rough for
flexor ulnaris and ulnaris lateralis.
Distal surface is broad and rough.
Anterior surface has facet for the ulnar carpal.
 Fused second and third carpal (Os
magnus)
Largest of the carpals and medial one of the
two bones of distal row.
Proximal surface has two facets, medial larger
for radial carpal and lateral smaller for
intermediate carpal.
Distal face articulates with large metacarpal.
Lateral face has facets for fourth carpal.
Medial and anterior faces are non-articular,
continuous rough and convex.
 Fourth carpal (Unciform)
Situated lateral aspect of carpus.
Proximal face has two facets for the
intermediate and the ulnar carpals.
Distal face articulates with large metacarpal.
Medial face has facets for fused second and
third carpal.
Anterior and lateral surfaces are non-articular,
continuous and rough.
Comparative anatomy
Horse
Has seven or eight carpal bones. They are:
Radial carpal: resembles that of the ox.
Intermediate carpal: lateral angle of its proximal
face is more pointed.
Ulnar carpal: smallest bone of proximal row,
proximal face articulates only with radius.
Accessory carpal: discoid, medial face is
concave and the lateral face is convex and
rough.
 First carpal: inconstant, when present it is in the
form of small nodule.
 Second carpal: smallest bone of distal row,
proximal face has a convex facet for radial carpal,
distal face is flat and articulates with medial small
and large metacarpals.
 Third carpal: largest carpal, irregularly triangular
with base anterior. Proximal face articulates with
radial and intermediate carpals and distal with
large and medial small metacarpals.
 Fourth carpal: proximal face is convex and
articular and encroaches on the lateral face. Distal
face articulates with large and lateral small
metacarpals.
 Dog
Has seven bones: three in proximal row and
four in distal row.
 Pig
 Eight carpal bones: four in each row.
 The bones of proximal row resembles that of an
ox with the exception that the accessory carpal is
similar to that of horse but no lateral groove.
 First carpal is small, elongated from before
backward, rounded and articulates in front with
second carpal.
 Fowl
 Only two free bones in
adult i.e., radial and
ulnar capals.
 The radial carpal is
quadrilateral while
ulnar carpal is forked.
 The bones of distal row
fuse with those of
metacarpus during
development forming
carpometacarpal bone.
 Metacarpals
Two metacarpal bones in ox - one is large
metacarpal (fused third and fourth) and other is
small metacarpal (fifth).
 Large metacarpal bone
Formed by the fusion of third and fourth
metacarpal bones and located vertically
between carpus above and the phalanges
below.
Fusion of these two bones are well marked by
a grooves externally and presence of double
medullary cavities inside.
Consists of a shaft and two extremities ie.,
proximal and distal extremities.
Shaft:
• Semi cylindrical and presents two surfaces and two borders.
Surfaces:
• Anterior surface is smooth, convex and bears a central
groove called anterior (dorsal) median groove which lodges
the two foramina- proximal and distal. The foramina
communicate with similar foramina on posterior surface.
• Posterior/palmer/volar surface: flat and broad at both ends.
Also, bears a shallow vertical groove and two foramina that
communicates with anterior groove through proximal and
distal foramina and this surface accommodates the superior
sesamoidean ligament.
Borders:
• Medial and lateral borders: both are smooth and rounded but
at upper part of lateral border, small metacarpal bone is
attached posteriorly.
Extremities: Proximal and distal
Proximal extremity
• Presents two slightly concave articular facets separated
by a median ridge in front and deep notch behind.
• The medial facet is larger and articulates with the
second and third fused carpal and centrally there is
synovial fossa.
• The lateral facet is smaller and articulates with fourth
carpal. Below this facet, a small articular area for
articulation with small metacarpal bone.
• At the antero-medial aspect of this extremity,
metacarpal tuberosity is present which attaches with
the extensor carpi radialis muscle.
Left bovine carpus and metacarpal
Distal extremity:
Divided into two parts by intercondyloid
cleft ie., medial and lateral condyles.
An antero-posteral ridge divides each
condyle into two articular areas, medial of
of which slightly larger than lateral.
The condyles articulate with first phalanx
below and proximal sessamoids behind.
At the posterior aspect, just above the
condyles, there are four depressions for
sessamoid bones.
Fig: Lateral (left) and laterocaudal (right) views of
Left carpal and metacarpal
 Small metacarpal bone
Small elongated piece of bone
situated posterior-lateral aspect of
large metacarpal bone.
Broader at its proximal end and
narrow at the distal end.
A small facet is present medially for
large metacarpal bone and remains
fused with large metacarpal bone.
Comparative anatomy
Horse
3 bones - one large metacarpal representing 3rd
metacarpal and two small metacarpals 2nd and
4th metacarpal bones.
Large metacarpal bone:
Also known as cannon bone.
Devoid of any groove on either side.
Nutrient foramen is present on dorsal third of
posterior surface.
Posterior surface is roughened on either side in its
proximal two thirds for attachment of the small
metacarpal bones with which it forms wide
groove for the lodgment of suspensory ligament.
Articulates with second, third and fourth carpals
above and by means of small facets on either side
with the proximal extremities of small metacarpal
bones.
Distal extremity is not divided into two parts.
Medial condyle of the articular area for first
phalanx is slightly larger than that of the lateral.
Small metacarpal bones
Also know as splint bones.
Small metacarpal bones are medial and
lateral and extend to distal third of large
metacarpal bone.
Represent the second and fourth
metacarpal bone.
Medial is slightly longer.
The anterior surface is attached with large
metacarpal by interosseous ligament.
Proximal extremity is broad above and
narrowing down and has one or two facets
dorso-laterally for articulation with the large
metacarpal bone.
The lateral small metacarpal bone bears single
facet above for articulation with fourth carpal,
while the medial has two facets above for
articulation with second and third carpal
bones.
The distal extremity of splint bone is nodular
and termed as the button of the splint bone.
Dog
Has five bones - lie close together
above and diverges distally.
First is shortest,
Second is slightly shorter than third
and fourth and longer than fifth.
The third and fourth are largest.
Fifth is the thickest one.
The proximal ends articulate with each other
by lateral facets and first four with the
corresponding carpals.
The fifth also articulate with the fourth carpal.
Each bone represents one shaft and two
extremities, the shaft is compressed
backwards, nearly four sided in third and
fourth, three sided in second and fifth and
rounded in first.
Distally each metacarpal carries two sessamoid
bones behind.
Pig
Consists 4 metacarpal bones
1st is absent.
3rd and 4th are large and well developed and
carry the chief digits.
2nd and 5th are much smaller and bear
accessory digits.
Proximal end articulates with the carpus.
Distal end articulates with 1st phalanx and
sesamoids.
Fowl
 Consists of 3 metacarpal bones which are fused with
distal row of carpal bones to form carpometacarpus.
 1st metacarpal is a small medial projection from the
upper extremity of the second bone to which it is
united.
 2nd and 3rd are fused at either extremities enclosing a
narrow elongated interosseous space between their
shafts.
 Digits (Phalanges)
In general, 5 digits are present.
In ox, 1st digit absent
3rd and 4th- functional
2nd and 5th-non-functional and
present on posterior aspect of limb as
dew claws.
Each functional digit has 3 phalanges, 2
proximal sesamoid bones and one distal
sesamoid bone.
 1st Phalanx (Os Suffraginis)
 Elongated, largest among three phalanx bone,
situated between large metacarpal and second
phalanx in downward and forward direction.
 Has 4 surfaces and 2 extremities.
Surfaces:
 Anterior, posterior, axial and abaxial (lateral).
 Anterior and lateral surfaces are smooth, convex
and continuous.
 Axial surface is flat and rough.
 Posterior surface bears nodular elevations about
the middle on either side for ligament attachment.
• Extremities: Proximal and distal
Proximal extremity:
• Broad, larger and bears a concave articular
surface which is divided by a antero-posterior
groove into axial and abaxial portions.
• Abaxial (lateral) portion is larger and higher
than axial (medial).
• Posteriorly, two articular facets for sesamoid
bones.
Distal extremity
Smaller and divided by a antero-posterior
groove into lateral and medial condyles of
which lateral one is larger.
This extremity articulates with proximal
extremity of 2nd phalanx.
Left leg of Ox
 2nd Phalanx (Os Corona)
Shorter than first, situated between first and
third phalanges in downward and forward
direction.
Has a shaft and two extremities.
Shaft: three surfaces ie., lateral, posterior and
axial (interdigital) surface.
Lateral surface: rounded and irregularly
concave.
Posterior surface: flat.
Axial surface: depressed.
 Extremity: proximal and distal
Proximal extremity
 Divided by an antero-posterior ridge into 2
concave facets for articulation with corresponding
condyles of first phalanx, of which abaxial is
larger.
 Posteriorly, 2 tubercles for attachment of tendons
of superficial digital flexor muscle.
 Distal extremity
 Condyloid, divided by antero-posteral groove into
lateral and medial parts, of which lateral one is
larger.
 Articulates with proximal extremity of third
phalanx.
 3rd Phalanx (Os Pedis)
Entirely enclosed in the hoof and closely
resembles with hoof.
Composed of four surfaces.
Abaxial surface: convex, rough and traversed
by a antero-posterior groove, at distal part,
several perforations for vessels.
Axial surface: rough above and smooth below,
a groove at the distal part.
Ventral/solar surface: nearly flat being
slightly concave in front.
Dorsal/articular surface:
Articulates with distal extremity of 2nd
phalanx.
2 articular areas divided by a antero-
posterior ridge, lateral of which is larger and
higher.
Posteriorly, present a concave facet for
articulation with distal sesamoid bone.
Left leg of Ox
 Sesamoid bones: Proximal and distal sesamoid
bones.
Proximal sesamoid bones
 Four in number in each limb.
 Articulates with corresponding facets at the
posterior aspect of the distal end of the large
metacarpal as well as with the proximal end of
first pair of phalanges.
 2 for each digit, oval, elongated shape and axial
bone is larger in size.
 Anterior surfaces are concave and articulate and
posterior surfaces are convex and free.
Distal sesamoid bones:
Also known as navicular bone.
2 in number, one for each digit.
Flat and situated transversely between 2nd and
3rd phalanges.
Anterior surface is convex with a ridge at the
middle and faces upwards.
Posterior surface: flat and bears a ridge at the
middle.
 Comparative anatomy
Horse:
Consists of only 1 digit ie., 3rd digit and has 3
phalanges in each forelimb.
1st phalanx is longer and wider than of ox,
anterior surface is convex and smooth while
posterior surface is flat and marked by a
triangular rough area for distal sesamoidean
ligament.
2nd is also short, antero-posteriorly
compressed and width is more than length.
3rd phalanx resembles the shape of hoof and
covered by hoof and has anterior, solar and
articular surface.
Proximal two sesamoid bones on the palmer
side of metacarpophalangeal joint and distal
one sesamoid bone situated between 2nd and
3rd phalanges and also called navicular bone.
Sesamoid bones are comparatively larger than
those of ox.
Phalanges of Right leg of Horse
(Anterior view)
Dog:
1st digit has only 2 phalanges (ie.,
2nd phalanx is absent) due to which
this digit fails to contact ground.
2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th digits have 3
phalanges each.
3rd and 4th digits are the longest.
1st and 2nd phalanges are the larger
bone.
Shaft of 1st phalanx of all digit (except 1st digit)
is 4 sided and slightly bend.
2nd phalanges are about 2/3 of 1st phalanx.
3rd phalanges which resemble the claws are hook
like.
Sesamoid bones
Proximal sesamoid bones: 9 sesamoid bones at
posterior aspect of metacarpophalangeal joint, 1
for first digit and 2 for each developed digits.
5 anterior sesamoid bones in the capsule of each
metacarpo-phalangeal joint.
Distal sesamoid bones are cartilagenous.
Pig:
 Two chief digits (3rd and 4th)
and two accessory digits (2nd
and 5th).
 Each digit has 3 phalanges.
 Phalanges of 3rd and 4th digit
are well developed.
 Phalanges of 2nd and 5th
digits are small and generally
do not reach ground.
 2 proximal and one distal
sesamoid bones in each
developed digit.
Fowl:
 Consists 3 digits.
 Present at the terminal segment of wing.
 1st and 2nd digits have 2 phalanges each.
 3rd digit has only 1 phalanx.
 2nd digit is the largest.
 Sesamoid bones are absent.
 Bones of Pelvic limb
Consists of following segments:
Pelvic girdle/Hip bones: Ilium,
Ischium and Pubis
Thigh: Femur
Leg/crus: Tibia and Fibula
Pes/hind paw: Tarsus, Metatarsus
and Digits.
 OS coxae/Hip Bone
 Largest bone among the flat bones of the body.
 Consists of two symetrical halves - os coxae
which meet at pelvic symphysis ventrally and
dorsally articulates with sacrum.
 Consists of 3 bones ie., ilium, ischium and pubis,
these 3 bones join to form the acetabulum, a
cotyloid cavity which lodges the head of the
femur.
 Direction: Downwards and backwards
 Relation: Sacrum and coxygeal vertebra above
and femur below
 Shape: Flat irregular bone
 Location: Hip region
 Ilium
 Largest of the three divisions and irregularly triangular
in shape; flat and expanded above, narrow in the middle
and slightly expanded below.
 Narrow part is the shaft, the wider proximal part is
called wing.
 The palpable prominence on the lateral wing in ox is
called tuber coxae (hook bone).
 The medial process of the wing next to the sacram is
called tuber sacrale.
 Presents two surfaces, three borders and three angles.
 Surfaces
Gluteal surface or lateral surface is
directed dorso-laterally and backward and is
concave at proximal end and
concavoconvex ventrally.
The prominent oblique gluteal line is present
almost parallel to the lateral border and
traversing the whole length of this surface.
The nutrient foramen is placed on gluteal
line close to posterior border.
Pelvic or sacral or medial surface
Faces inward towards the pelvic cavity and is
wider at proximal end and narrower distally.
 The proximal wider part presents a triangular
articular facet medially that attaches with
sacrum to form sacro-iliac articulation and
lateral part is smooth and remains covered by
iliacus muscle.
At the middle of the medial surface of shaft, a
raised prominence known as psoas tubercle for
attachment of psoas minor muscle.
 Borders
 Lateral border: concave, thin and rough, its cranial
part has grooves for the passage of iliolumbar vessels.
 Medial border: deeply concave and at the beginning of
shaft, it divides intoone anterior (pubic) and aposterior
(ischaitic) border.
 The anterior becomes continuous with anterior border
of pubis and posterior one forms the greater ischiatic
notch and then raised on the cotyloid cavity to form
superior ischiatic spine.
 Dorsal border: thin and concave and rough for
attachment of the muscles of the loin.
 Angles
External angle also known as tuber coxae
 Very large prominent and presents 3 to 4 tuberculus
prominences.
Internal angle also known as tuber sacrale
 Little below the level of sacral spines and lies opposite
the first sacral spine or articulates with sacrum.
Ventral/distal/cotyloid angle
 Expanded and joins with the corresponding angles of
pubis and ischium to form cotyloid cavity.
 At the anterior aspect of this angle, a fossa
(supraacetabular fossa) for origin of rectus femoris
muscle.
 Ischium
Second largest, roughly quadrilateral plate of
bone of pelvis
Placed behind ilium and pubis and forms the
most part of the pelvic floor
Consists of two surfaces, four borders and four
angles
 Surfaces
Dorsal/Pelvic surface
 Smooth and concave and forms posterior part of
pelvic floor.
 Just behind the anterior border is smooth, wide
and less distinct groove from where the tendon of
obturator internus muscle passes.
Ventral surface
 Slightly convex and rough for origin of adductor
muscle of thigh.
 Borders
Anterior border: thin, concave and forms
posterior boundary of obturator foramen.
Posterior border: thick and rough and
inclined downwards and forwards, and forms
the ischial arch with fellow of opposite side.
Medial border: joins with the similar border
of bone of opposite side and forms the
symphysis ischii or ischial symphysis.
Ventrally middle of the symphysis, a
prominence known as ventral tubercle.
Lateral border: thick, smooth and concave
and forms lesser ischiatic notch, over which
passes the posterior gluteal vessel.
 Angles
 Anterointernal angle: narrow and joins the
posterior angle of pubis.
 Anteroexternal angle: wide and joins with the
cotyloid angles of ilium and pubis to form
cotyloid cavity.
 Postero-internal angle: meets with the similar
angle of other bone at the middle of ischial arch.
 Posteroexternal angle: it forms a trifid process,
the tuber ischii (pin bone).
 The sacro sciatic ligament, biceps femoris,
semitendininosus, semimembranosus and ischio-
cavernosus muscle are attached to this angle.
 Pubis
A small, irregularly triangular plate of bone
situated at the antero-medial aspect of the
pelvic floor.
Presents two surface and three borders.
 Surfaces
Dorsal/Pelvic surface: smooth and rounded,
urinary bladder rests on it.
Ventral surface: slightly convex and rough
for muscular attachment.
 Borders
Anterior border: thin, little depressed
and on the lateral part, presents a
prominence known as iliopubic
eminence.
Medial border: meets same border of
opposite bone and forms pubic
symphysis.
Posterior border: concave and forms
anterior boundary of obturator foramen.
 Acetabulum/Cotyloid Cavity
Acetabulum is a cotyloid cavity formed on the
ventro-lateral aspect of the os coxae by the
meeting of its three components.
Consists of an articular and a non-articular
part.
The former is nearly circular and articulates
with the head of the femur.
The rim of the cavity presents on its postero-
medial aspect the acetabular notch, which
transmits the round ligament of the hip joint.
The non-articular part, the acetabular fossa is
situated in the depth of the acetabulum.
Another small notch may be seen antero-
medially, though sometimes it is replaced by a
foramen or is absent.
 Obturator Foramen
 Largest foramen of the body and elliptical, situated
between pubis and ischium.
 In fresh state the foramen is covered by muscles
(obturator externus muscle below and obturator
internus muscle above) leaving a narrow space for
passage of vessels and nerves.
 General consideration
 Cranial opening of bony pelvis is known as pelvic
inlet and is formed by cranial end of sacrum, shaft
of ilium and anterior border of pubis.
 Pelvic outlet: smaller and formed by coccygeal
vertebra above and ischial arch and ischial
tuberosity below.
 Posterior border of sacro-sciatic ligaments form
the lateral walls of pelvic outlet and this enclosure
is also known as perinium.
Pelvimetry: measurement of the pelvis. It has two diameters:
A. conjugate diameter: it is he length between body of sacrum
and cranial end of pubic symphysis at he pelvic inlet.
B. Transverse diameter: it is the distance between two psoas
tubercles.
 Differences in the male and female
hip bones
1. Both the conjugate and transverse diameters
are more in female.
2. In female, the bone is more inclined forward.
3. Pelvic outlet and ischial arch are larger in
female.
4. The ischia of both sides join in more wide
angle in female and make cavity more roomy.
 Comparative Anatomy
Horse
 Ilium is placed more obliquely
 Gluteal line is not prominent
 Ventral tubercle is absent
 Cotyloid cavity is very wide
 Nutrient foramen is placed on posterior border
 Secondary acetabular notch is absent
 Tuber ischii is prominent but not trifid
 Psoas tubercle is underdeveloped
 Obturator foramen is smaller
 Supraacetabular fossa is not prominent
Dog
 Ilium of left side and that of right side are almost
parallel to each other.
 Gluteal surface is more concave
 Crest of ilium is strongly convex
 Ischium is twisted
 Ischial tuberosity is flat
 Obturator foramen is triangular in outline
 Superior ischiatic spine is blunt and both the
greater and lesser ischiatic notches are shallow
 Acetabular notch is wide
Pig
Ilium is less extended laterally
Dorsal border of ilium is convex
Tuber sacrale is inclined caudally
Ischial tuberosity is trifid
Psoas tubercle and pectineal (iliopubic
eminence) are prominent
Rim of acetabulum is thicker
Fowl
 Ilia are fused with sacrum
 Pubis is long and in the form
of a thin elongated stick
 Acetabulum is perforted
 Between ilium and ischium,
there is an extra large aperture
known as ilioischiatic foramen
 Femur
 The largest and most massive
bone of animal body
 Direction: obliquely downward
and forward
 Relation: hip bone above and
tibia, fibula and patella below
 Shape: cylindrical long bone
 Location: proximal part of hind
limb
 Composition: one shaft and two
extremities
 Shaft
The shaft is cylindrical above and three sided
below and consists four surfaces and two
borders
Surfaces
The anterior, medial and lateral surfaces are
smooth and continuous and remain covered by
quadriceps femoris muscle.
The posterior surface is narrower at middle
which is rough for attachment of adductor
muscle and wider at the extremities.
 Borders
 The medial border presents at around middle of upper
third, trochanter minor which encroaches above the
posterior surface.
 Immediately below the trochanter minor externally are
linear rough margins for attachment of pectineus
muscle. Below this are vascular grooves for femoral
vessels.
 In the distal third of medial border presents a rough
prominence, the medial supracondyloid crest from
where the medial head of gasrocnemius muscle
originates.
 On the lateral border at the level of supracondylod crest
is supracondyloid fossa, the outer boundary of which
is lateral supracondyloid crest.
 Proximal extremity
 It consists of head, neck, greater trochanter, trochanter
minor, trochanteric fossa and trochanteric ridge.
a. Head:
 Rounded, smooth and directed medially.
 Bears a small depression at the centre of head called
fovea capitis for attachment of round ligament.
b. Neck
 The constricted part below head.
c. Greater trochanter
 Large tuberosity placed laterally.
 Lateral surface gives attachment to gluteal muscles.
 Anterior part/convexity is opposite to head and
gives attachment to deep gluteal muscles.
 Posterior part/summit is at a greater height than
head and gives attachment to middle gluteal
muscle.
d. Lesser trochanter: small tuberosity present on the
upper part of the medial border which gives
attachment to the iliopsoas muscles.
e. Trochanteric ridge: connects greater and lesser
trochanters.
f. Trochanteric fossa: depression between ridge and
head and its lateral wall is formed by trochanteric
ridge.
 Distal extremity
 Composed of trochlea in front and condyles behind.
Trochlea
 Situated anteriorly and presents two ridges (medial
and lateral) which articulate with posterior surface
of patella.
 Medial ridge is larger.
Condyles
 Medial and lateral, situated at the posterior aspect
of the bone and separated by a deep intercondyloid
fossa.
 The lateral condyle is more convex than medial.
 The medial condyle presents a tubercle for the
attachment of ligament of femoro-tibial
articulation.
 Between the lateral condyle and ridge of trochlea
is a rough depression, the extensor fossa for
origination of perroneous tertius, medial digital
extensor and the common digital extensor.
Intercondyloid fossa
 Deep and accomodates tibial spine and cruciate
ligament.
Epicondyles
 Small prominences (medial and lateral) attached
to the outer (abaxial) aspect to the corresponding
medial and lateral condyles.
 Comparative anatomy
Horse
 Bone is more massive
 On the dorsal third of lateral border there is an
extra prominence called trochanter tertius/third
trochanter
 Trochanter minor is in form of thick rough ridge
 Supra condyloid crest is better developed and
supra condyloid fossa is deeper
 Trochanter major is more massive and divided
into crest, convexity and summit
 The crest is below and lateral to the convexity
 Trochanteric ridge is vertical
Fig: Femur of horse (cranio-lateral aspect)
Dog
Trochanter tertius and supra condyloid fossa
are absent
There are two supra condyloid crests, the
lateral of which is larger
Trochanter minor is like a tuberosity
Trochanter major is undivided and is lower
in level than head
Head is nearly spherical
Trochanteric fossa is deep and rounded
The inter condyloid fossa is wide.
On the posterior aspect of the distal
extremity immediately above each condyle
is a small facet for a sesamoid-the fabella.
The fabellae are two small rounded
sesamoid bones, located one each on the
condyles of the femur on the posterior
aspect.
They are developed in the tendons of origin
of the gastrocnemius muscle.
Pig
Shaft is wide and
relatively massive
Supra condyloid
fossa and third
trochanter is absent
Head is strongly
curved
Neck is distinct

Fig: Femur of Pig (cranio-lateral aspect)

Fowl
 Short and bent
 Head is prominent and smaller
than acetabulum
 Distal extremity has a deep
pulley like articular area for
patella and 2 condyles for head
of tibia-fibula
 The lateral condyle presents on
its lateral aspect a groove for
the head of fibula
 Only the greater trochanter is
present
 Head is hemi-spherical and
fovea capitis is deep and
notched
 Patella
 A largest triangular sesamoid bone placed in
front of the trochlea of femur.
 Has 2 surfaces, 2 borders, 2 angles, a base and an
apex.
 Surfaces: Anterior and posterior
 Anterior surface:
 Free surface, rough and convex which gives
attachment to the muscles and ligaments.
 Posterior surface: articular surface, smooth,
presents a vertical ridge for articulation with the
corresponding groove of trochlea.
Borders: medial and lateral
 Medial border: concave and irregular
 Lateral border: convex and irregular

Angles: medial and lateral

 Medial angle: larger
 Lateral angle: blunt
Base:
Convex, faces upward and backward.
Also called dorsal border.

Apex
Pointed and directed distally.
Also called ventral angle.
 Comparative anatomy
Horse
Not triangular as in ox
Angles are not prominent
Apex is blunt
Medial and lateral borders meet to form wider
angle
Medial and lateral angles are not prominent
 Dog
Bone is
comparatively longer
Anterior surface is
more convex
Posterior surface is
concave along the
length and convex
along the width
Pig
Smaller in size
Has 3 surfaces
Fowl
Thin, triangular bone
Width is comparatively
more
 Tibia
Direction: obliquely downwards and
backwards
Relation: femur above and the tarsus below
Shape: long prismatic, twisted bone
Location: Hind limb
Composition: a shaft and two extremities
Shaft
Distinctly curved, three sided above and
widened and flattened below.
Presents three surfaces and three borders.
Surfaces
Lateral surface:
 Slightly spiral and directed outwards at upper
part and inclines gradually towards the front,
until at its lower end where it looks directly
forwards.
Lodges the tibialis anterior muscle.
Posterior surface:
Rough and traversed by a number of rough
lines known as politeal lines, for the
attachment of flexor muscles.
A smooth triangular area at the upper part and
close to medial aspect for the attachment of
popliteus muscle.
Nutrient foramen is placed on upper third
towards the lateral border.
Medial surface
Slightly convex, wide above and narrow
below.
Rough at upper part for attachment of
sartorious, gracialis and semimembranous
muscles.
 Borders
 Anterior border
 Very prominent known as tibial crest which bears
a rough prominence at medial aspect for insertion
of semitendinosus and a part of biceps femoris.
 Rest of anterior border is rounded and indistinct.
 Lateral border
 Concave and a part of fibrous chord extending
from fibula is attached to it.
 Through the space between the chord and lateral
border passes the anterior tibial vessels.
 Medial border
 Thicker and rounded in its dorsal half and gives
attachment to popliteus muscle.
 Extremities
Proximal extremity:
 Large and bears three tuberosities and two
condyles.
 Anterior tuberosity is non articular prominence
placed in front of proximal extremity.
 Continuous with tibial crest distally and lodges
the three straight ligament of patella.
 Between the anterior tuberosity and lateral
condyle is deep smooth semicircular notch, the
sulcus muscularis, for passage of common
tendon of peroneus tertius, common digital
extensor and medial digital extensor.
 The condyles are medial and lateral and
surmount the medial and lateral tuberosities.
 Each condyle is somewhat saddle-shaped articular
surface, which is prolonged on the spine for
articulation with corresponding condyle of femur.
 The three tuberosities are separated by
intertuberal fossa.
 The rudimentary fibula is attached to the
lateral condyle.
 The tibial spine is central articular eminence
divided into medial higher and lateral lower part.
 Distal extremity
 The distal extremity is much smaller than the
proximal and articulates with the tibial tarsal.
 The surface is composed to two deep antero-
posterior grooves separated by articular ridge.
 The medial groove is surrounded by medial
malleolus which is fused with medial border of
distal end of tibia while the lateral is separated
by a sharp border which articulates with the
lateral malleolus.
 The anterior part of medial malleolus is prolonged
downwards and pointed.
 The lateral malleolus is a separate bone and
articulates with tibia to complete the lateral
groove.
 Comparative Anatomy
Horse
 Comparatively larger and longer.
 A facet below and lateral to lateral condyle for the
head of fibula.
 Anterior tuberosity is grooved vertically.
 The grooves at the distal end for the ridges of
tibial tarsals are oblique.
 Both malleolus bones are fused at the distal end of
tibia.
 Sulcus muscularis is wider.
 Dog
 Tibia is as long as fibula.
 Shaft along the length is convex medially at the upper
part and again convex laterally at the lower part.
 Tibial crest is very prominent but short.
 Upper part of the body is prismatic and lower part is
cylindrical.
 At the prismatic end, caudolateral to the lateral
tuberosity, a facet for proximal end of fibula.
 Lateral malleolus is not fused with distal extremity.
 Pig
 Tuberosity is grooved
in front and a narrow
sulcus separates it from
lateral condyle
 Shaft is slightly curve
 Proximal part of tibial
crest is very prominent
 Presents a proximal and
distal facet for
articulation with fibula
at lateral aspect
 Fowl
 Tibia and proximal
row of tarsus is fused
to form tibio-tarsus
 Shaft is nearly straight
 Tibial crest is
prominent
 Proximal extremity is
large and irregular
 Distal end is condyloid
 Tibio-tarsus is the
longest bone of body
 Malleolus bones
 2 in number, lateral and medial
Lateral malleolus:
 A small separate piece of bone.
 Has two surfaces and four borders.
 The lateral border of lateral groove of distal end of
tibia articulates with lateral malleolus.
 As it is a separate bone so, should be differentiated
from fracture in x-ray images of ruminant tarsus
Medial malleolus:
 The medial border of medial groove of distal end of
tibia projects ventrally as it is fused with medial
malleolus.
Fibula
Highly rudimentary
bone in ox.
Proximal end (head)
is fused with lateral
condyle of tibia.
Body and distal end
remains as a blunt
prolongation
 Comparative anatomy
Horse
 Better developed and placed along the lateral border of
tibia
 It is an aborted long bone and looks like a splint bone
 Presents a body and 2 extremitites
 Proximal extremity is thickest portion of bone
 Shaft is a slender rod, extends down to about the
middle of the tibia
 Distal extremity forms a sharp point and terminates at
lower third of tibia
 Interosseous space is wide
Dog
 Fibula is nearly as long as tibia and is slender
slightly twisted and larger at either extremitites
 Proximal part of shaft is separated from tibia by a
large interosseous space but the middle
parts are flattened and closely attached to tibia by
interosseous ligament
 Proximal extremity presents a facet on the medial
aspect for tibia
 Distal extremity forms the lateral malleolus which
articulates with tibia and tibial tarsal medially
Pig
Thin elongated bone
and extends entire
length of tibia separated
by wide interosseous
space
Shaft is flattened from
side to side, proximal
part is wide and deeply
grooved laterally, and
the distal part is
narrower and thicker.
Fowl
 Fibula is elongated
slender rod shaped
bone
 Articular head is
massive and is
flattened from side to
side
 Body gradually tapers
to a point and is kept
attached throughout
except at a very small
one
 Distal extremity is
pointed and ends
about the lower third