ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM
ANIMALS

Julius Jerome Generao Ele

 Anatomy and Physiology
• Farm animals – livestock and poultry
• Domesticated animals contributes to food,
work and other products
 Latin - Anatomy
• “ana” “tome”
• “ana” – again or go back
• “tome” – to cut

• “cut again” or “go back and cut”

• The study of the structure of the animal

body and the relationships of its many
parts
 Definition of Terms
• Anatomy – form and structure of all
organisms
• Physiology – integrated functions of the
body and functions of all of its parts
• Gross (macroscopic) anatomy –forms and
relations of the structure of the body which
can be seen with an unaided eye
• Comparative anatomy –structure of various
species of animals with particular emphasis
on those characteristics that aid in
classification
• Embryology - developmental anatomy
covering the period from conception
(fertilization of the egg within the female)
to birth
• Histology (microscopic anatomy) - tissues
and cells which can be seen only with aid
of microscope
• Systematic anatomy approach – anatomy
by systems
• Ultrastructural cytology - portions of cells
and tissues as they are visualized with the
aid of the electron microscope
• Histochemistry - chemistry and
microscopic anatomy
 Systematic Anatomy - Study
System Name of Study Chief Structure
Circulatory Angiology Heart, blood
system vessels
Articular system Arthrology Joints

Integumentary Dermatology Skin

system
Endocrine Endocrinology Ductless gland
system
 Systematic Anatomy - Study

System Name of Study Chief Structure

Sensory system Esthesiology Eye, ear
Muscular Myology Muscles
system
Nervous Neurology Brain, spinal
system cord, nerves
Skeletal system Osteology Bones
 Systematic Anatomy - Study
System Name of Study Chief Structure

Digestive Stomach and

system intestines

Respiratory Lungs and air

system Splanchnology passages

Urinary system Kidneys and

bladder
Reproductive Ovaries and
system testes
Directional Terms and Planes of
the Animal Body
• Cranial and anterior - toward the head
• Caudal and posterior - toward the tail
• Median plane - imaginary plane passing through the
body craniocaudally, which divides the body into equal
right and left halves
• Sagittal plane - any plane parallel to the median plane
• Transverse plane - at right angles to the median plane
and divides the body into cranial and caudal segments
• Frontal plane – at right angle to both the median plane
and transverse planes. It divides the body into dorsal
(upper) and ventral (lower) segments.
• Medial - close to or toward the median plane
• Lateral - antonym of medial; it means away from the
median plane
• Dorsal - toward or beyond the backbone or vertebral
column
• Ventral - away from the vertebral column or toward the
mid-abdominal wall.
• Proximal - relatively close to a given part.
• Distal - relatively farther from the given part.
• Prone r- position in which the dorsal aspect or dorsum of
the body or any extremity is uppermost. Pronation refers
to the act of turning toward a prone position.
• Supine - position in which the ventral aspect of the body
is uppermost. Supination refers to the act of turning
toward a supine position.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Long Bones
• Short Bones
• Sesamoid Bones
• Flat Bones
• Pneumatic Bones
• Irregular Bones
 Skeletal System
• Bone- Hard tissue, mostly calcium,
provides support and makes red
blood Cells

• Cartilage- shiny, white, hard tissue,

found at end of long bones and
prevents bones from grinding
against each other
 Skeletal System

• Ligament- strong, white bands of

tissue that connect two bones
together at a joint

• Marrow - soft tissue filling the spongy

interiors of bones

• Tendon- shiny, white bands of tissue

that connect muscles to bone
 Skeletal System
Skeletal system - bony tissues in an animal’s
body.
Endoskeleton - animal’s that have an
internal skeleton which include humans and
domestic animals
The skeletons are similar in most species,
but may vary in lengths and sizes of bones.
Functions of the skeletal system
• Giving the rigidity, body shape and form,
• Protecting vital organs,
• Allowing for body movement and
locomotion
• Storing minerals – calcium and phosphorus
• Serving as a site for formation of blood
cells.
 Anatomy of Bones and
Bone Tissue
The outer portion of the bone is hard, dense
bone and forms the cortex.
The inner portion of the bone is spongy,
porous bone that forms a network called the
medulla cavity.
The medulla cavity has a membrane lining
called the endosteum.
Bone marrow is a thick, red mass of cells
inside the medulla cavity, which makes
essential blood cells.
Blood cells created in the bone marrow
include the following:

• Leukocytes – fight infection,

• Erythrocytes – carry oxygen, and
• Platelets – help the blood to clot.
As the bone ages, the red bone marrow
gradually changes into yellow fatty marrow.
 Parts of the Bone
Epiphysis – refers to either end or extremity
of a long bone.
Proximal epiphysis – end closest to the
main body of the animal.
Distal epiphysis – end farthest from the
main body of the animal.
Diaphysis – the long bone shaft between
the two joint ends.
Epiphysial cartilage – layer of cartilage
between the joint ends and the shaft that
allows the bone to increase in length.
Periosteum – fibrous membrane that covers
the exterior of the bone, excluding the joint
ends.
Articular cartilage – thin layer of cartilage
that covers each joint end.
 Skeletal System

• Layers of Bone
– Periosteum
• Outer layer
• Cushions the hard portion of
the bone
• Repair of broken bones
 Skeletal System

• Layers of Bone
– Compact Bone
• beneath periosteum
• layer of hard mineral matter
• Calcium
• gives bones strength
 Skeletal System

• Layers of Bone
– Spongy Bone
• Inside hard outer layer
• fills ends of bones
• lines hollow portions
 Skeletal System

• Layers of Bone
– Red marrow
• inside cavities of spongy bone
• formation of red blood cells
 Skeletal System

• Layers of Bone
– Yellow marrow
• Located inside hollow portion
• Fat storage cells
• Energy storage
 Total Bone Mass
Of the total bone mass,
26% is mineral matter;
the other chemical
compositions are
20% protein, 4% fat,
and 50% water.
 Classification of Bones
Bones are classified based on function and
shape.
Classifications include long bones, short
bones, flat bones, sesamoid bones,
pneumatic bones, and irregular bones.
Long bones – bones found in limbs;
elongated, round shaft with two ends.
Function: serve as supporting columns
and levers for the skeleton, assisting in
body support, locomotion, and eating.
Examples: Pectoral limb : femur, humerus,
radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges
Pelvic limb: femur, tibia, fibula,
metatarsals and phalanges
Short bones – short bones are cube-
shaped bones that contain a spongy
substance filled with marrow spaces
surrounded by a thin layer of compact
bone.
Function - reduce friction and change the
direction of tendons in the joint of a limb.
Examples: carpus and tarsus
Flat bones – relatively thin, long, and wide
bones that contain two plates of compact
bone surrounded by spongy bone.
Function: protect vital organs, such as the
brain, heart, lungs, and pelvic viscera, and
serve as areas of muscle attachment.
Examples : ribs, sternum, and scapula.
Sesamoid bones – flat and round bones
that are located along the course of
tendons.
Function: reduce friction and change the
direction of tendons or the angle of muscle
pull.
Examples: kneecap, or patella, is an
example of a sesamoid bone.
Pneumatic bones – bones that contain air
spaces (sinuses) which are in contact with
the atmosphere.
Examples: Frontal and maxillary bones
(bones in the face)
Irregular bones – unpaired bones
Function: protect and support the central
nervous system and are points of some
muscle attachments.
Examples: vertebral column and some
unpaired bones of the skull
 Skeletal System

• Types of Bone
– Long Bones
• Longest
• Provide support and
movement
• Levers
– Example -- legs, ribs,
pelvic bones
 Skeletal System

• Types of Bone
– Short Bones
• Smaller than long
• Joints
• Comfort and mobility
– Example -- feet and
hands
 Skeletal System

• Types of Bone
– Irregular Bones
• Have an irregular
shape
• Support and protect
– Example --
vertebrae
 Skeletal System

• Types of Bone
– Flat Bones
• Thin and flat
• Protect organs
– Example -- skull
The periosteum produces new boney tissue
that increases the diameter of the bone.
The periosteum, which is the outside covering
of the bone, is also involved with repairing
bone fractures.
As an animal matures, bone growth stops.
Ossification occurs; that is, the epiphysial
cartilage becomes calcified, bony material.
Although bone continues to be reabsorbed
and replaced, there is no net bone growth.
Bone
Osteogenesis is the process of bone
formation.
Osteoblasts, which are the parent cells of
connective tissue, accomplish this process
by multiplying and secreting an enzyme
called phosphatase.
Phosphatase causes some of the cells to
mature and secrete calcium salts for
ossification.
Osteocytes (mature bone cells) are
surrounded by calcified osteoid material.
Bone growth is affected by hormones,
vitamins, and other nutrients.
Nutritional deficiencies can make bones
fragile and distorted.
Because of their rigidity, especially in older
animals, bones can break easily.
Bone tissue can also repair itself.
Atlas – first cervical vertebrae that forms a
hinge joint with the occipital bone of the
skull and allows the head to move up and
down.
Axis – second cervical vertebrae that
forms a pivotal joint with the atlas and
allows the head to turn from side to
side.
Ribs – thin, flat, curved bones that protect
the heart, lungs, stomach, spleen, and
kidneys.
Ribs also assist in respiration by lifting up
and allowing the lungs to expand during
inhalation and by moving down and
squeezing air out during exhalation.
Muscular System
Arrangement
 Muscular System
• Meat – lean portion of the carcasses of
meat animals
 Functions of the
Muscular System
• Movement of the animal or locomotion,
and
• Movement of materials within the animal’s
body for life support.
• Helps in breathing (abdominal muscle)
• Muscle control (sphincters)
• Body heat (ATP)
Classification of Muscles and
Muscle Tissues

There are two classifications of muscles:

• Voluntary, and
• Involuntary.
Voluntary Muscles – muscles that the animal
can control.
Example: leg muscles (biceps and triceps)
Involuntary Muscles – muscles that the
animal cannot control.
Example: heart muscles (cardiac muscles)
There are three types of muscle tissue:

• Striated (skeletal)
• Smooth
• Cardiac
 Physiology of Muscles
As mentioned, there are three types of muscle
tissues: striated (skeletal), smooth, and
cardiac.
All voluntary muscles are striated.
Involuntary muscles may be striated, smooth,
or cardiac.
1. Skeletal muscle -appear striated (striped),
each cell contains several nuclei which are
located near the cell surface.
• Each muscle cell (fiber) is covered by a
cell membrane (sheath) known as the
sarcolemma.
• Contraction of the skeletal muscle is under
conscious control.
• Location: flesh (meat) that attached to the
skeleton
Striated Muscle Tissue – muscle
tissue that consists of light and dark
fiber bands, which create a striated or
striped appearance.

Photo from U.S. Federal Government courtesy of Wikipedia.

• 2. Smooth muscle (involuntary, visceral
unstriated). The individual muscle cells
are spindle shaped, with a centrally
located nucleus.
• Location: wall of the digestive tract where
it moves and mixes food from the stomach
into the intestines; walls of the urogenital
system
• Function: automatic requires no nerve
stimulus
Smooth Muscle Tissue – muscle
tissue that is non-striated (not striped)
and is found in the “walls” of hollow
organs.

Photo from U.S. Federal Government courtesy of Wikipedia

• 3. Involuntary striated muscle (cardiac
muscle), the cardiac muscle cells are
arranged in the form of a network. The
cells are striated and the nuclei are
centrally located.
• Location: heart
• Function: contraction of cardiac muscle is
inherent and rhythmic , requiring no nerve
stimulus.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue – striated,
involuntary muscle found in the heart.

Photo from U.S. Federal Government courtesy of Wikipedia

 Anatomy of Voluntary
Muscles
Muscles can be classified based on their
function and involvement in action.
Muscles involved in more than one joint
may have different classifications
depending on the joint involved.
Flexor – a muscle that decreases the angle
between two bones when it contracts.
Example: biceps of the forearm.
Extensor – a muscle that increases the angle
between two bones when it contracts.
Example: triceps of the forearm.
Flexor
Extensor
Adductors – muscles that pull a limb
towards the middle of the animal’s body.
Example: pectoral muscles.
Abductors – muscles that tend to pull a limb
away from the middle of the animal’s body.
Example: deltoid muscles.
Abductor
Adductor
Sphincter muscles – smooth or striated
muscles surrounding the openings in the body.
Examples:
Smooth – muscles surrounding valve-
like opening between the stomach and small
intestine (pyloric sphincter).
Striated – muscles around the eyelid.
Agonist – muscle that produces a desired
action.
Antagonist – muscle that produces the
opposite of a desired reaction.
Example: If desired reaction is to bend the
elbow, then the biceps muscle is the agonist
and the triceps is the antagonist.
If the desired action is to straighten the elbow,
then the triceps is the agonist muscle and the
biceps is the antagonist muscle.
CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• The cardivascular system includes the

heart, veins, capillaries, arteries, lymph
vessels, and lymph glands.
• Blood provides organs, tissues and cells
with oxygen, nutrients, gases, hormones,
and antibodies, and removes carbon
dioxide and metabolic wastes.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
• Distributing blood throughout the body
• Removing wastes
• Mounting immune responses to infection
• Aiding in regulating body temperature
• Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Carriers hormones
• Blood clotting
 Heart
• The heart is a cone-shaped, hollow, muscular
structure, consist of epicardium, myocardium
and endocardium. It is divided into four-
chambered pumps (right and left auricles, and
right and left ventricles)
• Location: chest cavity in the middle mediastinal
space
• Function: serves as the pump which receive
blood into the atrial chambers and then pump
the same blood from the ventricles to the tissues
and back again
• Blood then passes into the ventricle before
being pumped out of the heart again.

• Deoxygenated or venous blood coming

from the body enters the right atrium,
passes through the right V.A.
(atrioventricular) valve and into the right
ventricle.
• It is then pumped through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs.
• Oxygenated or arterial blood returns from
the lungs via the pulmonary vein and
enters the left atrium; it then passes
through the left A.V. valve and into the left
ventricle before being pumped out of the
heart to the rest of the body via the aorta.
Heart
 The Heart
• The heart is a cone-shaped, hollow, muscular
structure, consist of epicardium, myocardium
and endocardium. It is divided into four-
chambered pumps (right and left auricles, and
right and left ventricles).
• Location: chest cavity in the middle mediastinal
space.
• Function: serves as the pump which receive
blood into the atrial chambers and then pump
the same blood from the ventricles to the tissues
and back again.
 Circulatory System
• Four Chambers
– Right Atrium
• Receives blood into heart from
body, from veins
– Right Ventricle
• Pumps blood out to the lungs

– Left Atrium
• Receives blood into heart from
lungs
– Left Ventricle
• Pumps blood out into body via
arteries
 Cardiac Cycle
• The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of
events that occurs during one complete heart
beat.
• Diastole refers to the relaxation of a chamber of
the heart just prior to and during the filling of that
chamber. It may be right or left atrial diastole or
right or left ventricular diastole.
• Systole refers to the contraction of a chamber of
the heart in the process of partially emptying that
chamber.
 The Blood Circulation
Vena Right Tricuspid Right Pulmonary
Cava Auricle Valve Ventricle Valve

Bicuspid Left Pulmonary Pulmonary

Lungs
Valve Auricle Veins Artery

Left Aortic Different

Aorta
Ventricle Valve Systemic
Circulations
Conduction System of the Heart
• The heart beat originates in the sino-atrial node
(S – A node) called the pacemaker of the heart.
The impulse from the S-A node spreads
throughout the atria, causing them to contract in
atrial systole and converges on the atrio-
ventricular node (AV node). From the AV node,
the wave of depolarization passes through the
bundle of His, then through the Purkinje system
to the ventricular muscle, causing ventricular
systole
 Blood vessels
Five types of blood vessels exist within
the body:
• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Veins
• Venules
• Capillaries
 Blood Vessels

• Arteries - blood vessels that carry

blood away from the heart.
• Arterioles - small arterial branches
that deliver blood to capillaries.
 Blood vessels

• Veins - blood vessels that convey blood

from tissues back to the heart.
• Venules - small veins that collect blood
from capillaries and delivers it to a vein.
 Blood vessels

• Blood vessels gradually become smaller

as they migrate away from the heart.
• Arteries divide into arterioles and veins
divide into venules.
 Blood vessels
Capillaries
• smallest blood vessels.
• involved in the transfer of oxygen,
nutrients and gases to the cells of the
body and the removal of carbon dioxide
and metabolic waste.
• very thin membranes hence components
of blood diffuse across the membrane and
enter cells.
 Circulatory System

The two main circulation systems within

the body are the:
• Pulmonary System
• Systemic System
 Circulatory System

• The pulmonary system delivers blood to

and from the lungs.
• The systemic system circulates blood
throughout the rest of the body.
 Blood

Blood is composed of:

• Red cells (erythrocytes),
• White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Plasma
 Red blood cells - Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
• most numerous and contain a protein
called hemoglobin.
• Hemoglobin contains the mineral iron and
is responsible for carry oxygen in the
blood.
• deliver oxygen to cells and aid in the
removal of carbon dioxide.
 White blood cells - Leukocytes
• White blood cells - responsible for the
body’s immune response, or defense
against infection; mainly phagocytic and
produce antibodies and counteract toxins
• Two types of white blood cells,
granulocytes and agranulocytes (lymphoid
cells) which aid in combating foreign
bodies, bacteria, viruses and other
infective agents.
 Platelets
• Platelet (thrombocyte) - fragment of
cytoplasm enclosed in a cell membrane
and lacking a nucleus; found in circulating
blood, platelets play a role in clotting.
• Platelets collect at the site, sticking to the
vessel wall and liberating serotonin, which
leads to local vasocontriction. They also
liberate thromboplastin which aids in blood
clotting, and they play a role in clot
reactions.
 Plasma
• Plasma - yellowish extracellular fluid found
in blood vessels.
• Plasma is 90% water.
 Blood clotting
• The essential process in coagulation is the
conversion of the soluble plasma protein,
fibrinogen, into the insoluble protein, fibrin, a
reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme
thrombin.
 Blood clotting
• Thrombin - formed from its inactive
precursor, prothrombin, in the presence of
calcium ions by the action of activated
thromboplastin.
• Prothrombin - synthesized in the liver, and
vitamin K is essential in the hepatic
synthesis of prothrombin.
 Vitamin K
Liver Prothrombin
factor VII and X

Ca++
Prothrombin Thrombin
Activated
Thromboplastin

Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin (clot)
 Lymphatic System
• They lymphatic system is comprised of
lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph
organs and areas of lymph tissue within
the intestinal wall.
• Lymphatic organs include bone, marrow,
tonsils, thymus, and the spleen.
• The lymphatic system maintains internal
fluid balance and is an important
component of the body’s immune system.
• Production of antbodies and controls
infection
 Lymph Nodes
• Lymph nodes - located throughout the
body along the lymph vessels.
• Lymph nodes - filter lymph and act as a
barrier against infection by harboring
lymphocytes, monocytes and plasma cells.
 Circulatory system and
lymphatic system

• Protein molecules of certain hormones and

enzymes join the circulatory system by way of
the lymphatic system

• The lymph capillaries are more permeable than

the blood capillaries, larger molecules which
cannot be absorbed by the blood capillaries will
be absorbed by the lymph capillaries
 Respiratory System
Functions:
• Provides oxygen to the blood.
• Excretes waste gases such as carbon
dioxide.
• Creates noise via the voice box (in most
animals) - phonation or the syrinx (in birds)
• Assistance in temperature control
 Respiratory System
The respiratory system includes:
• Lungs
• Nostrils
• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Nostrils (nares) - external openings of the
respiratory tract that lead to the nasal
cavity.
• Air and food pass through the pharynx, but
not at the same time.
• The larynx (voice box) - controls breathing,
prevents the inhalation of foreign objects
into the lungs and for voice production.
• The trachea (windpipe) contains rings of
cartilage that are rigid and prevent it from
collapsing.
• The trachea enters the chest cavity as a
single tube to the base of the heart where
it divides into to two braches called
primary bronchi.
 Respiratory System
• Each bronchi passes into one of the lungs.
• Inside the lungs, the bronchi branch into
smaller bronchi and finally into very small
tubes called bronchioles.
 Respiratory System
• The bronchioles open into alveolar ducts,
which lead to the smallest portions of the
respiratory system called alveoli.
• Oxygen is diffused from the bloodstream
into the alveoli so it can be exhaled out of
the body.
 Respiratory System
• Alveoli
– Surrounded by
blood vessels
– Carbon dioxide is
removed from blood
– Oxygen is absorbed
into blood
Respiratory System
 Lungs
• The primary function of the lungs is to
exchange gases with the atmosphere.
• Gas absorbed by the lungs during
inhalation is oxygen.
• Gas exhaled is carbon dioxide.
 Inhalation

• Muscles of the diaphragm contract

causing the thoracic cavity to enlarge and
a vacuum to be created.
• The lungs to expand and air is drawn into
them.
 Exhalation
• The diaphragm muscles relax, causing
contraction of the chest muscles, which
decreases the thoracic cavity size,
resulting in the retraction of alveolar elastic
fibers.
 Breathing Rates
• Breathing rates of animals are controlled
by nerve cells in a portion of the brain
called the medulla oblongata.
• The rate at which the brain stimulates
breathing is affected by the carbon dioxide
content of the blood, body temperature,
and messages from other parts of the
brain.
 Types of Breathing
• Costal (thoracic) – involves considerable
movement of the ribs; occur when more air is
needed than movement of the diaphragm
produces.
• Abdominal (diaphragmatic) – diaphragm
contraction produces visible movement of the
abdomen; occurs during ordinary quiet
breathing.
• Eupnea – normal quiet respiration
• Dyspnea – difficult breathing
• Apnea – absence or cessation of respiration
• Hyperpnea – increased depth or rate of
breathing or both
• Polypnea – rapid, shallow breathing.
 Nervous System
The nervous system is composed to two
major parts.
1. Central nervous system - brain and spinal
cord.
2. Peripheral nervous system - nerves found
in all other regions of the body.
 Nervous System
Functions of the nervous system include:
• Coordinating physical movement of the
body.
• Responding to the action of all the senses;
hearing, sight, smell, taste, and touch.
Nerve cells or neurons, consist of:
• A single long fiber (axon)
• Several branched threads (dendrites)
Nerve cell - neuron
 Nervous System
• Dendrites receive messages from other
nerves or organs.
• An electrical impulse passes along the
axon and is then conducted (passed on) to
another dendrite or to an effector organ,
such as a muscle, which is stimulated to
move or react.
 Nervous System
• Synapse - space between the axon
terminals of one neuron and subsequent
dendrites of the next neuron
• Before an impulse can reach the brain, it
must travel along a series of neurons and
synapses.
• Other impulses are sent directly to an
effector organ.
 Nervous System
• Nerves occur as single neurons or in
bundles (nerve trunks)
• Ganglions- nerve bundles that occur
outside of the brain and spinal cord.
• Sensory or Afferent neurons - nerves that
receive stimuli and carry them to the
central nervous system
• Motor or Efferent neurons - nerves that
carry messages from the brain to muscles
or glands
 Brain
The brain is made up of four major parts:
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata
Brain
 Cerebrum
Cerebrum
• largest part of the brain.
• responsible for the decision-making or
thinking processes that control voluntary
muscle activity and
• for reactions to stimuli that are processed
by the senses.
 Cerebrum
The cerebrum is divided into the left and
right side or hemisphere. Each hemisphere
is divided into four lobes:
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital
Cerebrum
 Cerebellum
Cerebellum
• coordinator of messages from other parts
of the brain to the body.
• coordinates the action of voluntary
muscles in activities such as walking,
running, eating, and talking.
 Brain (Reflex Actions)
• Involuntary (reflex actions), such as
blinking, vomiting, breathing and
swallowing are controlled by the pons and
medulla oblongata, which act
independently of the other two parts of the
brain.
 Spinal Cord
• Spinal cord - located at the center of the
vertebral column.
• Spinal cord - main avenue for message
transferal between the brain and the other
parts of the body.
 Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system
• responsible for transmitting messages
between the outer part of the body and the
brain.
• made up of somatic and autonomic
nerves.
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Somatic nerves include all the nerve
structures located outside the brain and
spinal cord.
• Somatic nerves convey sensations from
sensory organs such as the eyes and
nose.
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Autonomic nerves are also located outside
of the central nervous system.

• Autonomic nerves control the functions of

muscles in internal organs, such as the
heart and stomach.
 URINARY SYSTEM
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Bladder
• Urethra
The urinary system:
• Removes wastes
• Helps maintain the correct balance of
water and minerals in the body
The urinary system includes the:
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Bladder
• Urethra
 Kidney
• Anatomy: bean shape (horse and pig); lobulated
shape (chicken and cattle)
• Location: dorsal part of the abdominal cavity on
each side of the aorta and vena cava just ventral
to the first few lumbar vertebra.
• Functions: filter plasma and plasma constituents
from the blood, and selectively reabsorb water
and useful constituents back from the filtrate,
ultimately excreting excesses and plasma waste
products
Each kidney is composed of:
• renal cortex - outer tissue layer
• renal medulla - inner portion
Kidney
 Kidneys
• Filter waste products from the blood
including mineral salts, urea, uric acid, and
creatinine
• Regulate blood composition and maintain
normal internal life support conditions
 Ureters
Ureters
• tubules connecting the kidneys with the
bladder.
• responsible for transporting urine from the
kidneys to the bladder.
Kidneys
 Bladder/Urethra
• Bladder - expandable sac that stores the
urine until it is excreted from the animal’s
body.
• Urethra - elastic tube where urine passes
through and is removed from the body;
has a sphincter.
 Other Functions of the Kidneys
• 1. Regulation of the amount of water contained in the
blood. This process is influenced by antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), also called vasopressin. Receptors in the brain
monitor the blood’s water concentration. When the
amount of salt and other substances in the blood
becomes too high, the pituitary gland releases ADH into
the bloodstream. When it enters the kidney, ADH makes
the walls of the renal tubules and collecting ducts more
permeable to water, so that more water is reabsorbed
into the bloodstream.
• 2. The hormone aldosterone, produced by the adrenal
glands, interacts with the kidneys to regulate the blood’s
sodium and potassium content. High amounts of
aldosterone cause the nephrons to reabsorb more
sodium ions, more water, and fewer potassium ions; low
levels of aldosterone have the reverse effect.
• 3. Aldosterone also helps regulate blood pressure. When
blood pressure starts to fall, the kidney releases an
enzyme (a specialized protein) called renin, which
converts a blood protein into the hormone angiotensin.
This hormone causes blood vessels to constrict,
resulting in a rise in blood pressure. Angiotensin then
induces the adrenal glands to release aldosterone, which
promotes sodium and water to be reabsorbed, further
increasing blood volume and blood pressure.
• 4. The kidney also adjusts the body's acid-base balance
to prevent such blood disorders as acidosis and
alkalosis, both of which impair the functioning of the
central nervous system. If the blood is too acidic,
meaning that there is an excess of hydrogen ions, the
kidney moves these ions to the urine through the
process of tubular secretion. An additional function of the
kidney is the processing of vitamin D; the kidney
converts this vitamin to an active form that stimulates
bone development.
• 5. Several hormones are produced in the
kidney. One of these, erythropoietin,
influences the production of red blood cells
in the bone marrow. When the kidney
detects that the number of red blood cells
in the body is declining, it secretes
erythropoietin. This hormone travels in the
bloodstream to the bone marrow,
stimulating the production and release of
more red cells.
• The Nephron is the unit of structure and function of the
kidneys. It includes the glomerulus, glomerular capsule
(Bowman’s capsule), proximal convoluted tubule, loop of
Henle, and distal convoluted tubule (which is continued
by the collecting tubule).
• The glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries interposed on the
course of an arteriole.
• The glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) is the
expanded blind end of the tubule, which is evaginated
around the glomerulus and almost entirely surrounds it.
The inner and outer layers of the glomerular capsule is
called a renal (Malpighian) corpuscle.
• Function: the major site for filtration of fluid from the
blood. Approximately 100 times as much fluid passes
through this filter as is eventually excreted as urine.
• The proximal convoluted tubule is the longest and most
winding portion of the nephron. It forms much of the
tissue of the renal cortex
• Function: reabsorbs most of the constituents of the
glomerular filtrate that are needed by the animal body,
including about 7/8 of the sodium chloride and water.
• The Loop of Henle is interposed between the proximal
convoluted tubule and the distal convoluted tubule. It is
a U-shaped tube that begins near the glomerulus as a
continuation of the proximal tubule. The descending
limb, which is thin, extends a variable distance into the
medulla, where it turns back upon itself as the thick,
ascending limb of Henle’s loop.
• Function: usually contains the most concentrated fluid,
with the highest concentration at the lowest part of the
loop close to or within the medullary, due to the
countercurrent mechanism.
• The distal convoluted tubule is shorter and
less twisted than the proximal convoluted
tubule. It extends from the termination of
the ascending limb of Henle’s loop to the
collecting tubule.
 Integumentary System

The integumentary system is the exterior

covering of the body and is essential for:
• Regulating body temperature
• Balancing water
• Protection against infection
• Protection a
The integumentary system consists of skin
and skin appendages, including:
• Hair
• Nails
• Horns
• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands
The primary function of skin is to act as a
protective layer against disease, infection,
the sun, and other potentially harmful
elements.
 Epidermis
The skin of animals consists of two layers,
the epidermis and the dermis.
Epidermis
• outer layer of the skin and contains no
blood cells.
• superficial covering of stratified epithelial
tissue comprised of an external layer of
dead cells sitting on a lower layer of living
cells.
 Dermis
Dermis (corium)
• inner layer of the skin and contains blood
vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, glands,
hair follicles, and muscle fibers.
• deeper layer of dense, irregular connective
tissue.
Skin
Skin Appendages (modified extensions)
derived from the skin include:
• Hair
• Scales
• Hoofs
• Feathers
• Claws
• Horns
• Nails
 Skin
• Coat coverings differ between animals
species.
• Goats, horses, cattle, and swine have hair;
sheep have wool, and poultry have feathers.
• Hair, wool and feather are all comprised of
protein and are essential for regulating body
temperature.
 Skin
• Each hair follicle has a small bundle of
smooth muscle fibers (arrector pili) that
can contract to pull the hair perpendicular
to the skin surface.
• The arrector pili muscles are stimulated to
contract involuntarily by the nervous
system in times of stress or cold.
• When all hairs are standing perpendicular,
they trap more air and keep the animal’s
body warmer.
 Glands
The principle glands of the skin are sweat
glands and sebaceous glands.
• Sweat glands release water to cool the
body.
• Sebaceous glands secrete oil substances
to lubricate the skin and hair.
 Sebaceous glands
• Sebaceous glands are classified as holocrine
glands
• Sebaceous glands in sheep produce lanolin.
 Sudoriferous glands or sweat
glands (tubular skin glands)
• Sweat glands can be found over the entire
bodies of farm animals including horse,
cow, sheep, pig and dog.
• The horse is the only farm animal that
sweats readily.
 Sensory receptors
• Sensory receptors in the dermis of the skin
detect touch, pain, heat, and cold. Sensory
receptors include:
• Merkel cells
• Meissner’s corpuscles
• Paccinian corpuscles
• Free nerve endings
 Sensory receptors
• Merkel cells respond to very light
pressure.
• Meissner’s corpuscles are sensitive to
touch and are found in delicate areas such
as the lips and fingertips.
 Sensory receptors
• Paccinian corpuscles detect pressure.
• Free nerve endings sense heat and cold
as well as touch.
 Skin Color
• Skin color is due to the presence of pigment
granules melanosomes, within the cytoplasm of
the pigment cells (melanocytes).
• Melanin is the pigment - the dark colors result
from the dispersion of melanin granules into the
cell cytoplasmic processes or surrounding
tissues, whereas light colors are a result of
concentration of granules near the nucleus.
• Albinism - absence of pigment in the skin
 Hypodermis
Hypodermis
• permits movement of the skin without tearing.
• permits a layer of fat (panniculus adiposus) to be
interposed between the skin and deeper
structures.
 Hair
• Hair covers almost the entire body of most
domestic animals, but many variations in hair
structure exist between species and in different
areas of an individual animal.
 Coat Color in Horses
• Hair color is due to only one pigment
• Differences in color are caused by differences in the
amount and location of the pigment.
• The standard colors of horses include black, brown, bay,
chestnut, ysabella, dun, gray, roan, pinto, and possibly
albino.
• Black - uniformly black hairs, including the mane and tail.
• Brown - modification of black, with reddish hair on the
muzzle, on the flanks, and under the eyes.
• Bay - reddish coat with black mane and tail
• Chestnut - golden to red, with mane and tail of about the
same color, but never black
• Ysabella, which includes palomino - golden to red coat,
but the mane and tail are flaxen or silver.
• Dun - resembles a diluted bay or chestnut with black
mane and tail and a dark stripe on the dorsal mid-line.
• Gray - equal mixture of white and black hairs.
• Roan - mixture of white hairs with some color. Blue
roan consists mostly of white and black hairs with
possibly a small amount of some other color. Strawberry
roan consists of a mixture of white hairs and chestnut
hairs.
• Pinto (paint) - irregular white areas alternated with
colored areas. If the colored areas are black, the coat is
called piebald, but if they are any color except black, the
coat is called skewbald.
 BODY TEMPERATURE
REGULATION
• Chemical and
physical regulation
• Processes of heat
dissipation
 Classification of Animals
• Homeotherms or warm-blooded animals:
whose body temperature is largely
independent of that of the environment;
• Poikilotherm or cold-blooded animals:
whose body temperature varies directly
with that of the environment.
• Homeotherms attain body temperature
constancy by:
• 1) Chemical regulation
• a) altering the metabolic rate by adjusting the
production of certain hormones such as
thyroxine and/or epinephrine;
• b) shivering and changing muscle tension – the
animal performs no external work while
shivering because its position does not change,
but the energy developed in the transfer of
chemical-substrate energy to mechanical work
of muscular contraction is liberated as heat with
in the muscles.
• 2) Physical devices and activities
• a) sweating with evaporation of water from the skin
• b) changing the rate of breathing to alter evaporation of
water from the skin;
• c) altering the volume of blood flowing to the body
surface by vasodilation or vasocontriction;
• d) changing the amount of internal or external thermal
insulation such as subcutaneous fat, feathers, fur, hair or
clothing;
• e) changing the “free” body surface area by lying down
and huddling when it is cold or by standing in a stretch
position when it is hot;
• f) locating more favorable environment such as
sunshine, shade, dry or wet areas, shelter from winds,
etc.
 Processes of heat dissipation
• Conduction – involves direct contact of the
animal with a part of its environment; thermal
energy is transferred from one molecule to a
neighboring molecule. The amount of heat
transferred and its direction depends on the
following:
• 1) contacting surface area of the animal
• 2) the difference in temperature between the
animal body and its environment; and
• 3) conductiveness of the conducting surfaces.
• Convection – heat is transferred to or from the
animal by the movement of heated air
“particles”, it is the process by which actuall
mass motion of heated gas (or liquid) transfers
heat from one place to another. The rate of heat
dissipation from the body by convection is:
• 1) proportional to the surface area of the body;
• 2) affected by the velocity of the air moving
along the animal’s surface and of the ambient
air. Thus, posture of the animal and other
conditions affecting surface area affect the
convection transfer of heat.
• Radiation – involves the transfer of heat by means of
electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of 186,000
miles per second; there is no material medium or
physical contact between the animal and the segment of
its environment with which the animal is reacting in the
transmission of heat. The transfer of heat by radiation
depends on:
• 1) the effective sample area – posture
• 2) the absolute temperature of the animal’s surface and
of the surrounding surfaces;
• 3) surface quality known as “emissivity”. - color, texture
and sheen of the skin and hair coat. White surface may
absorbed only 20% of the visible solar radiation falling on
it, whereas, a black surface may absorbed as much as
95 to 100% of the same radiation.
• Vaporization – though not strictly a homeothermic
reaction, this is the most important process by which the
animal loses heat to maintain a constant body
temperature. The extent of heat loss from the skin and
respiratory surfaces depends on the following:
• 1) temperature of the skin
• 2) covering of the skin – when the skin is covered with
hair, water vapor may be trapped to form a humidity
layer over the surface, tending to prevent air contact and
evaporation.
• The extent of heat loss by vaporization from lungs
depends on:
• 1)ventilation rate or respiration rate, and
• 2) humidity of inspired – expired air
• The effect of environmental temperature
on body heat loss – if the ambient
temperature is the same as the body
temperature, the body cannot lose heat by
radiation, convection or conduction; all of
the heat has to be lost by vaporization.
The vaporization of one liter of water
dissipates about 583 kcal of heat.
 Endocrine System
• A network of glands that secrete
hormones, which provide chemical control
of various functions of the body.
• Endocrine glands secrete chemical
compounds called hormones into the
blood system.
• Hormones are secreted from a secretory
cell in a gland and act on a target cell at
another part of the body.
• Target cells must have receptors for the
specific hormone.
Maintenance of glucose homeostasis is done by paired hormones, insulin and
glucagon

Insulin
Beta cells of
pancreas
release insulin
into the blood.

STIMULUS:
Blood glucose level rises
(for instance, after eating a
carbohydrate-rich meal).

Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(70–110 mg/100 mL)
 Figure 45.13a-2

Body cells Insulin

take up more Beta cells of
glucose. pancreas
release insulin
into the blood.

Liver takes
up glucose
and stores it STIMULUS:
as glycogen. Blood glucose level rises
Blood glucose
level declines. (for instance, after eating a
carbohydrate-rich meal).

Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(70–110 mg/100 mL)
Figure 45.13b-1

Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(70–110 mg/100 mL)

STIMULUS:
Blood glucose level
falls (for instance, after
skipping a meal).

Alpha cells of pancreas

release glucagon into
the blood.
Glucagon
 Figure 45.13b-2

Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(70–110 mg/100 mL)

STIMULUS:
Blood glucose Blood glucose level
level rises. falls (for instance, after
skipping a meal).

Alpha cells of pancreas

release glucagon into
Liver breaks the blood.
down glycogen Glucagon
and releases
glucose into
the blood.
 Diabetes Mellitus
• Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the best-known
endocrine disorder
• It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a
decreased response to insulin in target tissues
• It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels

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 • Type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is an
autoimmune disorder in which the immune
system destroys pancreatic beta cells
• Type 2 diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent)
involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of
target cells due to change in insulin receptors

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 45.3 Coordination of Endocrine
and Nervous Systems in
Vertebrates
• The hypothalamus receives information from the
nervous system and initiates responses through
the endocrine system
• Attached to the hypothalamus is the pituitary
gland, composed of the posterior pituitary and
anterior pituitary

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 Figure 45.14
Cerebrum
Pineal
gland Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Pituitary
Spinal cord gland

• The posterior pituitary

stores and secretes
hormones that are
made in the Hypothalamus
hypothalamus
Posterior
• The anterior pituitary pituitary
makes and releases
hormones under
regulation of the Anterior
hypothalamus pituitary
 tropic hormones = target endocrine glands
hypothalamus

thyroid-stimulating
hormone posterior antidiuretic
(TSH) pituitary hormone
Thyroid gland (ADH)
anterior
pituitary Kidney
tubules

Muscles
of uterus
gonadotropic
hormones:
Adrenal follicle-
cortex
stimulating
hormone (FSH)
& luteinizing
hormone (LH)
Melanocyte
in amphibian

Bone Mammary
and muscle glands
Testes Ovaries in mammals
Table 45.1a
Table 45.1b
 Hormones as homologous
structures
What does this tell you about these hormones?

How could these hormones have different effects?

prolactin same gene family growth

gene duplication? hormone
mammals birds fish amphibians

milk fat salt & metamorphosis growth

production metabolism water & maturation & development
balance
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
regulates skin color in amphibians, fish, and
reptiles by controlling pigment distribution in
melanocytes
• In mammals, MSH plays additional roles in
hunger and metabolism in addition to
coloration

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The roles of parathyroid hormone (PTH) in regulating blood calcium levels in
mammals.

PTH

Parathyroid
gland (behind
thyroid)

STIMULUS:
Falling blood
Ca2 level

Homeostasis:
Blood Ca2 level
(about 10 mg/100 mL)
 Figure 45.20-2

Increases Ca2 Active

uptake in vitamin D Stimulates Ca2
intestines uptake in kidneys

PTH

Parathyroid
Stimulates gland (behind
Ca2 release thyroid)
from bones
STIMULUS:
Blood Ca2
Falling blood
level rises.
Ca2 level

Homeostasis:
Blood Ca2 level
(about 10 mg/100 mL)
 Multiple hormonal pathways/effects during “fight or flight”

• Epinephrine and norepinephrine

– Trigger the release of glucose and fatty acids
into the blood
– Increase oxygen delivery to body cells
– Direct blood toward heart, brain, and skeletal
muscles and away from skin, digestive system,
and kidneys
• The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine
occurs in response to involuntary nerve signals

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 Effects of stress on a body
Stress

Nerve Hypothalamus
Spinal cord
signals
(cross section) Releasing
hormone
Nerve
cell
Anterior pituitary
Blood vessel
adrenal medulla Nerve cell
secretes epinephrine Adrenal cortex
& norepinephrine secretes
ACTH mineralocorticoids
& glucocorticoids
Adrenal
gland
Kidney

(A) SHORT-TERM STRESS RESPONSE (B) LONG-TERM STRESS RESPONSE

Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Effects of Effects of

mineralocorticoids: glucocorticoids:
1. Glycogen broken down to glucose;
increased blood glucose 1. Retention of 1. Proteins & fats broken
2. Increased blood pressure sodium ions & down & converted to
3. Increased breathing rate water by kidneys glucose, leading to
4. Increased metabolic rate increased blood
2. Increased blood
5. Change in blood flow patterns, leading glucose
volume & blood
to increased alertness & decreased pressure 2. Immune system
digestive & kidney activity suppressed
 Figure 45.21
(a) Short-term stress response (b) Long-term stress response
and the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex
Stress
Nerve Hypothalamus
Spinal cord
signals Releasing
(cross section)
hormone
Nerve
cell Anterior pituitary
Blood vessel
Nerve cell ACTH
Adrenal medulla
secretes epinephrine
and norepinephrine. Adrenal cortex
secretes mineralo-
Adrenal corticoids and
gland glucocorticoids.

Kidney

Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Effects of Effects of

mineralocorticoids: glucocorticoids:
• Glycogen broken down to glucose;
increased blood glucose • Retention of sodium • Proteins and fats broken
• Increased blood pressure ions and water by down and converted to
kidneys glucose, leading to
• Increased breathing rate increased blood glucose
• Increased metabolic rate • Increased blood
• Change in blood flow patterns, leading to volume and blood • Partial suppression of
increased alertness and decreased digestive, pressure immune system
excretory, and reproductive system activity
 • Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, influence
glucose metabolism and the immune system
• Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, affect
salt and water balance

• The adrenal cortex also produces small amounts

of steroid hormones that function as sex
hormones

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 Sex Hormones
• The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce most of
the sex hormones: androgens, estrogens, and
progestins
• All three sex hormones are found in both males
and females, but in significantly different
proportions

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• The testes primarily synthesize androgens,
mainly testosterone, which stimulate
development and maintenance of the male
reproductive system

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Animal Reproduction

Biology Agriculture
 Reproductive System
• Ovaries
– Female reproductive gland in which eggs are
formed and hormones are produced.

• Testes
– Male reproductive gland that produces sperm
and testosterone.
 Reproductive System
• Female Reproductive Cell
– EGG (OVULE)

• Male Reproductive Cell

– SPERM
– Semen - the fluid that carries sperm
 Reproductive System
• Production of sperm is called
SPERMATOGENESIS

• Production of eggs is called OOGENESIS

 Reproductive System

• Zygote
– Cell formed by the union of egg and sperm
at fertilization.
• Embryo
– Organism in early stages of development.
• Pregnancy
– carrying a fetus
• Fertilization
– the union of the egg and sperm nuclei
 Reproductive System
• Conception
– occurrence of fertilization
• Ovulation
– release of an ovule from the female.
• Gestation
– the time from fertilization or conception of a
female until she gives birth
 Reproductive System

• Vulva -opening of reproductive tract

 Reproductive System

• Vagina - channel for birth and urinary tract

 Reproductive System

• Cervix - divides vagina and uterus

 Reproductive System

• Uterus - provides nourishment for fetus

 Reproductive System

• Horns of Uterus - where fetus grows

 Reproductive System

• Fallopian Tube - where fertilization occurs

 Reproductive System

• Ovaries - produces eggs and hormones

 Reproductive System

• Testes - produce sperm and testosterone

 Reproductive System

• Epididymis - collects and stores sperm

 Reproductive System

• Vas deferens - transports sperm

 Reproductive System

• Penis - places sperm in female

 Reproductive System

• Scrotum - protects testes, maintains temp

 Reproductive System

• Sheath - opening of reproductive tract

 Animal Reproduction

• Ovaries – produces eggs

and hormones
 Animal Reproduction

• The ovaries are

stimulated by a hormone
called the follicle
stimulating hormones
(FSH) and produce a
FOLLICLE where the egg
(ovum) grows and
matures
 Animal Reproduction

• When the egg matures

the follicle ruptures and
releases the egg -
OVULATION
Animal Reproduction
 Mating Process
• Around the time of ovulation estrogen
causes estrus or heat
– The time that the female will allow the male to
mate with her
• Males seek out females that are in estrus
 Mating Process
• During mating millions of sperm are
deposited in the female vagina.

• Sperm moves by using their tails in a

whiplike action – motile
 Mating Process
• Sperm travels from the vagina through the
cervix and uterus and into the fallopian
tubes

• Sperm and egg unit in the fallopian tube

Sperm cell