EMERGING PARASITIC INFECTION  Vector-borne: Triatomine bugs/kissing bugs/reduvid bugs

 Diseases that have: LIFE CYCLE

a) newly appeared
b) existed in the past but are now rapidly increasing in  Infective stage: metacyclic trypomastigotes
frequency, geographical range or both  Diagnostic stage: intracellular amstigotes
 emergency could be due to:  Stages in the triatomine bug : trypomastigote 
a) new agent being widely distributed epimastigotes (in midgut)  metacyclic trypomastigotes (in
b) diagnosis of a pathogen that has been present causing hindgut)
disease without detection  Stages in human host: metacyclic trypomastigotes 
 Factors associated with the emergence of infectious diseases amastigotes ( in cells; multiply by binary fission) 
1. Overpopulation
intracellular amastigotes
2. Disruption due to military actions
 Can cause reinfection
3. Mass migration of population due to national or man-made
disasters LEISHMANIA SPP
4. Migration of population to large urban centers
5. Inadequate food and water supplies  Vector-borne disease: sandflies
6. Environmental changes  An intracellular protozoa
7. Human and animal demography  Caused by 21 of 30 species that infect mammals
8. Pathogen changes  Zelonia australiensis sp. Nov
9. Changes in farming practice  First isolation is from Australian native black fly S. (M.) dycei in
10. Social and cultural factors such as food habits and religious Australia’s Northern Territory
beliefs  Light Electron Microscopy, sequencing and phylogenetic
analyses was used for a detailed molecular and morphological
EMERGING PARASITIC INFECTIONS INCLUDES:
characterization for this assignment
1. Balamuthia mandrillaris  Granulomatous amebic encephalitis  As result Z. australiensis was identified as a sibling taxon to
2. Baylisascaris procyonis monoxenous trypanosomatid, Z. costaricensis
3. Balantidium coli
LIFE CYCLE
4. Blastocystis spp
5. Strongyloides stercoralis  Infective stage: promastigotes
6. Plasmodium knowlesi  Diagnostic stage: amastigotes
7. Trypanosoma cruzi  Stages in the sandfly: amastigotes  promastigotes (gut)
 Stages in human host: promastigotes (macrophages)  amastigotes
Trypanosoma cruzi (in cells)
 Chagas disease TAENIA SPP
 More than 300,000 infected
 Zoonotic disease
  T. saginata (beef tapeworm), T. solium (pork tapeworm), T. asiatica 1. Gnathostoma spinigerum  Asia, Africa, Australia
(Asian tapeworm) 2. Gnathostoma hispidum  Asia and Australia,
 T. solium and T. asiatica can cause cysticercosis and 3. Gnathostoma nipponicum   Japan only  
neurocysticercosis 4. Gnathostoma doloresi   Asia
 At least 1000 people are hospitalized with neurocysticercosis every 5. Gnathostoma binucleatum  Mexico, Central and South America
year only
6. Gnathostoma malaysiae  implicated to cause human disease but
LIFE CYCLE
yet to be confirmed
 Infective stage: eggs or gravid proglottids in feces
LIFE CYCLE
 Diagnostic stage: cysticerci
 Infective stage: ingestion of copepods infected with L2 larvae or
TOXOCARA SPP
ingestion of fish (2IH) infected with L3 larvae
 Disease: Toxocariasis  Diagnostic stage : cutaneous, ocular, visceral, neurological
 Toxocara canis (dogs)  Definitive host: spinigerum: domestic and wild felines, and canines;
 Toxocara cati (cats) – less frequent hispidium: domestic and wild pigs
 IH: copepods (infected with L1 larvae)
Life cycle  2nd IH: fish and frogs (infected with L2 larvae)
 Infective stage: embryonated egg with larvae  Paratenic host: fish-eating birds
 Diagnostic stage: larvae in tissue Baylisascaris
TOXOPLASMA GONDII  Fewer than 25 cases of Baylisascaris disease have been documented
 More than 60 million are chronically infected in the United States.  As of 2012, there were 16 published human
 Infects most species of warm blooded animals including humans neurological cases in the US; six of the infected persons died.
 Disease: toxoplasmosis Life cycle
Life cycle:  Infective stage: embryonated egg with larva
 Infective stage : sporulated oocyst  Diagnostic stage: larvae in tissues
 Diagnostic stage: tissue cysts  DH: raccoons
 Transmission can be Plasmodium knowlesi
a) ingestion of oocyst
b) blood transfusion (parenteral)  The malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi naturally occurs in long-
c) transplacental tailed and pig-tailed macaques that inhabit forested areas in
Southeast Asia.
Gnathostoma spp.  P. knowlesi can be transmitted from monkeys to humans by the bite
 Infect vertebrate animals of an infected mosquito , but infection with P. knowlesi was
 Human gnathostomiasis is due to migrating immature worms
 traditionally regarded as a rare disease, occurring only sporadically LIFE CYCLE:
in humans.
 Infective stage: cystacanth
 Morphology:
 Diagnostic stage: eggs in feces
 Infected rbc: not enlarged
 Definitive Host :
 Lack Schuffner stippling
 Rats (Moniliformis moniliformis)
 Contain pigment
 Swine (Macracanthorynchus hirudinaceus)
LIFE CYCLE:  Raccoons (Macracanthorynchus ingens)
 Intermediate Host :
 Infective stage: sporozoites (humans); gametocyte (mosquitoes)
 Scarabaeoid or Hydrophilid beetles for M. hirudinaceus and
 Diagnostic stage: immature trophozoite, mature trophozite,
likely M. ingens
schizont, gametocyte
 Beetles or cockroaches for M. moniliformis.
Armillifer pentastomiasis
Clinical presentation :
 Snakeborne 
 the mechanical damage caused by the insertion of the armed
 is an emerging human parasitic infection
proboscis into the lumen of the host’s intestine
 in rural tropical areas where snake meat is eaten.
 abdominal pain and related digestive complaints.
Baracktrema obamai n. gen., n. sp.  low-intensity or early infections may be asymptomatic.

 infects the lung of geoemydid turtles ( Geographic distribution

 black marsh turtle, Siebenrockiella crassicollis
 widely distributed
 southeast Asian box turtle, Cuora amboinensis
 more commonly occur in areas where insects are eaten for dietary
 in the Malaysian states of Perak, Perlis, and Selangor
or medicinal purposes or in children who consume insects. 
Acanthocephala (also known as spiny- or thorny-headed worms)  Macracanthorynchus hirudinaceus  is found wherever wild or
domestic swine occur. 
 are common parasites of wildlife and some domestic animal species,  Macracanthorynchus ingens  is highly endemic in raccoons from the
 rarely infect humans. southeastern United States, and the recorded human cases
 Species recovered from humans include: originate from Texas and Florida. The distribution of Moniliformis
1. Macracanthorynchus hirudinaceus, moniliformis  is not known but is likely cosmopolitan.
2. Macracanthorynchus ingens,
3. Moniliformis moniliformis, EGGS
4. Acanthocephalus rauschi,
5. Pseudoacanthocephalus bufonis, Macracanthorhynchus  sp. Moniliformis moniliformis
6. Corynosoma strumosum, and  80–100 µm long by 50 µm  90–125 µm long by 65 µm
7. Bolbosoma sp. wide wide. elongate-oval and
 M. hirudinaceus and M. moniliformis are the most common species  ovoid and have a thick, dark have a thick, clear shell.
implicated in human infections. brown shell that is textured.  Eggs are shed in feces and
 Eggs are shed in feces and contain a larva (acanthor)
 contain a larva (acanthor) that possesses rostellar 
Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus is usually a scarabaeoid
that possesses rostellar hooks. or hydrophilid beetle; 
hooks.  The normal definitive  M. ingens  is known to use woodroaches. 
 When adults do reach hosts for M. moniliformis  Moniliformis moniliformis is usually a cockroach or beetle.
maturity in the human host, are rodents, including  Bolbosoma spp. are microcrustacea, with fish serving as
they rarely produce eggs, so rats. paratenic hosts. 
eggs are not usually found in
 Humans usually become infected with acanthocephalans by
the feces of infected
ingesting infected intermediate or paratenic hosts.
humans.
 Larva of a melolonthine scarab beetle, also known as a "white
 large pseudocoelomates  large pseudocoelomates grub". White grubs and dung beetle larvae are the most common
that vary in color from that are intermediate hosts for M. hirudinaceus.
milky-white to pinkish to pseudosegmented and
reddish chalky-white in color  American cockroach, Periplaneta americana. The American and
 The body typically has a  Adult females measure Oriental cockroach (Blatta orientalis) are two of the more common
wrinkled appearance, 10−30 cm long by 1.25– intermediate hosts for M. moniliformis.\
giving the illusion of 1.5 mm wide; adult males
segmentation measure 4–10 cm long. Anisakiasis
(pseudosegmentation).  The cylindrical proboscis
 Anisakiasis is caused by the ingestion of larvae of several species of
 Adult females measure contains 12–15 spiral
ascaridoid nematodes (roundworms), which are sometimes called
18–65 cm long by 4–10 mm rows of recurved hooks.
wide; adult males measure Adults reside in the “herringworm”, “codworm”, or “sealworm”, in undercooked marine
5–10 cm long by 3–5 mm intestine of the definitive fish.
wide. hosts, which are usually  Known human-infecting anisakid species include members of
 The proboscis contains 5 rodents.
the Anisakis simplex complex [A. simplex  sensu stricto, A. pegreffii,
or 6 rows of recurved
A. berlandi  (=A. simplex  C)]
hooks. Adults reside in the
intestine of the definitive  the Pseudoterranova decipiens complex (P. decipiens  sensu
host, which is usually a pig. stricto,  P. azarasi, P. cattani,  and others), and the Contracecum
In humans, the worms osculatum complex.
seldom mature and when
they do, rarely produce Clinical Presentation
eggs.
 acute abdominal symptoms, usually within hours after ingestion of
larvae

 Acanthocephalans require an invertebrate as an intermediate host,  Occasionally, the larvae are coughed up. If the larvae pass into the
which can include crustaceans, insects, and annelids.  bowel, a severe eosinophilic granulomatous response may also
occur 1 to 2 weeks following infection, causing symptoms mimicking
Crohn’s disease, and rarely, intestinal perforation can occur. Rare
 cases of ectopic infection are known, in sites such as the peritoneal primate, rodent, and marsupial hosts, and share some morphologic
cavity, mesentery, esophagus, and tongue. similarities with other trichuroids such as Trichuris  and  Capillaria.  Zoonotic
infections have so far never been unequivocally identified to species level.
 Most infections are self-limiting as larvae are unable to survive for
long periods in the human host, but the associated tissue damage Babesiosis
can cause longer lasting symptoms. Antigens that remain in the fish
Babesiosis is caused by apicomplexan parasites of the
muscle after the larvae are killed (e.g. after freezing) can cause
genus, Babesia. While more than 100 species have been reported,
allergic reactions in some individuals.
only a few have been identified as causing human infections,
 This nonspecific abdominal distress can be mistaken for other including B. microti, B. divergens, B. duncani, and a currently un-
conditions such as peptic ulcers, food poisoning, and appendicitis. named strain designated MO-1.

Hosts and Geographic Distribution The Babesia microti life cycle involves two hosts, which includes a
rodent, primarily the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus,
Definitive hosts include several cetacean species for Anisakis
and a tick in the genus, Ixodes. During a blood meal, a Babesia-
simplex  sensu lato, and pinnipeds for Pseudoterranova
infected tick introduces sporozoites into the mouse host The
decipiens sensu lato.
Number 1. Sporozoites enter erythrocytes and undergo asexual
The bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) and gray seal (Halichoerus reproduction (budding) The Number 2. In the blood, some parasites
grypus) are known definitive hosts for Contracecum differentiate into male and female gametes although these cannot
osculatum  complex. be distinguished at the light microscope level The Number 3. The
definitive host is the tick. Once ingested by an appropriate tick The
herring, cod, mackerel, and sculpin. Number 4, gametes unite and undergo a sporogonic cycle resulting
worldwide due to the global trade of seafood, though the causative in sporozoites The Number 5. Transovarial transmission (also known
agents vary in geographic occurrence in their natural hosts.  as vertical, or hereditary, transmission) has been documented for
“large” Babesia spp. but not for the “small” babesiae, such as B.
Anisakis simplex  complex members occur in broadly both deep sea microti The Letter A.
and coastal environments in the Atlantic Basin, Pacific Ocean, and
Alaskan coast (A. simplex  sensu stricto); A. pegreffii  occurs in the Humans enter the cycle when bitten by infected ticks. During a
Southern hemisphere. The Pseudoterranova decipiens  complex is blood meal, a Babesia-infected tick introduces sporozoites into the
generally more geographically restricted than Anisakis  spp., human host The Number 6. Sporozoites enter erythrocytes The
occurring in cold-water coastal environments such as the Northern Letter B and undergo asexual replication (budding) The Number 7.
Atlantic, the Arctic and South (Antarctic) Oceans, Japan, and off the Multiplication of the blood stage parasites is responsible for the
southern coast of Chile. Contracecum osculatum  complex species clinical manifestations of the disease. Humans are, for all practical
also occur in these colder regions. purposes, dead-end hosts and there is probably little, if any,
subsequent transmission that occurs from ticks feeding on infected
Anatrichosomiasis persons. However, human to human transmission is well recognized
Anatrichosoma  is a genus of poorly understood tissue-dwelling nematodes to occur through blood transfusions The Number 8.
that very rarely infect humans. They are generally associated with wild Blastocystis sp.
Blastocystis  is a genetically diverse unicellular parasite of unclear Spirurid nematodes in the genus Thelazia  are primarily veterinary parasites,
pathogenic potential that colonizes the intestines of humans and a wide but may occasionally infect humans. The majority of zoonotic infections
range of non-human animals. On the basis of molecular data, the organism involve T. callipaeda (the Oriental eye worm). T. californiensis (the California
has been classified as a stramenopile. Organisms such as diatoms, eye worm) and T. gulosa (the cattle eyeworm) are less common causative
chrysophytes, water molds, and slime nets are other examples of agents.
stramenopiles.

Blastocystis organisms isolated from humans have commonly been referred

to as B. hominis. However, because of extensive genetic diversity (even
among organisms isolated from humans) and low host specificity, the
designation Blastocystis sp. is considered more appropriate. If genetic typing
is performed, the subtype (ST) also should be noted in accordance with
consensus terminology.* Among the nine STs found to date in humans, the
four most prevalent STs are ST1, ST2, ST3, and ST4; other STs occur
sporadically and may be related to zoonotic transmission.

Dicrocoeliasis; Dicrocoelium dendriticum, the lanceolate fluke or lancet

fluke

The trematode Dicrocoelium dendriticum, the lanceolate fluke or lancet

fluke, is a common parasite of ruminants but humans can be accidental
definitive hosts. Another species, D. hospes, is responsible for human
infections in West Africa

Formica fusca.

Dirofilariasis; Dog heartworm; D. immitis

The genus Dirofilaria  includes vector-borne filarial nematodes, which are

usually associated with carnivore hosts. Some Dirofilaria  spp. are zoonotic;
the most commonly seen species in human patients are D. repens, D. tenuis,
and D. immitis (the dog heartworm). Rare human infections with other
species such as D. striata  and D. ursi-like species (D. ursi  or D. subdermata)
have been reported. Recently, a D. repens-like agent infecting humans was
identified in Hong Kong, which has been proposed as a new
species D.  hongkongensis.   Human dirofilariasis is generally divided into
pulmonary dirofilariasis (D. immitis) and subcutaneous dirofilariasis (D.
repens, D. tenuis,  and others).

Thelaziasis Oriental eyeworm Eyeworm; T. callipaeda