EG-262 Stress Analysis 1

3. Section Properties and Bending

3.1 Loads in Beams

When we analyse beams, we need to consider various different types of internal loads. Any
beam structure can be subject to the below types of loads, all of which have associated
stresses.
Bending (moments) → stresses
Shear forces → stresses
Torsion → stresses
Axial forces → stresses

The list on the left, we can derive from statics without any consideration of the internal shape
of the beam. In order to work out the stresses however, we need to know the nature of the
cross-section of the beam.

3.2 Stresses due to Bending

What do we first need to consider before we can begin to calculate stresses due to bending?
As the bending moment changes along the length of a beam, we first need to choose a
point/position at which we will determine the stresses.

We then need to define the section at our chosen position and find the relevant sectional
properties - namely the centroid and subsequently the second moment of area (as the second
moment of area is defined relative to the centroid). We can then calculate the corresponding
stresses.

So the general steps towards calculating stresses in a beam are:

 Choose position along beam

 Define section
 Locate centroid
 Determine the second moment of area (relative to the centroid)
 Calculate stresses (we can find maximum and minimum values if required)

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3.3 Centroid of Beam Cross Sections
The weight of a body is an example of a distributed force in that any body can be considered
to be made up of a number of particles each with weight. It is convenient to replace all of
these individual weight forces by a single weight force with a magnitude equal to the sum of
the magnitudes of all of the constituent weight forces. This equivalent weight force acts at a
particular point called the center of gravity. When considering a section of a constant cross-
section beam, we use the term centroid instead of center of gravity.

The centroid is important in calculations as it tells us where the neutral axis lies. If we bend a
beam, the neutral axis is the plane on which there is no strain. Some sections have multiple
neutral axis and they all pass through the centroid.

Where would you anticipate the position of the centroid for the following shapes?

The first moment of area of a section is a measure of the distribution of mass relative to an
axis.

First moment of area A about the 𝑥-axis:

𝑚𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴

First moment of area A about the 𝑦-axis:

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 𝑚𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴

The centroid is the point at which the first moment of area goes to zero for any orthogonal
axis system. The centroid of a section can be located as shown below:

∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴 = 0

∫(𝑥̅ − 𝑑𝑥 )𝑑𝐴 = 0

∫ 𝑥̅ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝐴

Rearranging:

∫ 𝑥̅ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑦̅𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑥 = and similarly 𝑑𝑦 = (3.1)
∫ 𝑑𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝐴

For symmetrical homogeneous bodies, the centroid is located at the geometric centre. For
composite sections, it can be obtained by considering the object to be made up of constituent
parts each having weight acting through their own centroid. For objects containing holes or
cutouts, the hole is treated as a negative mass.

We find the centroid relative to any arbitrary orthogonal axis. Then once we know the position
of the centroid, we can carry out subsequent calculations relative to this.

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When considering discrete pieces of area, the integrals in the above equations can be
replaced by a sum:

∑𝑖 𝑥̅ 𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ∑𝑖 𝑦̅𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑑𝑥 = and similarly 𝑑𝑦 = (3.2)
∑𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ∑𝑖 𝐴𝑖

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Example
Locate the centroid of the following shape:

3.4 Second Moments of Area

The second moment of area (or moment of inertia) of a beam section is a measure of how far
away the material is located from the neutral axis and therefore its resistance to bending.
Thus the greater the second moment of area, the greater the bending moment needed to
produce a given radius of curvature of the beam. In most cases, we would aim to maximize
the second moments of area.

The second moments of area are given by:

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝐴

𝐼𝑦𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
𝐴

𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝐴 (3.3)

𝐴

Again, if the areas are discrete, we can replace these integrals by a sum:

𝐼𝑥 = ∑ 𝑦 2 𝐴, 𝐼𝑦 = ∑ 𝑥 2 𝐴, 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝑥𝑦𝐴 (3.4)

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The quantities above are geometric properties and can be evaluated for any cross section and
must be taken relative to the centroid. Clearly, they depend on the origin and the orientation
of the coordinate system.

3.4.1 Some Useful Facts

For a circular section:

𝜋𝐷4 𝜋𝐷4
𝐼= and 𝐽=
64 32
Where 𝐷 is the diameter.

For a rectangular section:

𝑏𝑑 3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 =
12
𝑏3𝑑
𝐼𝑦𝑦 =
12
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 0

Hence, for a square section (where 𝑏 = 𝑑):

𝑏4
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 =
12

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3.5 Parallel Axis Theorem
For the calculation of second moments of areas of complex sections, it is often convenient to
perform the additive decompositions of the integrals above. Divide the area into a series of
simpler shapes and the second moment of area for the entire shape is the sum of the second
moment of areas of all of its parts about a common axis with origin at the centroid of the
overall shape. Consider the elbow section below:

Firstly, the second moment of area of each rectangle needs to be calculated with respect to
the ‘global’ coordinate system 𝑥𝑦. A convenient strategy for this calculation consists of three
steps:

1. Locate the centroid of the overall section

2. Determine the second moments of area 𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑐 , 𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑐 , 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑖𝑐 of the subsections 𝑖 =
1,2,3, … 𝑛 with respect to their own ‘local’ coordinate systems.
3. Account for the shift of the coordinate axis

We denote the coordinates of the centroid CA1 of part 1 of the section with respect to the
global system as 𝑥1 and 𝑦1 . We can then write:

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𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ (𝑦1𝑐 + 𝑦1 ) 𝑑𝐴
𝐴1 𝐴1

𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = ∫ 𝑦1𝑐 2 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 2𝑦1𝑐 𝑦1 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝑦1 2 𝑑𝐴

𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴1

𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥1𝑐 + 2𝑦1 ∫ 𝑦1𝑐 𝐴 + 𝑦1 2 𝐴1

𝐴1

By definition, the 𝑥̅ - and 𝑦̅-axes pass through the centroid CA1 of subsection 1. Therefore,
the remaining integral in the above disappears and we obtain:

𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥1𝑐 + 𝑦1 2 𝐴1

Similarly:

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 𝐼𝑥𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑥2𝑐 + 𝑦2 2 𝐴2

In the same way, we can show that in general:

𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑖 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑐 + 𝑦𝑖 2 𝐴𝑖

𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑖 = 𝐼𝑦𝑖𝑐 + 𝑥𝑖 2 𝐴𝑖

𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑖 = 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑖𝑐 + 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝐴𝑖 (3.5)

It follows that the overall second moments of area of the compound section are given by:

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑐 + 𝑦𝑖 2 𝐴𝑖

𝐼𝑦𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑦𝑖𝑐 + 𝑥𝑖 2 𝐴𝑖

𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑖𝑐 + 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝐴𝑖 (3.6)

When applying these equations, take care as 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑦𝑖 can be positive or negative. These
relations are known as the parallel axis theorem.

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Example continued:
Calculate 𝐼𝑥𝑥 , 𝐼𝑦𝑦 and 𝐼𝑥𝑦

3.7 Principal Axis

There always exists an orientation of the coordinate system such that 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 0. The associated
coordinate axes are called the principal directions of the cross section.

A principal axis is one where bending about one axis does not result in any deflection (and
hence stress/strain) perpendicular to that axis. There is no interaction between the two axes.

It follows that every axis of symmetry is a principal axis.

The principal axes for an open section are not so obvious. We need to calculate:

 The angle, 𝜃, of the principal axes relative to the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes

 The second moments of area about principal axes, 𝐼𝑢 and 𝐼𝑣

It can be shown that:

2𝐼𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃 = (3.7)
(𝐼𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑥 )

Where:
𝐼𝑥𝑥 is the second moment of area about the 𝑥-axis
𝐼𝑥𝑦 is the second moment of area about the 𝑦-axis
𝐼𝑥𝑦 is the product moment of area about the 𝑥 and 𝑦-axes
The angle 𝜃 is measured anticlockwise positive from the 𝑥-axis

And:

1 1
𝐼𝑢,𝑣 = (𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 ) ± (𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑦 ) sec 2𝜃 (cannot be used when 𝜃 = 45°) (3.8)
2 2

Or:

1 1 2
𝐼𝑢,𝑣 = (𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 ) ± √(𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦𝑦 ) + 4𝐼𝑥𝑦
2 (3.9)
2 2

Example continued:

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Calculate the second moments of area about principal axes, 𝐼𝑢,𝑣 for the shape.

3.8 Symmetric Bending

We have seen previously that an axial load applied to a member will produde a uniform direct
stress across the cross-section of that member. If the load is applied in such a way to cause
the member to bend, we have a different situation.

When a beam is loaded and subsequently bends, its longitudinal axis is deformed into a curve.
One surface is extended and in state of tension whereas the other surface is shortened and
in a state of compression.

If the loads casue the beam to sag, the upper surface of the beam is shorter that the lower
surface and the opposite is true for hogging. Thus the strains in the upper and lower portions
of the beam are different and knowing that stress is directly proportional to strain, it follows
logically that the stress varies through the depth of the beam.

Symmetric bending occurs in beams whose cross-sections have single or double lines of
symmetry.

Consider an appropriately supported beam aligned with the 𝑥-axis of the coordinate system,
which is subjected to external loading such that it deflects in the 𝑧-direction as shown below.

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Stress analysis of the beam is based on some kinematical assumptions:

 The beam is slender (𝑙 >> ℎ)

 Cross sections remain plane
 Cross sections remain normal to the beam axis (Bernouilli hypothesis)
 The beam material is linearly elastic (obeys Hooke’s Law) and homogeneous
 Deformations and deflections are small

In the figure above, the direct stress varies from compression in the upper fibres of the beam
to tension in the lower. Logically, the direct stress is zero in the fibres that do not undergo a
change in length and we call the plane containing these fibres the neutral plane. The line of
intersection of the neutral plane and any cross-section of the beam is termed the neutral axis.

The neutral axis denotes the material fibre paralell to the beam axis which, in pure bending,
does not experience any elongation or compression. We place the origin of the coordinate
system such that the x-axis coincides with the neutral axis.

Our challenge therefore is to be able to determine the variation of direct stress through the
depth of the beam, calculate the values of stressses and also find the coresponding beam
deflection.

The simple theory of elastic bending states that:

𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
= = (3.10)
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅

Where :
𝑀 = applied bending moment (Nm or Nmm)
𝐼 = Second moment of area of cross-section (m4 or mm4 )
 = bending stress at ‘𝑦’ (N/m2 or MPa)
𝑦 = distance from neutral axis (m or mm)
𝐸 = Young’s modulus for the material (N/m2 or MPa)
𝑅 = Radius of curvature (m or mm)

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Note : 𝑀, 𝐼, 𝑦 and 𝑅 relate to principal axis

Thus for a simply supported beam with central load subject to pure bending:

𝑀𝑦
𝜎= (3.11)
𝐼

There is a linear variation in stress with distance from NA:

The above only apply when bending is about a principal axis.

3.9.1 Recap on Some Simple Beam Arrangements

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There are numerous different beam arrangements. Below are some of the simplest.

Cantilever Beam
A cantilever beam is built in or fixed at one end and the other end is free to move. When a
load is applied to the cantilever, a reaction and resisting moment occur at the fixed end.

For a cantilever beam with end load it can be shown that:

𝑊𝐿3
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑊𝐿 and 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
3𝐸𝐼

Simply Supported Beam

A simply supported beam is supported at its ends on rollers or smooth surfaces, or with one
of these combined with a pin at the other end.

For a simply supported beam with a central load it can be shown that:

𝑊𝐿 𝑊𝐿3
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = and 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4 48𝐸𝐼

Built in Beam
A built-in beam is built in or fixed at both ends.

For a built-in beam with central load it can be shown that:

𝑊𝐿 𝑊𝐿3
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = and 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
8 192𝐸𝐼

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Example:
A 50mm by 50mm square section steel cantilever beam is 1m long and supports an end load
of 100N. Calculate the maximum bending stress and the maximum deflection in the beam.
Assume a Young’s modulus of 210GPa.

3.10 Unsymmetric (skew) Bending

Our analysis so far has been limited to symmetric bending. This is when the 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes of
the coordinate system have been assumed to coincide with the principal directions of the
cross section. Every axis of symmetry of the section is a principal axis.

It can be shown that for unsymmetrical bending, at a point 𝐴 as shown, the bending stress 𝜎𝐴
is given by:

𝑀𝑢 𝑀𝑣
𝜎𝐴 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑢 (3.12)
𝐼𝑢 𝐼𝑣 𝐴

Where 𝑀𝑢 and 𝑀𝑣 are the bending moments about the 𝑢- and 𝑣-axes repectively.

𝑀𝑢 = 𝑀𝑥 cos 𝜃

𝑀𝑣 = 𝑀𝑥 sin 𝜃 (3.13)

Where 𝑀𝑥 is the applied bending moment about the 𝑥-axis.

And where 𝑢𝐴 and 𝑣𝐴 are the coordinates of 𝐴 about the 𝑢- and 𝑣-axes:

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 𝑢𝐴 = 𝑥𝐴 cos 𝜃 + 𝑦𝐴 sin 𝜃

𝑣𝐴 = 𝑦𝐴 cos 𝜃 − 𝑥𝐴 sin 𝜃 (3.14)

And 𝑥𝐴 and 𝑦𝐴 are the coordinates of 𝐴 about the 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes.

We have previously defined that the neutral axis in the line along which the stresses due to
bending are zero:

𝑀𝑢 𝑀𝑣
𝜎𝐴 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑢 =0
𝐼𝑢 𝐼𝑣 𝐴

Therefore:

𝑀𝑢 𝑀𝑣
𝑣𝐴 = − 𝑢
𝐼𝑢 𝐼𝑣 𝐴

𝑣𝐴 𝑀𝑣 𝐼𝑢
=−
𝑢𝐴 𝑀𝑢 𝐼𝑣

𝑀𝑣 𝐼𝑢
tan 𝛼𝑁𝐴 = − (3.15)
𝑀𝑢 𝐼𝑣

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Example continued:
Calculate the bending stress at Point 𝐴 if 𝑀𝑥 = 1𝑘𝑁𝑚 and locate the neutral axis.

3.11 Shear Centre

We will not cover the shear centre in detail, but just to be aware of the meaning.

Depending on the location of the applied forces in the cross-section, the section will be
subjected to a certain amount of torsion/twisting.

We define the shear centre as that point in the cross-section through which the applied loads
produce no twisting. To apply the previous equations, the applied load must act through the
shear centre of the section.

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Where a cross-section has an axis of symmetry, the shear center must lie on this axis.

3.12 Torsion of Circular Sections

The twisting of a shaft about its longitudinal axis, due to an applied torque, is called torsion.
When considering a circular shaft, the term pure torsion is used as the cross section of the
shaft retains its shape.

It can be shown that:

𝑇 𝜏 𝐺𝜃
= = (3.16)
𝐽 𝑟 𝐿

Where:

𝑇 = Applied torque (Nm or Nmm)

𝐽 = Polar moment of area of cross-section (m4 or mm4) and depends on the cross section
 = shear stress at ‘r’ (N/m2 or MPa)
𝑟 = radius (m or mm)
𝐸
𝐺 = modulus of rigidity (N/m2 or MPa) and is a function of the material given by 𝐺 = 2(1+𝑣)
/𝐿 = Twist per unit length (radians/m or/mm)

Again, we make the above assumptions with the addition of:

 Circular sections remain circular and there is no change in diameter of the shaft
 Every cross-section of the shaft is symmetrical about the plane of bending

The shear stress, 𝜏 is a function of 𝑇, 𝐽 and 𝑟 which varies linearly with ‘𝑟’ and does not depend
on the material. There is a linear variation in shear stress with distance from centre:

𝑇𝑟
𝜏= (3.17)
𝐽

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Example:
A 1m length of 20mm diameter steel bar is subjected to a torque of 5kNm. Calculate the
maximum shear stress and the angle of twist. Assume a Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and
yield stress of 210 GPa, 0.3 and 300MPa respectively.

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